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LANGUAGE ASPECTS

1.0 Standard Formal Language

Written language is relatively more complex than spoken language. Written texts are lexically

dense compared to spoken language - they have proportionately more lexical words than

grammatical words. Written texts are shorter and have longer, more complex words and

phrases. They have more noun-based phrases, more nominalizations, and more lexical

variation. Written language is grammatically more complex than spoken language. It has more

subordinate clauses, more "that/to" complement clauses, more long sequences of prepositional

phrases, more attributive adjectives and more passives than spoken language.

The following features are common in academic written texts:

Noun-based phrases,Subordinate clauses/embedding, Complement clauses, Sequences of

prepositional phrases, Participles,Passive verbs,Lexical density, lexical complexity,

nominalization, attributive adjectives, adjectival groups as complements.

For example:

Article 3

1) We must encourage our kids to go for piano lessons.

Have been changed into formal language:-

Parents should encourage their kids to go for piano lessons.

Article 2

2) Achieve these goals we must learn to stay focused and study each note, measure

and phrase to understand how to play the song.

Have been changed into formal language:-

http://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/complex_noun.htmhttp://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/complex_sub.htmhttp://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/complex_comp.htmhttp://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/complex_prep.htmhttp://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/complex_prep.htmhttp://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/complex_prep.htmhttp://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/complex_part.htmhttp://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/complex_pass.htmhttp://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/complex_lexden.htmhttp://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/complex_lexcomp.htmhttp://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/complex_nom.htmhttp://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/complex_attadj.htmhttp://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/complex_adjcomp.htmhttp://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/complex_noun.htmhttp://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/complex_sub.htmhttp://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/complex_comp.htmhttp://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/complex_prep.htmhttp://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/complex_prep.htmhttp://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/complex_part.htmhttp://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/complex_pass.htmhttp://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/complex_lexden.htmhttp://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/complex_lexcomp.htmhttp://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/complex_nom.htmhttp://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/complex_attadj.htmhttp://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/complex_adjcomp.htm

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To achieve these goals, students must learn to stay focused and study each note,

measure and phrase to understand how to play the song.

2.0 Correct Grammar And Spelling

In everyday conversation and in informal writing, we use the personal pronoun you both to

address our listener or reader and to make statements impersonal. For example, the statement

You said I could borrow your car is clearly addressed at a particular individual; on the other

hand, You never know how things will turn out illustrates the impersonal use of you, the

meaning being No-one knows how things will turn out. In academic writing, however, we avoid

both uses of you. So, in the sentence below, the more informal 'give you' has been replaced

with provide:

In addition to the proven body benefits of regular piano practice can give you cognitive

and intellectual abilities. (Article 3)

In addition to the proven body benefits of regular piano practice can provide cognitive

and intellectual abilities.

In the following sentence, the informal as you can see has been replaced by the more formal

passive voice form: as can be seen.

As you can see each new piece of music a student learns requires a specific set of skills

and playing habits. (Article 2)

As can be seen each new piece of music a s student learns requires a specific set of

skills and playing habits.

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3.0 Sentence Structure

The second sentence contains two nominalizations. (A nominalization is a noun phrase derived

from another word class; usually a verb. .Nominalizations is useful in academic writing because

they convey an objective, impersonal tone. Nominalizations can also make the text more

concise because they can pack a great deal of information in a few words.

Example:

(Article 3)

In addition to the proven body benefits of regular piano practice can give you cognitive

and intellectual abilities. Playing piano, in other words, makes us smarter.

In addition to the proven benefits of regular piano practice can give you cognitive and

intellectual abilities which led us to be smarter.

(Article 2)

Piano lessons help children learn how to stay focused and achieve goals. Piano lessons

help children set specific goals and then work towards reaching these goals.

Piano lessons help children learn how to stay focused and achieve goals which led them

to set specific goals and then work towards reaching it.

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4.0 Vocabulary

Improving academic vocabulary skills is an important aspect of any language study at university

level. Academic vocabulary can be seen everywhere: in textbooks, journals, lecture handouts,

exam papers, essays, assignments, etc. However, vocabulary skills do not improve simply

through a natural, effortless process; one has to be as 'active' as possible in dealing with

vocabulary, right from the start. So the rewards from studying vocabulary are considerable.

There have been many attempts to define what exactly academic vocabulary is. Many people

think that academic vocabulary is more 'difficult' than general English vocabulary. However,

academic vocabulary is not necessarily 'difficult vocabulary'; using academic words is more a

question of finding appropriate language, in a suitable style, than anything else.

Examples:

1)Perspective (Article 2)

2) Accomplish (Article 2)

3) Concludes (Article 3)

4) Broadest range (Article 1)

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5.0 Punctuation

There are various tools of punctuation which divide the sentence itself into parts. By interrupting

the flow of reading, they draw the reader's attention to the different parts of the sentence and

how they work together to convey its main idea.The comma is the most frequently used form ofpunctuation and signals a break in the flow of the sentence. Perhaps because the reasons for

breaking the sentence flow may be quite complex, there is a range of views on when it is

appropriate to use the comma. You may find that this contributes further to your uncertainty.

However, it is relatively safe to say that in academic writing, commas can be used to:

~ separate extra information from the main idea of the sentence

~ separate linking words from the main idea of the sentence

~ separate conditions from a possible outcome

~ list things, concepts, events, ideas, etc.

~ resolve ambiguity

Brackets (sometimes called parentheses) share one of the functions of the comma, in that they

are used to indicate information that is somehow extra to the main idea of the sentence.

Brackets enclose words which are marginal to the main idea, and so have the least force in

interrupting the flow of the sentence. For many students, perhaps the most common use of

brackets is for referencing (using the Harvard system). In this case, the year of publication, or

both the name of the author and the year of publication, are placed between brackets.One

common use of the apostrophe is to show that two words have been contracted into one and

some letters have been omitted (e.g. can't, haven't, they've). Many academic staff still considers

these words inappropriate for formal academic writing, so exercise care when you use them.

Expanded versions may be safer to use (e.g. cannot, have not, they have).

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The apostrophe is also used to indicate 'possession' i.e. that something is possessed, or

somehow connected to or associated with something or someone else. The apostrophe is used

at the end of the word, and an s is added. When the word is a plural (i.e. more than one) and

the last letter of the word is an s, then no extra s is needed.

Examples:

1) However, as Yoda explained to Luke Skywalker, the objective isn't just trying

itself, but accomplishing the desired goal -- "Do or do not, there is no try!"

(Article 2)

2) ..their fine motor skills, memory and speech.

. Dr. Frances Rauscher (a psychologist at the University of Wisconsin at

Oshkosh) and Gordon Shaw (a physicist at of the University of California at Irvine)

tested preschoolers.

(Article 1)

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6.0 Paraphrase

Change the structure

Begin by starting at a different place in the passage and/or sentence(s), basing your choice on

the focus of your paper. This will lead naturally to some changes in wording. Some places you

might start in the passage above are "The mother's main charge," "Among the . . . poor or

working class," "Working for and organizing household subsistence," or "The emotional and

intellectual nurture." Or you could begin with one of the people the passage is about: "Mothers,"

"A mother," "Children," "A child." Focusing on specific people rather than abstractions will make

your paraphrase more readable.

Change the words

Use synonyms or a phrase that expresses the same meaning. Leave shared language

unchanged. It's important to start by changing the structure, not the words, but you might find

that as you change the words, you see ways to change the structure further.

Example:

1) In order to compose their own music, they have to learn the needed skills.

(Article 2)

2) Due to the lack of piano lessons, surely children unable to develop courage in

themselves.(Article 2)

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