Early Reading and Writing CAMBODIA

Cambodia: Early Reading and W

ritingProm

ising EFA Practices in the Asia-Pacific Region

UNESCO Bangkok OfficeAsia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education

Mom Luang Pin Malakul Centenary Building920 Sukhumvit Road, Prakanong, KlongtoeyBangkok 10110, ThailandEmail: appeal.bgk@unesco.orgWebsite: www.unesco.org/bangkokTel: +66-2-3910577 Fax: +66-2-3910866 CASE STUDY

Early Reading and Writing CAMBODIA

CASE STUDY

Early Reading and Writing CAMBODIA

CASE STUDY

iv

Published in 2015 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 7, place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP, France

and

UNESCO Bangkok Office

© UNESCO 2015

ISBN: 978-92-9223-513-0 (Print version) ISBN: 978-92-9223-506-2 (Electronic version)

This publication is available in Open Access under the Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 IGO (CC-BY-SA 3.0 IGO) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/igo/). By using the content of this publication, the users accept to be bound by the terms of use of the UNESCO Open Access Repository (http://www.unesco.org/open-access/terms-use-ccbysa-en).

The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

The ideas and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors; they are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit the Organization.

Coordinator: Malisa SantigulEditor: Ellie MeleiseaGraphic designer: Filippo Monti

TH/APL/018/14/150

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acronyms vii

Preface viii

Acknowledgements ix

Executive Summary 1

1 Introduction 31.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.2 Study method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2 Context: EFA in Cambodia and the challenges faced 72.1 Early childhood care and education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72.2 Universal primary education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82.3 Youth and adult skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102.4 Improvement in adult literacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112.5 Gender equality in access to basic education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122.6 Improving the quality of education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3 The early reading and writing initiative 133.1 Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133.2 Discussion and conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233.3 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

References 25

Annex: Interview protocol 27

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List of FiguresFigure 1: Phases in the development of reading skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

List of TablesTable 1: Literacy and cognitive skills: Per cent correct, by strata size and location (urban/rural) (2006) . .4Table 2: Comparison of scores in EGRA reading tests, grades 1–6 (%) (2010 and 2012) . . . . . . . . . . . .5Table 3: ECE schools, enrolments and staff (2003–2013). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7Table 4: Net enrolment ratio, by gender and location (2002–2013) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8Table 5: Completion rates in primary level (%) (2004–05 to 2012–13) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9Table 6: Transition rates to lower and upper secondary school levels (2002–03 to 2012–13) . . . . . . . . 10Table 7: Number of participants in non-formal education programmes (2012) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11Table 8 Comparison of the old and new grade 2 textbooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

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Acronyms

CFS Child-friendly school

ECE Early childhood education

EFA Education for All

EGRA Early Grade Reading Assessment

EMIS Education management information system

MoEYS Ministry of Education Youth and Sport

NGO Non-governmental organization

RUPP Royal University of Phnom Penh (Cambodia)

TVET Technical vocational education and training

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund

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Preface

There has been significant progress towards the six EFA goals, however, all available indicators are pointing to a bitter reality that EFA will be an “unfinished business”. The 2013/4 EFA Global Monitoring Report has concluded that with less than two years until the 2015 deadline, the world is not on track. Amidst the many challenges, many countries have demonstrated how achievements can be made with the commitment from government, expanded partnerships, innovative thinking and efficient use of resources. There are lessons to be learned.

At the Global EFA Meeting (GEM) in Paris in November 2012, Ministers, heads of delegations, leading officials of multilateral and bilateral organizations, and senior representatives of civil society and private sector organizations, including those from Asia-Pacific, committed to the “Big Push”. The GEM participants called upon governments and EFA partners to identify successful initiatives and innovative practices and to adapt, replicate, or scale-up such initiatives to speed up EFA progress.

Subsequently, the 13th Regional Meeting of National EFA Coordinators: The Big Push, which was organized in Bangkok, Thailand on 26-27 February 2013 as a follow up to the GEM, underscored the need for increased knowledge on innovative and creative ways of addressing EFA challenges so as to inform policy-making and programme development on EFA. To this end, the meeting requested UNESCO Bangkok to document innovative approaches and effective practices from countries that have succeeded in transforming EFA goals into concrete realities and to disseminate this knowledge for the benefit of all countries.

The Asia-Pacific region is full of successful initiatives, with stories of good practices in almost every country. Over the years, UNESCO has documented these practices to share them with a wider audience. These five country case studies provide in-depth understanding of promising initiatives that are critical in EFA acceleration in Asia-Pacific. While this research attempts to gather evidence on successful initiatives that have helped countries to accelerate EFA progress, it should be noted that these case studies are some examples selected from a vast pool of equally promising EFA practices in this region.

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Acknowledgements

The Country Case Studies on Promising EFA Practices in Asia-Pacific have been published with the support from the Japanese Funds-in-Trust (JFIT).

We would like to thank the following experts and their respective institutes for preparing the five country case studies on promising EFA practices in Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Indonesia and the Philippines respectively: Dr. Manzoor Ahmed, Mahmuda Akhter, Dr. Anisuzzaman, and Mahfuzar Rahman Jewel of the Institute of Child and Human Development (ICHD), Bangladesh; Sitha Chhinh, Sarom Mok, Chhang Roth and Youhan Hor of the Royal Phnom Penh University (RUPP), Cambodia; Anuradha De and Meera Samson of Collaborative Research and Dissemination (CORD), India; Dr. Ella Yulaelawati, MA, Ph.D, Dr. Faisal Madani, M.Sc. Ed, Aryo Radiyo Sawung, M.Ed, Cecep Somantri, S.S, and Dr. Suryadi Nomi of the Indonesian National Commission for UNESCO, Ministry of Education and Culture (MoEC) of the Republic of Indonesia; and Elaissa Marina Mendoza and the Research Studies Unit of the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization Regional Centre for Innovation and Technology (SEAMEO INNOTECH).

Thank you to the following colleagues who provided their support in liaising with the respective governments and institutes in the preparation of these country case studies on promising EFA practices: Anwar Alsaid, Mee Young Choi and Nurhajati Sugianto, UNESCO Office in Jakarta; Santosh Khatri, UNESCO Office in Phnom Penh; Kiichi Oyasu and Shereen Akhter, UNESCO Office in Dhaka; Alisher Umarov and Girish Joshi, UNESCO Office in New Delhi; and Shailendra Sigdel, UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) New Delhi Cluster Office.

Our appreciation also goes to reviewers of the case studies: Min Bista, Gwang-Chol Chang, David Clarke, Ginger Gruters, Hyunjeong Lee, Sun Lei, Tanvir Muntasim, Malisa Santigul, Nurhajati Sugianto, Bertrand Tchatchoua, Nyi Nyi Thaung and Marlene Cruz Zegarra.

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Executive Summary

This case study on promising practices in Education for All (EFA) in Cambodia was commissioned by UNESCO Bangkok with support from the Japanese Funds-in-Trust (JFIT) as one of five country case studies from the Asia-Pacific region. The Asia-Pacific region is full of successful and innovative initiatives that have helped governments accelerate EFA progress at the country level. Governments in the region and beyond can learn from these experiences. It is in this context UNESCO Bangkok has embarked on the documentation of such practices.

Improvements in education in Cambodia have been remarkable over the past decade, especially in terms of access, and Cambodia is close to achieving the goal of universal primary education (UPE). This achievement is a result of continued commitment by the government, development partners and donor countries to reaching Cambodia’s development goals, including those in the education sector.

Cambodia’s achievements in the field of education have not been uniform, however. While efforts to improve access have paid off, giving learning opportunities to almost all primary school age children, the quality of education is still questionable. Recognizing this, the Government of Cambodia, with financial and technical support from partners, has focused particular attention in recent years on improving the quality of teaching and learning. In this regard, the government developed several legal and administrative instruments related to education, including the Education Law, the Education for All Plan and the Education Strategic Plan, along with several policies that promote education quality and seek to ensure curricula are relevant to learners’ needs.

Recognizing that reading development in early grades is crucial for literacy competence and for ensuring success in learning of other subjects, the government began to pay greater attention to improving reading and writing. An assessment of reading abilities in 2010 found that the reading abilities of children in early grades were very poor, which prompted the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport to undertake serious reforms. One of the key schemes undertaken by the ministry was the Early Reading and Writing Initiative, which involved the development of new Khmer-language textbooks for teaching reading and writing to grades 1–3. The new textbooks were introduced into grade 1 in 2010 and into grades 2 and 3 in 2012 and 2013. An assessment of children’s reading competence just two years after the initiative began found that reading skills had already improved significant.

This study examines the contribution to improving learning outcomes made by the Early Reading and Writing Initiative. In particular, the study examines the format of the new textbooks and the associated teaching-learning methods and practices that were put in place. This study also looks at the perspectives of the key stakeholders regarding the textbooks and the new teaching-learning methods and their views on what further changes are necessary to improve early grade reading and writing skills.

Data and information were gathered through a review of documents on the subject and through interviews with department directors and representatives of the non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that took the leading role in developing the textbooks, and with principals, teachers and parents. The study team also tested the reading and writing skills of children in grades 1 to 3 at the schools included in the study.

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This study found that the new textbooks combined the traditional approach of memorization of content (vowels and consonants) with a new approach of child-friendly, flexible and interactive teaching methods similar to those prescribed in the Child-Friendly School (CFS) guidelines.

The study found that the textbooks positively impacted teachers’ delivery of instruction in early reading and writing. Interviews with teachers found that the textbooks were highly appreciated by them and that teachers perceived the approach and methods used in the books to be very effective. The textbooks gave teachers confidence and enabled them to utilize interactive methods, such as shared reading in small groups and modelling of fluency via read-aloud sessions in small groups. The case study team found that the teachers’ appreciation of the textbooks, their confidence in using them and the interactive features of the textbooks contributed to an increase in students’ reading competence. Thus, this case study concluded that the introduction of the new textbooks has contributed to improving the quality of education in grades 1–3.

The case study team noted, however, that it is necessary to provide the teachers in all grades with good-quality training in the use of the new textbooks, so as to give them an opportunity to become familiar with the textbooks and to enable them to develop competence in the new teaching methods that are required by the textbooks. The study also found that teachers would benefit from seeing real-life application of the teaching-learning methods, and parents would also benefit from observing reading and writing classes so as to learn the methods and apply them with their children at home, thereby reinforcing what the children learn at school. The team also observed that the benefits of the textbooks for improving literacy skills were limited by the lack of reading materials to encourage additional reading practice within and outside the classroom. This absence of additional materials significantly reduced reading opportunities that would reinforce the knowledge and skills gained through using the textbooks. In addition, the team concluded that any new reforms put in place should be tested, as per the Early Reading and Writing Initiative textbooks, to avoid negative consequences for the quality of education in Cambodia.

The conclusions of this study led to the formulation of the following recommendations for schools and for the government:

• Identify teachers who are using the textbooks and associated teaching-learning methods effectively and ensure that newly-trained teachers and parents are able to observe classes provided by these “model teachers”.

• Ensure all teachers are trained in how to use the new textbooks and any supplementary teaching-learning materials.

• Ensure all schools have sufficient reading materials to support early language learners and other students at primary school level.

• Study and test any proposed reforms and changes in education methods before they are introduced on a wide scale.

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Introduction

1.1 BackgroundThe devastation experienced during the Khmer Rouge regime (1975–1979), during which 75 per cent of teachers, 96 per cent of tertiary students and 67 per cent of all elementary and secondary students in Cambodia were killed, and 90 per cent of the schools were demolished (cited in UNESCO, 2008), has had long-lasting impacts on Cambodia’s education system.

Cambodia undertook great efforts after the fall of the Khmer Rouge to rebuild the country in all aspects. In the education sector, anyone identified as being able to read and write was recruited as a teacher, even when they had no teacher training. Any place was used as a classroom, even just the shade of a tree. Concerted efforts in the early 1980s, with technical and financial support from Viet Nam and other partners, led to the gradual reconstruction of the education sector.

Beginning in the 1980s, school buildings were constructed across the country, and today primary schools are available in almost every village. In addition to providing infrastructure, in the 1990s and 2000s the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports (MoEYS) developed policies and guidelines to support efforts to provide education for all children, in line with Cambodia’s strong commitment to the Education for All Goals (EFA) and in accordance with the Dakar Framework for Action (UNESCO, 2000).

Since then, Cambodia has made considerable progress in expanding basic education services. This has been achieved through numerous interventions, with financial and technical support from development agencies and other donors.

While the achievements in Cambodia have been significant, much improvement is still needed in certain areas, particularly with regard to the quality of education and learning outcomes. One area where effort is required is in improving the reading and writing skills of children in early grades.

Basic literacy, the ability to read and understand a simple text, is one of the most fundamental skills children need. Without basic literacy there is little chance that a child can complete primary education and have the opportunity to pursue higher forms of education. It is well known in literacy circles that learning to read early and achieving a sufficient speed in reading are prerequisites for children to succeed in learning other school subjects as well as for coping as adults with professional and civil society responsibilities.

Attainment of reading skills at an early age is necessary because when children cannot read and write they find it difficult to gain knowledge in other subjects. Children who do not learn to read in the first few grades are more likely to repeat grades and eventually drop out. A gap forms between early readers and non-readers, and this gap increases over time (Gove and Cvelich, 2010). The speed of reading is important because people have a limited working memory span, with the ability to retain only about seven words for 12 seconds. To be able to understand what they are reading, children must be able to read accurately at an adequate speed (Abadzi, 2006).

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A test in 2006 of grade 3 students’ reading and writing competences found that reading abilities were alarmingly low. Less than 50 per cent of the students were able to perform reading tasks to the standard required. In addition, there was large variation by region (rural vs urban) (Table 1).

Table 1: Literacy and cognitive skills: Per cent correct, by strata size and location (urban/rural) (2006)

Per cent Correct by Outcome: Whole Sample

Sample Strata:

Small Rural Large Rural Small Urban Large Urban

Reading Content Overall 40.0 38.5** 38.6** 40.7 44.0**

Reading details 42.5 40.6** 40.9** 43.1 47.0**

Remember word 33.4 33.1 32.5 35.4 34.8

Other Reading 29.6 27.9** 29.3 27.9 32.9**

Writing Content Overall 41.7 38.8** 40.1 42.8** 46.8**

Punctuation 44.8 42.1** 44.2 45.6 47.8**

Complete the sentence 38.2 35.2** 36.1** 38.9 45.5**

Match subject-predicate 46.3 42.3** 44.2 50.3** 52.2**

Cognitive Skill:

Knowledge (8 items) 44.7 43.4 43.2** 44.3 48.4**

Comprehension (34 items) 40.4 38.2** 38.9** 41.7** 45.3**

Application (3 items) 23.1 21.9* 21.9* 22.7 27.1**

Analysis (7 items) 41.2 38.6** 40.1 42.2 45.8**

Source: CESSP, 2006

Notes: All averages are computed using sampling weights. Asterisks refer to t-tests comparing each column average with the entire sample average (** p<=0.05; * p<=0.10).

Reading levels in Cambodian primary schools were assessed again in 2010 through the Early Grade Reading Assessment (EGRA) method. EGRA is an oral assessment method that measures basic reading skills of young children in early grades. By documenting student performance on early grade reading skills, this assessment method informed the MoEYS of the level of reading and the needs of early grade learners. A total of 2, 400 primary school students from 140 schools in 18 provinces of Cambodia were tested.

The assessment found that students had very poor reading abilities. This led to a review of the methods used for teaching of reading and writing. Following this review, the MoEYS decided to develop new textbooks for teaching reading and writing skills, recognizing that textbooks are a fundamental instrument for reading interventions, particularly in resource-poor settings.

A second EGRA test was carried out in 2012. As shown in Table 2, there was a significant improvement in reading test scores between 2010 and 2012. The overall test score rose from 39.40 in 2010 to 65.42 in 2012.

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Table 2: Comparison of scores in EGRA reading tests, grades 1–6 (%) (2010 and 2012)

GradeNo. of Students Section 1 Section 2 Section 3 Section 4

2010 2012 2010 2012 2010 2012 2010 2012 2010 2012

1 399 399 10.75 31.19 52.03 55.14 32.78 40.38 6.61 22.36

2 401 400 19.03 42.54 67.66 73.90 48.23 55.85 18.45 40.29

3 400 400 27.17 64.85 77.33 91.15 54.05 79.10 36.76 69.24

4 400 400 34.48 74.19 79.75 93.78 68.50 84.73 47.47 82.59

5 400 398 45.34 78.29 84.73 96.43 68.63 89.02 62.40 86.82

6 397 400 47.26 80.51 90.98 96.45 76.22 91.05 68.93 89.90

All 2397 2397 30.65 61.93 75.40 84.48 58.05 73.35 40.07 65.20

GradeSection 5 Section 6 Section 7 Section 8 Overall Score

2010 2012 2010 2012 2010 2012 2010 2012 2010 2012

1 2.16 12.08 64.11 66.87 2.88 15.63 0.00 0.00 13.87 30.38

2 27.48 45.95 78.40 76.20 22.26 45.63 0.00 0.00 24.95 45.43

3 49.10 79.70 82.80 87.25 42.53 75.16 0.00 44.80 36.53 69.60

4 61.60 86.60 90.00 91.80 54.34 82.69 46.15 56.70 45.22 78.60

5 68.75 91.61 89.90 94.32 68.03 90.64 46.90 75.38 55.75 83.19

6 77.38 91.90 91.59 94.80 80.38 91.28 56.27 76.60 60.17 85.33

All 47.72 67.98 82.80 85.21 45.04 66.84 24.85 42.24 39.40 65.42

Source: Seymour, 2012

1.2 Study methodThis study examined the steps taken by the MoEYS to develop the new textbooks and assessed the value of the textbooks and the associated teaching-learning methods from the perspective of the users of the books. This section describes the participants in the study, the research instruments used, and the data collection and analysis processes.

1 2 1 ParticipantsThe case study team interviewed 52 participants, including three principals, nine teachers, 18 students and 18 parents from three primary schools; as well as two department directors and two representatives of two NGOs (Room to Read and Save the Children) that are involved in improving the reading and writing skills of primary school children in Cambodia.

1 2 2 Research instrumentsThis qualitative study involved phenomenological research practices to gather information about the textbooks and the methods that are required for the use of the textbooks, and participants’ experiences and perceptions. The research instruments and how they were utilized are described below.

Literature reviewThe study team reviewed three types of documents: EGRA assessment reports; documents relating to the teaching and learning of the reading at early grades and to how children develop literacy skills; and the new textbooks, which were compared with the previous Khmer language textbook,

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an elementary English textbook used in Cambodian private schools and Thai textbooks used in primary schools.

InterviewsSemi-structured, face-to-face interviews were used to obtain information about the perspectives and perceptions of the users of the textbooks (teachers) and related stakeholders (principals and parents). The information that was gathered helped the study team to better understand why the textbooks and the new teaching-learning methods have been successful.

The interview questions were prepared by the study team on the basis of the types of questions asked in similar studies, which were obtained from a review of related books and articles on language and literacy teaching and learning. The research team then prepared a draft of the interview questions in English and consulted an expert on EGRA regarding the appropriateness and clarity of the questions. Finally, the researchers translated the interview questions from English into Khmer, as the participants were all Khmer speakers. The interview protocol is provided in the Annex.

The interview questions asked by the study team related to the participants’ perceptions of the applicability of the new textbooks and their views about whether and how the textbooks and teaching-learning methods were being used to increase reading skills among young learners. The department directors and NGO representatives were also asked questions about how the textbooks were developed.

If requested, a copy of the research objectives and interview protocol were sent to interviewees via post or email prior to the scheduled interview date so that interviewees could better understand the topic and the purpose of the interviews. To avoid data omission, at the end of each interview the participants were given an opportunity to discuss any important issues that had not been addressed. All interviews were tape-recorded, with the interviewee’s permission, and the interviews were also documented by researchers through note taking. To ensure the validity of the study, the participants were asked to verify the accuracy of the interview transcriptions and to clarify any inaccuracies. The transcriptions were later translated into English for use in preparing this report.

TestsThe research team tested the children’s reading and writing skills and undertook a short dictation exercise with them. This enabled the team to get first-hand information about the ability of the students in reading and writing.

The test was undertaken as follows. First, the researchers explained the instructions in Khmer. Each of the 18 students was given a copy of the test. Time was given for the students to reflect upon each item or statement. Several queries from the students on the statements were clarified by the researchers in Khmer in order to avoid misinterpretation. The test was then begun. The process took about 30 minutes.

1 2 3 Data analysis The recordings of the interviews were transcribed immediately after each interview. The interview data were then coded to enable the identification of common themes and patterns. The coding system was developed by the researchers based on the criterion of idea units, as opposed to words or statements. A statement given by an interviewee might carry two ideas so these were coded separately.

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Context: EFA in Cambodia and the challenges faced

Every child has the right to acquire knowledge and skills. Recognizing this, many countries have succeeded in making education more accessible to children, especially to those living in disadvantaged circumstances. Cambodia is no exception. With committed effort and with assistance in financial and technical aspects, Cambodia, despite the devastation experienced in its recent past, has made significant progress towards achieving the EFA Goals, particularly Goal 2. The sections below present a summary of the achievements relating to each of the goals.

2.1 Early childhood care and educationGoal 1: Expanding and improving comprehensive early childhood care and education, especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children.

The MoEYS has a strong commitment to early childhood education (ECE) and has produced guidelines on the establishment of community pre-schools; an action plan for implementing a national policy on early child care and development; an action plan for expanding community, home-based pre-schools and home-based groups; an action plan for increasing ECE classes in primary schools; and guidelines on the management of private pre-schools; and has implemented pilot programmes on inclusive and bilingual early childhood education.

The Department of Early Childhood Education of the MoEYS provides formal pre-school education for children aged 3–5. ECE services are also provided by community pre-schools and private pre-schools. In big cities such as Phnom Penh, private pre-schools are increasingly popular.

ECE services have expanded rapidly in Cambodia since 2000. The number of schools, enrolments, teachers and modalities have all increased, as shown in Table 3. In academic year 2000–01, about 6 per cent of children aged 3–5 were enrolled in pre-schools. The percentage increased to 11.97 per cent in 2005–06 and 26 per cent in 2010–11.

Table 3: ECE schools, enrolments and staff (2003–2013)

Academic Year SchoolsStudents Staff

Total Girls Total Female

2003–04 1,238 72,224 - 2,697 -

2004–05 1,345 72,214 36,151 2,833 2,788

2005–06 1,429 75,669 37,787 2,882 2,827

2006–07 1,524 77,899 38,796 2,978 2,917

2007–08 1,634 79,585 40,013 3,130 3,073

2008–09 1,798 90,036 45,012 3,247 3,182

2009–10 1,895 99,130 49,574 3,353 3,267

2010–11 2,092 103,315 51,634 3,711 3,593

2011–12 2,575 121,306 60,643 4,032 3,844

2012–13 2,813 128,257 64,065 4,309 4,169

Source: MoEYS, EMIS

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Despite progress made in ECE, EFA Goal 1 will not be reached by 2015. Access to pre-school remains limited to only a small fraction of the children in the 3–5 age group (Rao et. al., 2007). Thus, early childhood education in Cambodia is far from meeting the needs of pre-school age children in the country. In 2012 Cambodia was ranked the lowest in the region in terms of ECE provision (UNESCO, 2012). Despite the commitment by the MoEYS to ECE, insufficient resources are allocated to pre-school education.

2.2 Universal primary educationGoal 2: Ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in difficult circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities, have access to, and complete, free and compulsory primary education of good quality.

The most remarkable achievement in Cambodia’s EFA journey has been the increase of enrolment in primary schools, with the country achieving a 97.4 per cent net enrolment rate in 2012 (MoEYS, 2012).

Table 4: Net enrolment ratio, by gender and location (2002–2013)

Year Net enrolment rates

Total by location Girls by location

Total Urban Rural Remote Urban Rural Remote

2002–03 88.9 85.3 90.3 75.6 82.9 88.3 71.5

2003–04 90.1 88.5 90.8 78.6 86.9 89.5 74.7

2004–05 91.9 91.6 92.4 82.5 90.4 91.2 79.4

2005–06 91.3 91.2 91.7 83.7 89.7 90.1 80.1

2006–07 92.1 93.2 92.2 86.0 92.6 91.1 82.8

2007–08 93.3 92.7 93.6 88.4 93.1 93.6 87.8

2008–09 94.4 94.0 94.7 90.3 93.8 94.3 98.6

2009–10 94.8 92.2 95.3 - 92.2 95 -

2010–11 95.2 93.3 95.5 - 92.3 95.1 -

2011–12 94.4 87.8 98.4 - 87 98.1 -

2012–13 97.0 83.2 100.2 - 81.9 100.5 -

Source: MoEYS, EMIS

Note: Since 2010, no schools have been classified as being located in “remote” areas.

The Constitution of Cambodia and the Education Law underpin efforts to provide basic education to all children regardless of their social or physical status, not only in terms of enrolling them but also in terms of retaining them in schools and ensuring good learning outcomes. Providing access to education is a long-term, continuous process and the progress made so far has depended on policy commitments by the government.

Progress came about as a result of various measures, including building more schools and classrooms at the primary school level; the elimination of registration fees; increasing the number of teachers, with systematic support for those teachers deployed to schools in disadvantaged areas; expanding education services to children with disabilities and children from minority groups; implementing curriculum reforms to improve the relevancy of education; providing teaching and learning materials; strengthening teacher training; promoting new and more effective teaching; ensuring systematic and regular inspection of school administration methods; establishing effective assessment systems and finance and educational quality assurance; and supporting institutional

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development and capacity building through the development of legislative instruments and the training of education officers at the national and sub-national levels. Another factor that contributed towards increased enrolments was the change in the attitude of parents towards educating children, especially daughters.

The measures were implemented by the government, international agencies and NGOs with the support of development partners. Concerted efforts by the government and donor agencies, NGOs and communities have focused on both expansion in the number of schools and of teachers and on improvements in the quality of education. Consequently, completion rates have increased for all grades, including those of children living in rural and remote areas (MoEYS, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013).

One project that was implemented nationwide and had significant impact on enrolment, infrastructure and quality was the Child Friendly School project, which was supported by the Fast Track Initiative (FTI). Cambodia was one of the countries that received the FTI funds to support its efforts to achieve the EFA Goals. Other interventions included school construction projects, scholarship programmes, the school feeding programme and programmes for children with visual and hearing impairments.

In line with the increase in the enrolment rate, the primary school completion rate has increased dramatically since 2004–05 in both urban and rural areas, with the urban rate rising from 54.38 per cent in 2004–05 to 79.11 per cent in 2012–13, and the rural rate more than doubling; rising from 41.72 per cent in 2004–05 to 93.99 per cent in 2012–13. The increased completion rates are a result of improvements in schools in terms of infrastructure and child-friendliness.

As shown in Table 5, there has been some fluctuation in the figures, however, as a result of the reclassification of some schools, with schools that were once classified as being in remote areas being categorized as being in rural areas, and some schools in rural areas being reclassified as urban schools.

Table 5: Completion rates in primary level (%) (2004–05 to 2012–13)

Academic yearTotal Girl Boy

Urban Rural Remote Urban Rural Remote Urban Rural Remote

2004–05 54.38 41.72 24.72 54.24 41.10 22.76 54.50 42.29 26.58

2005–06 99.02 90.03 52.41 94.86 90.47 52.15 103.17 89.62 52.66

2006–07 91.60 86.75 54.10 91.54 88.77 56.17 91.65 84.89 52.29

2008–09 91.03 86.38 58.98 88.31 87.04 60.41 93.72 85.76 57.62

2009–10 84.33 83.01 - 84.36 83.51 - 84.31 82.54 -

2010–11 91.0 84.3 - 88.2 84.4 - 93.7 84.1 -

2011–12 77.97 92.36 - 78.83 92.37 - 77.17 92.36 -

2012–13 79.11 93.99 - 79.17 90.18 - 79.04 97.67 -

Source: MoEYS, EMIS 2004–2013

The government has several plans and strategies in place to guide future efforts towards achieving universal enrolment, higher completion rates and better quality basic education. These include the Education Strategic Plan (2009–2013), the Education Sector Support Programme and the Education for All National Plan (2003). The government’s Education Strategic Plan focuses on equitable access, quality and efficiency, and institutional development and capacity building. With the implementation of further education reforms, it is expected that by 2015 all children in Cambodia will have access to free primary education.

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2.3 Youth and adult skillsGoal 3: Ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met through equitable access to appropriate learning and life-skills programmes.

Goal 3 encompasses various modes of learning, including formal, non-formal and informal, and various types of education, including literacy education and technical and vocational to education. In Cambodia, efforts towards achieving Goal 3 have included initiatives aimed at improving learning at secondary school level, from grades 7 to 12, and vocational education.

Secondary education in Cambodia consists of lower secondary school (grades 7–9) and upper secondary school (grades 10–12). “Basic education” covers primary school (grades 1–6) and lower secondary school. The MoEYS has committed to make basic education accessible to all children. Despite significant efforts, however, enrolment rates for lower and upper secondary remain low. In 2012–13 the enrolment rate for lower secondary was only 53.6 per cent and the enrolment rate for upper secondary school was only 18.1 per cent (MoEYS, 2013b). Completion rates for secondary education are also low. In 2012–13 only 40.35 per cent of students completed lower secondary school while only 27 per cent completed upper secondary school (MoEYS, 2013a). As Table 6 shows, the transition rate to lower secondary has remained stagnant since 2002. There has been greater progress with regard to upper secondary school, however, with the transition rate rising from 59.2 per cent in 2002–03 to 74 per cent in 2012–13.

Table 6: Transition rates to lower and upper secondary school levels (2002–03 to 2012–13)

Academic year Transition to lower secondary school Transition to upper secondary school

Total Girls Total Female

2002–03 83.2 79.1 59.2 62.8

2003–04 82.7 79.8 60.1 62.6

2004–05 81.9 79.6 56.1 58.0

2005–06 80.6 78.7 67.4 68.3

2006–07 78.7 77.1 66.2 65.8

2007–08 78.9 78.5 71.5 71.0

2008–09 78.4 78.3 71.3 71.2

2009–10 80.1 80.8 75.2 76.5

2010–11 80.2 81.3 71.6 71.6

2011–12 79.3 80.6 69.8 70.3

2012–13 78.9 80.4 74.0 76.3

Source: MoEYS, EMIS 2004–2013

The MoEYS considers secondary education to be a particular concern and one that needs to be addressed in the next strategic plan. The ministry aims to not only increase access to secondary education but also to bring about equity of access in urban and rural areas.

The education system in Cambodia is divided into five levels, namely (i) early childhood education, (ii) primary education, (iii) lower and upper secondary school, (iv) technical and vocational education and training (TVET) and (v) higher education. The first three levels are under the MoEYS. The fourth level, TVET, is under the Ministry of Labour and Vocational Training (MoLVT). The MoLVT was established in 2005, and seeks to train skilled workers to meet the increasing needs of industry in Cambodia.

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TVET does not attract many students. In 2010 there were only 6,035 TVET graduates (MoLVT, 2010). The purpose of TVET, which is to provide participants with practical knowledge and skills required to enter the workforce, is not effectively communicated to students. Many students view TVET as simply providing labour-intensive skills for jobs in machine repair, construction and agriculture.

The division of education and training under different ministries, and subsequent poor coordination and overlap, has led to serious problems. The MoEYS recently established a Department of Vocational Orientation, which orients students on vocational training and governs a number of secondary schools that provide vocational programmes.

Many secondary schools have life skills programmes, but, these programmes are not attractive to students and do not meet market needs (MoEYS, 2013). As of 2013, Cambodia had 134 TVET institutions, of which 63 were public, 188 were private and 53 were run by NGOs.

2.4 Improvement in adult literacyGoal 4: Achieving a 50 per cent improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015, especially for women, and equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults.

Cambodia uses the standard EFA definition of literacy, which is the ability to read and write with understanding a simple statement related to one’s daily life. The Government of Cambodia recognizes that literacy encompasses a continuum of reading and writing skills, and often includes basic arithmetic skills. In 2011, Cambodia’s adult (aged 15–74) literacy rate was 79 per cent and its youth (15–24) literacy rate was 91.5 per cent (Hang, 2014). Given the importance of literacy, especially functional literacy, and lifelong learning, the MoEYS has paid particular attention to providing opportunities for literacy education as part of non-formal education programmes.

Cambodia has about 2 million children aged 12–17, the official age for lower secondary and upper secondary school, but only about 40 per cent of these have completed lower secondary school. It can be concluded that about 60 per cent (1.2 million) of Cambodian teenagers drop out of formal education. To provide further learning opportunities, the MoEYS has diversified the non-formal education sector to offer several kinds of programmes through community learning. These centres offer the chance to acquire literacy skills, income generation skills and life skills including family life skills, basic health care skills, knowledge about sexually transmitted diseases, knowledge to prevent road accidents, disaster risk reduction skills and civic consciousness. Table 7 shows the number of learners enrolled in the various types of non-formal education courses.

Table 7: Number of participants in non-formal education programmes (2012)

Programme The number of participants

Literacy 347,560

Re-entry 123,874

Complementary 54,840

Vocational and skills training 43,173

Life skills via mobile cars 31,066

Technical education at public and technical high school 3,128

Total 603,641

Source: EMIS (MoEYS)

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2.5 Gender equality in access to basic educationGoal 5: Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005, and achieving gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girls’ full and equal access to and achievement in basic education of good quality.

Cambodia has made good progress towards closing the gender gap in general education, as indicated in the tables above. This progress is a result of the government’s commitment to gender equality, as stated in various policy documents, including the Cambodian Gender Education Policy (2003), Gender Mainstreaming Strategy in Education (2006–2010) and the Quality Standards and Indicators for Gender Mainstreaming in Education (2006).

While the reduction of the gender gap in terms of enrolment and retention rates is impressive, there is room for improvement.

In 2014, the Minister of Education, H.E. Hang Chuon Naron, identified concrete steps to promote gender parity and equality, including strengthening gender-based and multicultural approaches to primary education, extending curricular change to all levels of education, measuring and tracking disparities between boys and girls, and developing programmes that will help rural girls and women access literacy, technical training and schooling (Hang, 2014).

2.6 Improving the quality of educationGoal 6: Improving all aspects of the quality of education and ensuring excellence of all so that recognized and measurable learning outcomes are achieved by all, especially in literacy, numeracy and essential life skills.

While access to education has increased significantly in Cambodia, the quality of education remains a challenge. Poor learning outcomes are common.

Using the EFA Development Index to provide a composite measure of progress, the EFA Global Monitoring Report of 2010 found that Cambodia was ranked 119 among 129 countries in terms of the quality of education. This ranking prompted government and civil society efforts with regard to increasing access to education and improving the quality of education.

There is a significant relationship between reading competence and competence in other subjects. When reading skills are poor, learning in other subjects is poor. Although there are other factors involved, poor learning leads many children to drop out of school.

Recognizing the importance of early grade reading for performance in other subjects in higher grades, the government has sought to make reforms in the way reading is taught in schools, beginning with the introduction of new textbooks. It is expected that improvements in the teaching and learning of reading will contribute to the improvement of learning outcomes overall.

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The early reading and writing initiative

This study examines Cambodia’s Early Reading and Writing Initiative, which involved the development and introduction into primary schools of new textbooks for teaching and learning of reading and writing.

3.1 FindingsThis section presents the findings of the study. Information and data were gathered through a review of the literature and through interviews with stakeholders. The data was then analyzed using qualitative methods.

3 1 1 Findings of the literature reviewThe official language of instruction in Cambodian schools is Khmer. How the language should be taught has been a controversial topic among educators. The first official text for teaching reading and writing in Khmer was written in 1946. This textbook was based on a phonics approach called Chet Chhem. This method uses a chant that puts each consonant through the 24 vowels of the Khmer language. The rhythm of the chant “helps consolidate the sequences and the visual letter changes go with it” (Abadzi, 2013). Thus, the Chet Chhem method involves reciting the chant and memorizing it. When the patterns become automatic, children can begin learning to read meaningful text. This method was used in Cambodia until the Khmer Rouge regime took power.

In 1979, when Cambodian resumed its education system after the fall of the Khmer Rouge regime, schools utilized the Chet Chhem method once more, but gradually new Khmer textbooks were developed and educators in Cambodia became influenced by the “whole language” approach to literacy. Accordingly, changes were introduced in the 1990s, with a shift towards “whole word recognition” rather than a phonics-based approach. These changes came about as a result of advice from external experts who were not always familiar with the Khmer language. The change in the teaching approach led to a decline in the level of reading and writing abilities over the following two decades. Although there is no empirical evidence, it is generally observed that the generation who began primary school in the mid-1980s, before the changes were put in place, have better literacy skills than the generations thereafter.

It was later concluded that the Khmer language cannot be taught effectively using the whole word recognition method. In recent years, educators have returned to the phonics approach to teaching and learning of the Khmer language, recognizing that such an approach is more appropriate for this type of language.

According to Seymour et al. as cited in Gove and Wetterberg, (2011, p. 10), there are three phases of reading skill development: letter-sound knowledge; full understanding of spelling; and attribution of meaning (Figure 1).

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Figure 1: Phases in the development of reading skills

Phase 1

Phase 2 and 3

Simple decoding ability(alphabetic process)

Full understanding of spelling(orthographic framwork)

Attribution of meaning(morphographic framework)

Large units(rimes)

Large units(syllables, morphemes)

Word recognition/storage(logographic process)

Small units(phonemes)

Letter-soundknowledge

Source: Seymour, Aro and Erskine (2003)

In Cambodia, the complex Khmer script adds challenges to this process of learning to read. The Khmer script has 26 vowels and 33 consonants. When presented in a matrix, the consistent patterns of the vowel changes allow readers to recite and retain the essential script. Combinations of the letters and the pronunciation of these are based on complex rules, however, and there are over 900 combinations that must be memorized. To learn to read Khmer, children must engage in much practice in order to link the written language’s complex shapes into bigger chains and recognize them automatically and instantly. Children must therefore learn the combinations of consonants and vowels in a systematic way. This necessity for memorization of combinations is the reason why the Chet Chhem method is effective (Abadzi, 2013).

3 1 2 The process of developing the new textbooksThe textbooks for grades 1–3 were the product of a joint effort by the MoEYS and two NGOs: Room to Read and Save the Children International. These NGOs had, in the past, developed and tried several methods to help teachers teach the Khmer vowels and consonants in more effective ways. A trial and error process was carried out in close collaboration with the Department of Primary Education. Later, following a call for a review of how reading and writing of Khmer were being taught, these NGOs approached the MoEYS and initiated the Early Reading and Writing Initiative.

Recognizing the importance of textbooks for teaching and learning in the Cambodia context, three government departments: the Department of Primary Education, the Department of Training and Pedagogy and the Department of Curriculum Development worked with Room to Read and Save the Children to develop the material needed for new textbooks for teaching and learning of reading and writing in the Khmer language in grades 1–3. After receiving approval from the MoEYS to pilot the new textbooks in seven provinces, they held a workshop to design the textbooks in cooperation with stakeholders from the target provinces. The new textbooks use a modified Chet Chhem method.

The textbooks were developed for the reasons listed below (MoEYS, 2011):

• To enable students to learn the vowels, consonants, consonants combined with vowels, consonant clusters, and syllabic clusters.

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• To instil in students the ability to read words, short phrases and paragraphs and to be able to write them correctly.

• To strengthen, between grades 1 and 3, students’ abilities in reading and writing the Khmer language.

In the process of developing the new textbooks, the technical committee referred to five earlier textbooks and also used the Samdach Choun Nath dictionary as a reference (MoEYS, 2011). The five earlier textbooks were:

• The original Chet Chhem textbook (1946)

• Reading and writing textbook by Sar Chenda (1969)

• “My reading” textbook by Room to Read

• “Our reading and writing” book by Save the Children International

• Principle textbook (2007)

In 2010, the MoEYS implemented a pilot study to test the effectiveness of the new textbooks and the associated modified Chet Chhem teaching-learning method. The pilot study was initially implemented only in grade 1 of primary school in seven provinces: Phnom Penh, Battambang, Prey Veng, Kratie, Stung Treng, Siem Reap and Kampong Cham. The new grade 1 textbook was introduced into around 140 schools, with 11,000 grade 1 students receiving the books. To support teachers in their use of the new textbooks, and to facilitate learning, schools were also provided with teaching-learning materials such as mobile letters and flash cards (MoEYS, 2011). The reading and writing skills of these students were monitored, along with the progress of grade 1 students in around 140 control schools.

In 2011, an assessment found that 74.04 per cent of the students in the target schools could read and understand more than 50 per cent of the text taught. In the control schools only 46.80 per cent of the students could do so. Similarly, 70.07 per cent of the students in the target schools could write, while only 42.26 per cent of the students of the control schools could write do so (MoEYS 2011).

Similar textbooks were then introduced in grades 2 and 3. Following the introduction of the textbooks, reading skills began improving dramatically in these grades too. In 2010, prior to the introduction of the books using the modified Chet Chhem method, 30 per cent of grade 3 children could not read five familiar words. In 2012 only 15.2 per cent of grade 3 children could not perform this task (Abadzi, 2013). The pilot textbooks were then accepted as official textbooks for all schools and were introduced to all formal schools in the country in 2012 and 2013.

3 1 3 Description of the new textbooks The new textbooks are very attractive compared to previous textbooks produced by the ministry. The text is printed in large, clear letters and the book has colour pictures on almost every page. The pictures reflect the lives of children, families and communities. The textbooks include instructions on their use, making them easy to use by teachers, and also by any parents who would like to help their children learn to read and write. The instructions enable teachers and parents to use the book without supplementary books such teacher guides or exercise books. The textbooks include many activities that allow teachers and parents to help children practice what they have learned. The new books also have a dictionary section to assist teachers and learners (MoEYS, 2011).

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The new textbooks emphasize the memorization of vowels and consonants, along the lines of the Chet Chhem method. The difference with the new textbooks, however, is that they promote an enjoyable approach to memorization and also provide activities by which children can make sense of what they memorize, so that what they learn is consolidated in their long-term memories and can be easily and instantaneously retrieved when needed.

3 1 4 Comparison of the old and new textbooks and the teaching-learning methodsBoth the original Chet Chhem textbook and the new one require students to learn how to read and write vowels, consonants, syllables, words, phrases and short texts. Using the new textbook, students first learn how to read and write all vowels and 33 consonants, accompanied by an alphabet song, and then they learn combinations of consonants and vowels, followed by consonant clusters, syllabic clusters and compound words.

Table 8 compares the old Chet Chhem (grade 2) textbook with the new grade 2 textbook and highlights the improvements.

Table 8 Comparison of the old and new grade 2 textbooks

Old version New version Improved feature Explanation

128 pages

Size B5

216 pages

Size B5

Increased number of pages

Larger word sizes and introduction of colours.

Maximum use of teaching hours (494 hours per year)

Easy to read because of large wordsize.

Black and white Colourful From black and white to colour.

Colours attract children’s attention.

Need a separate teacher’s book

The books include the teaching style method and determine teaching hours for each lesson.

No need to have a teacher’s book.

When there is only one book it is easier for both teachers and students.

The instructions make it possible for parents to use the book to teach their children.

10 lessons (listening, speaking, reading and writing)

154 lessons (listening 3, speaking 7, reading 54 and writing 62)

The content is divided into small units.

This makes it easy for teachers to prepare lesson plans.

The short lessons ensure students do not become bored.

No dictionary Dictionary Added dictionary Explains the meaning of words that might be unfamiliar.

Emphasis on all four skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing).

Put more emphasis on only two skills (reading and writing)

Less emphasis on listening and speaking, more emphasis on reading and writing.

Strengthen students’ capacity in reading and writing.

Focused only on grade 2 (10 topics)

Lessons for grade 1 (12 lessons), links grade 1 lessons to grade 2 lessons (12 lessons) and other lessons (126 lessons)

Links the grade 1 contents to grade 2 contents.

Equip students with foundation knowledge in dependent vowels, independent vowels, consonants, compound words, spelling, consonant clusters, and syllable clusters before they learn to read short sentences.

Dictation and carved letters

Dictation, carved letters and vocabulary study

Includes vocabulary study (explanation of words, antonyms, synonyms and questions)

Strengthens students’ ability to read and write. Students can study by themselves and parents can help their children to learn.

Source: MoEYS, 2012

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Teaching-learning methods for using the textbooksThe new textbooks not only present information in a different way from previous reading and writing textbooks, but they also require that teachers use different teaching-learning methods. Using the new textbook, reading is learned through repetition after teachers, through songs, and through games that compare the shapes and sounds of the vowels and the consonants. In Khmer, many vowels are shaped like familiar household objects; likewise, groups of vowels also resemble things in daily life. For example, one group of vowels resembles tree leaves while another group looks like a walking stick. Pointing out these similarities to children assists them in memorizing them. The teaching methods are flexible and allow students to move around the classroom and loudly repeat after their friends. These methods make a significant impact on students’ ability to memorize and recall the vowels and consonants.

The textbooks present short and simple words in connection to the vowels and consonants that have been learned. Words are presented in two ways. First, words that are well known to the children are presented along with colour pictures. The meanings of the words are reinforced by pointing to objects in real life, parts of the body, etc. Words learned from the textbook are recalled with the aid of flash cards and mobile vowels and consonants. Second, the consonants and vowels are presented in combinations to make words. These are not intended for learning the words and meanings as the old textbook emphasized. This is an easy and systematic manner for students to recall the vowels and consonants they have learned. A key factor that makes this different from the old Chet Chhem method is the how the teacher introduces the text and encourages learning. The teaching-learning method used in the new textbooks builds students’ confidence in reading so that they are gradually able to read entire phrases and sentences.

When asked about the methods they use, teachers reported that phonemic awareness lessons are conducted as a whole class, and then the material is practiced in small groups. Teachers reported that they are required to begin the lessons in phonemic awareness by accessing students’ prior knowledge via questioning. Students are asked relevant questions about what they already know about the topic. Students are also asked to predict what will happen in the text. New words that are going to be in the text are explained. Teachers then articulate the objectives for the lessons. Teachers utilize rhymes, chants, poems and songs to help children memorize the vowels, consonants and combinations. Teachers support students’ acquisition of reading and writing skills by explaining, modelling, and making connections to independent practice.

Observations of classes found that in the area of phonics for beginning readers, teachers point out letters that represent sounds, teachers make the sounds and students mimic the teachers. Teachers point to the letters on the board or in print and pronounce them, then ask students to repeat the sound. Also, teachers introduce letters and sounds in groups and words are created from the letters. Students are then encouraged to write the letters that represent certain sounds.

Teachers model reading aloud to students. Some teachers engage in choral and echo reading. During such reading sessions, the teachers stop periodically to engage students in aspects of the text about a character, event, main idea, problem or to make connections. Teachers also ask students interpretive questions about the stories. Throughout the reading, students were asked to wonder, notice, make connections to self, text and the world, and figure things out. After the reading, the teachers and students engage in further discussion, returning to the objective for the reading. Children are asked to use evidence from the text to support their answers. Teachers discuss such things as repetitive patterns in the text, unique words and phrases, figures of speech and punctuation.

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Students are guided to practice the skills and are afforded opportunities to practice skills via games and via the practice activities provided in the textbooks. It was observed, however, that many schools do not have sufficient reading material to encourage children to read for pleasure and thereby increase their literacy skills rapidly. While some reading material is available, it is not always age-appropriate and does not reflect the range of interests and tastes of the students, so does not entice them to read.

Students use timers in paired reading to practice fluency. Activities (e.g. word walls, games, puzzles, word charts and word building) enable students to practice identifying high-frequency words. The schools aim to have students memorize all of the vowels and consonants as early as possible in the academic year.

Procedural routines To utilize the textbooks and the teaching-learning methods effectively, teachers must follow certain management routines and procedures. For example, teachers have folders for each child and they plan student activities that suit student needs. Teachers also organize students’ materials in colour-coded boxes that match the instructional levels. When dividing the class into small groups for activities, teachers use cues such as timers, bells, and commands to indicate to students when it is time to transition to a new activity. This system facilitates small group instruction.

3 1 5 Stakeholders’ perceptions In this section, the stakeholders’ perceptions of the new textbooks and teaching-learning methods are examined, along with their suggestions for ways to improve teaching and learning of reading and writing skills. Qualitative data were gathered through interviews. Through these interviews, the researchers sought to better understand the reasons why the textbooks were successful in increasing reading and writing skills and to identify what steps needed to be taken to bring about further progress. The key stakeholders’ (principals, teachers and parents) perceptions are summarized below.

Principals’ perceptionsThe principals interviewed for the study were generally very supportive of the new textbooks as these books were viewed as necessary tools for improving reading skills in early grades. Several of the principals noted that many schools have launched professional development initiatives and adopted new strategies to help teachers learn how to meet the needs of learners, who are diverse in terms of abilities and backgrounds, and they found that the approach used in the new textbooks reflected the new teaching-learning methods the teachers were being exposed to in their training. One principal noted:

“This textbook utilizes the educational practices that have shown to be effective through rigorous scientific research.”

Another principal said:

“The textbook is designed to enrich and extend, but not replace, programme-specific professional development for teachers of reading and language arts.”

Several principals suggested that since teachers are the most important factor for success in the schools, more training focusing on utilizing new teaching and learning strategies needs to be provided for teachers. A number of principals also stated that many teachers need extended

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time to learn and apply the knowledge and skills necessary to integrate new teaching and learning strategies into their reading classes. Some stated that redesigning the current system of professional development of teachers may help reduce some of the barriers experienced during the implementation of new teaching-learning methods. One principal commented:

“If classroom teachers are to use new teaching-learning methods effectively for increasing reading skills, these educators must be provided with adequate training.”

Another principal also called for more training, saying it was necessary because:

“The teacher is the most important ingredient for success in schools and student achievement.”

Teachers’ perceptions

User-friendly and conducive to learningAll of the teachers interviewed as part of this study were satisfied with the new textbooks. Teachers found the textbooks easy to use and many teachers were able to develop their own supplementary materials by reading the instructions in the textbook and using visual and audio materials available in the school or community. Several teachers noted in the interviews that using the textbooks created classroom environments that were conducive to learning. The teaching-learning methods specified in the textbooks meant that children can work in groups or can read with partners, and students are able to ask questions and discuss what they have learned with classmates. Teachers said this led to a positive atmosphere in the classroom and friendly interactions between teachers and students and among students.

Barriers to effective teaching and learningWhen asked if they had experienced any barriers to using the textbooks effectively in the classroom, teachers indicated several issues, including: time out of the classroom for training one day per month and feeling overwhelmed by the extent of the changes in teaching methods. As expressed by two of the teachers:

“It is often difficult to be gone from my classroom one day each month, especially at the beginning of the year.”

“I feel overwhelmed with information and am still trying to figure out the curriculum and establish classroom routines.”

The teachers also expressed that they did not receive an adequate amount of time to process and apply the information they gained at professional development trainings. As one teacher said:

“I do not have time to process the information and relate it to the curriculum. As soon as I begin to make the connection, it is time for another module.”

Teachers pointed to the lack of sufficient meeting time as being an impediment to the successful functioning of their teams.

Another issue was with the training that they were provided. Many teachers found that the training facilitators did not provide real-world examples of how to apply the teaching methods and did not provide teachers with sufficient time to practice and reflect. As two teachers noted:

“I felt that the facilitator was not prepared and not knowledgeable in making connections between the textbook and application.”

“I believe that the textbook is effective, but would have liked to have more time to process and apply the information in my classroom. The sessions were very close together.”

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Parents’ perceptions and involvement in children’s learningThe parents interviewed for the study were generally very positive about the textbook and many were interested in being involved in helping their children to learn to read. The reasons why some parents want to be involved in children’s learning are listed below along with the reasons given by some parents for not participating in children’s learning.

Reasons for involvementWhen asked their reasons for choosing to become involved in their child’s school homework, particularly reading, most parents responded that they felt strongly that by working closely with the school they were setting a good example and reinforcing the importance of going to school and learning to read. Below are comments from three parents in this study:

“Oh, it’s very important. The teachers can only do so much. The learning doesn’t stop when they walk out of school. The parent plays a big role. If you don’t make the kids do it at home, you can’t expect them to do it at school.”

“Parents influence. Even their attitude toward homework is important. You can’t leave it to the teachers to do everything. I think it has to be reinforced at home.”

“Support, positive input and encouragement make all the difference. If the expectations aren’t there, it’s useless. They can talk about study skills at school, or they can set a deadline, but you have to reinforce those things at home.”

Some parents were keenly aware that children watch them and that parents serve as role models. These parents’ comments were as follows:

“I know they watch what we do. We need to stress how important school is and reading is.

They are watching us and they are going to do what we do.”

“We explain to them what daddy’s job is and what my job is. Everybody has a job, and their job is school.”

Some parents felt pressure from their children to spend time with them in the classroom. One commented:

“They are very proud when you are there. It means a lot to them.”

Several parents thought that being involved in the school would allow them to know more about the schoolwork or any social issues and would ultimately benefit their child. Some of the comments were as follows:

“For one thing, I want to know what is going on. It’s important to know what the curriculum is and to be able to have a say in it.”

“I think it helps us recognize his needs, so that the type of help we give him at home reflects the help he gets at school.”

“I like to know who their peers are so that I can better understand their emotional traumas.“

“I feel bad that I can’t volunteer in her classroom. I would love to be up there more because it would give me a better sense of how the day goes for her in the classroom.”

“I think it helps your child because if the teacher knows you’re interested in what she is doing, she will certainly take much more of an interest in seeing that your child will get what he needs.”

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Barriers to involvementWhile most parents were conscious that involvement in school and in using the reading and writing textbook was important for their children’s education, many parents had competing activities and responsibilities. One of the comments was as follows:

“I don’t feel less of a parent because I can’t get there to watch my child, but I don’t want the school looking at me like I have little interest in my child. I don’t feel bad to the point where I think I’m not a good mother, but I don’t want them to think that this mum never comes to a play, or this mum never did this, because I am there at report card time and I am there if they call me for something important.”

Other parents said that they did their best to put other tasks aside and focus on helping their children with their homework.

“Even when I lost my oldest brother, I still had to be a mother, still had to be a wife, still had to check on my mother. It’s all about how you set your priorities.”

“You know, I think it really has to do with setting priorities. I’m getting to be more organized and setting priorities. So maybe that’s why I’m involved. It’s what a mother does. It’s what my mother did.”

“There are no barriers to parent involvement except those that parents make themselves. Failing to set reading [time] with your child as a priority is the biggest barrier to involvement.”

Factors that often prevent parents from helping their children with their homework were time constraints and inflexible work schedules. One father of four small children felt overwhelmed with the responsibility of accomplishing the reading textbook homework. His comment was as follows:

“It’s usually the last thing we do at night. Literally, between the time I get home and the time they go to bed, I am getting the baby from day care, making dinner, getting them ready for bed and getting stuff out for tomorrow. Homework is the last thing we do. So, it’s usually a very stressful time, because they all want attention.”

Most of the families interviewed were two-parent families. Completing the nightly homework assignment was reported to be a formidable task for some because both parents were working full time. One couple commented as follows:

“We both work full time, so it’s a challenge.”

The family structure appeared to affect the degree to which parents were able to be involved. Some of the parents interviewed for the study were single parents who were working full time while also trying to meet their children’s basic needs.

One single parent’s comment was as follows:

“I don’t think my work is very supportive. It is a sacrifice to be both a parent and have a job.”

One young mother of three noted that she works at night, from 11 p.m. until 7 a.m. so that she can be there when her children are home. This mother stated that she was often too tired to help with homework and also they sometimes had trouble finding space to do the homework because she and her children were sharing a house with her sister and their grandmother.

The parents who were working part time or not at all were able to be more supportive of the nightly homework routine. One father commented:

“I only work three and a half hours a day, so it’s no problem.”

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Parent empowermentParents interviewed generally felt more confident about helping their child at home if they had had an opportunity to observe a lesson at school using the reading and writing textbooks. Some of the comments from parents were as follows:

I watched her do a lesson, so I am very comfortable with the routine.

I just try to remember what Mrs … said when I watched her teach a lesson.

I think it really helped to watch her. Otherwise I wouldn’t know what to do.

I watched her do a lesson. It really helped because they’re not teaching them the same way we were taught. It’s so different.

I’d really like that (to watch a lesson). I think it would give me some ideas. I’d be acting like Mrs … at home.

Yes, we’d love that (to watch a lesson) because I don’t think he gets as distracted or as wiggly with her as he does with us. I’d like to be able to say, “Would you do that for Mrs …?”

I would be interested (in watching a lesson). It would help me in my daily response to what we are doing so we would be doing more of the same thing. Sometimes he tells me I am not doing it right.

If I was there to see how they do it and then we do it the exact same way, it wouldn’t confuse her. I think it would be easier for her.

Well, I would learn more if I would watch her. We don’t do it the same I’m sure.

My son says that I don’t wait the right amount of time and I say that I am the mother, not the teacher.

In sum, the parents’ decisions about whether or not to be involved in their children’s learning were influenced by their perceptions of the importance of the homework, their work commitments, their family circumstances, their understanding of their roles as learning facilitators and their level of confidence in being able to help their children learn.

Students’ competence in reading and writingTo get a first-hand idea of the reading and writing competency of grade 1–3 children who had used the textbooks, the study team gave reading and writing tests to the children.

Reading competencyThe study team gave the children three reading tests. The first involved giving the children a list of 20 common words, presented in four rows with five items per row; an exercise which was selected from early grade learning materials. The children were given scores based on the number of words they read aloud correctly over a period of one minute. Most students were able to read all of the words correctly in one minute. The students were also tested on their ability to read sentences. In this case, students were given one sentence to read. Again, they were given scores based on the number of words they could read aloud correctly in one minute. The third test was word-in-context reading. The students were asked to read a paragraph aloud. Again, the children were given scores based on the number of words they read correctly in one minute. Many students were able to read most of the words correctly.

Writing competencyThis exercise required the students to write a short paragraph dictated to them by the interviewer. The result was calculated by counting the number of words each student wrote correctly in one

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minute. Most students from grade 3 were able to get most words correct. Furthermore, most students wrote neatly and spelled correctly.

3.2 Discussion and conclusionsThis case study aimed to examine the structure and use of the new textbooks for teaching reading and writing. This study paid particular attention to the teaching-learning methods implemented when using the new textbooks and sought to assess the contribution of the textbooks and associated methods towards improving early grade reading and writing skills, as perceived by the key stakeholders and users of the textbooks (principals, teachers, parents and students).

It is well known that learning to read in the early grades is critical as it forms the foundation for children’s future learning. By learning how to read in the early grades, children can achieve the basic literacy that is essential to enabling them to stay in school. Completion of basic education by all children has implications for the progress of the country and for poverty reduction.

This case study found that the new textbooks appeared to have a positive impact on teachers’ delivery of reading and writing lessons. The study observed that the new textbooks are hybrid in nature. They utilize the Chet Chhem approach to the memorization of consonants and vowels but also utilize child-friendly methods and activities. This study found that the new textbooks and the flexible and child-centred teaching approach that the textbooks promote enable teachers to instruct students effectively in all of the necessary components of reading and writing, including phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, fluency and comprehension, and thereby enable learners to become competent readers and writers.

In particular, the teaching-learning methods specified in the new textbooks and the variety of activities in the textbooks are what help students learn. Activities include read-aloud exercises and guided reading in small groups. Better teaching-learning methods have led to improvements in early grade reading and writing skills.

This study found that while most teachers are satisfied with the new textbooks, all teachers need training and they need more effective training, as well as time and support to incorporate their new skills into classroom lessons. Just as classroom teachers greatly influence student learning, the trainers who train teachers to use the textbooks greatly influence the ability of the teachers to utilize the textbooks effectively. Therefore, training of teachers needs to be conducted by trainers and facilitators who are experienced in the use of the textbooks and in the teaching-learning methods that are required. Furthermore, teachers need to be taught how to transfer their new knowledge and skills into classroom practice and need support and time to do this.

To support the effective utilization of the textbooks and to improve learning outcomes, it is necessary that all schools have reading materials to facilitate practice of the reading and writing skills gained at school. Reading materials should be available for all age levels and should suit a range of different tastes and interests, so as to attract readers and foster reading skills.

This study found that parents are often willing to become involved in assisting their children to learn to read and write, but they often need encouragement to do so, and they would benefit from demonstrations by the teachers of the use of the textbooks.

This study observed that mistakes were made in the past, particularly with the introduction of the “whole word” method for teaching reading and writing. There is a saying that “fish living in a well

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know the water better than do those outside the well. In other words, Cambodians know a great deal more about their language and context than most external experts. Cambodia’s education system would benefit from making use of local knowledge and skills, while also continuing to draw on valuable external assistance and expertise.

3.3 Recommendations This report offers a number of recommendations for schools and for the government, as detailed below.

At the school level, there is one key recommendation:

• School principals and teachers should identify, via class observations and discussions with students and teachers, teachers who use the textbooks and the teaching and learning methods correctly and effectively. These “model teachers” should be asked to serve as speakers in training workshops for other teachers, so as to share their knowledge and skills. In addition, newly-trained teachers (after completing their training in the use of the textbooks) should visit the classrooms of the selected model teachers so that the newly-trained teachers can see real-life applications of the textbook contents and methods. Parents should also be invited to observe classes by model teachers, if possible, or at least observe a class that their children participate in, so that parents can learn how to use the textbooks appropriately.

At the government level, there are three key recommendations:

• Ensure all teachers are trained in how to use the new textbooks and any supplementary materials.

• Ensure all schools have supplementary reading materials to support early language learners.

• Any proposed changes in education methods should first be studied to ensure they are appropriate for Cambodia’s language and culture, and they should be tested at the local level, as the Early Reading and Writing Initiative textbooks were, before being introduced on a wide scale.

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References

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Abadzi, H. 2006. Efficient learning for the poor: Insights from the Frontier of Cognitive Neuroscience. The World Bank, Washington DC.

Global Partnership for Education. Promising gains for young readers in Cambodia. http://www.educationforallblog.org/issues/quality-basic-education/promising-gains-for-young-readers-in-cambodia. (Accessed 27 November 2013.)

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UNESCO. 2000. The Dakar Framework for Action. Education for All: Meeting our Collective Commitments. UNESCO, Paris.

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Annex: Interview protocolThe questions asked to the various stakeholders during the semi-structured interviews are listed below.

Department directors and NGO representativesThe review looks back at how the process at each step was carried out. In this case, the reviewing team will ask respondents the following questions:

Why was there a need for a textbook reform/change?

How was it carried out in each reform/change?

How is the Early Graded Reading and Writing Initiative different from previous reforms/changes?

How were the textbooks of Reading and Writing 1–3 developed?

What preparations of teachers and assessors were conducted prior to the implementation of the books?

How is Early Grade Reading and Writing Initiative promising to improve quality?

How do stakeholders benefit from the new textbooks (Reading and Writing 1–3)?

At the classroom levelThe textbook users, in their different capacities, will be interviewed using the guided questions below.

PrincipalsHow friendly are the textbooks to be used by teachers, students and parents?

How similar/different are they from previous textbooks?

Based the test results, in what way are the new textbooks better than the previous ones for teaching reading and writing?

What makes them better? Easy to teach, to learn....? How?

How confident are teachers, students and parents in using these new textbooks?

What mechanisms are in place to help teachers and students to use the books more effectively (such as training, extra materials)?

TeachersHow friendly are the textbooks to be used by teachers, students and parents?

How similar/different are they from previous textbooks?

How similarly/differently do teachers teach using this and previous textbooks?

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Based the test results, in what way are the new textbooks better than the previous ones for teaching reading and writing?

What makes them better? Easy to teach, to learn....? How?

How confident are teachers, students and parents in using these new textbooks?

What methods are usually used to teach?

How do students learn reading and writing using new textbooks?

What make students taught by this textbook have a better reading and writing ability than those who were taught by previous textbooks?

ParentsHow do parents use the textbooks to help children learning at home?

How confident are parents in using textbooks?

What make parents confident?

What make the reading and writing ability of this student better than those who used previous textbooks?

StudentsHow confident is the student with the knowledge and skills expected such as the alphabet (vowels, consonants), words, phrases, sentences and texts?

How did teaching and learning taking place in the classroom (use of the textbook, extra materials, interaction between students and teachers or among students)?

Did students learn independently at home? Or did they get help from their siblings or parents in using the textbooks?

How do students assess the textbooks (appearance, content)?

Early Reading and Writing CAMBODIA

Cambodia: Early Reading and W

ritingProm

ising EFA Practices in the Asia-Pacific Region

UNESCO Bangkok OfficeAsia and Pacific Regional Bureau for Education

Mom Luang Pin Malakul Centenary Building920 Sukhumvit Road, Prakanong, KlongtoeyBangkok 10110, ThailandEmail: appeal.bgk@unesco.orgWebsite: www.unesco.org/bangkokTel: +66-2-3910577 Fax: +66-2-3910866 CASE STUDY