ASIGNMENT AUTOCAD 1

8/20/2019 ASIGNMENT AUTOCAD 1

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roject of Construction of Building and

Auto Cadr

I instructed in my Assignment. Like basement , 1st floor and 2nd

floor. 1st of all I started from.

Location and Environment

I have design a House plan measurement are as..

ront !idth "#$%&' , (ack) *#$, +otal !alls are personal

+otal suire feet are ) 2-2. sft of this building, it means 1#

/arla$s 102 ft, I live in un3ab, 4ivision aisalabad and4istrict +oba +ek singh tehsil 5o3ra, I live in 5o3ra, in my city !e

used measurement as 2*2 ft 6 1 /arlas, this building that am

going to design my self imaginary complete home designing in

drafting !ork. In this desiging i mentioned 7orth position on

right back cornor of my plot, and Easth position mentioned in

front of same side, outh and 8est respectively front left side

as south and back left side mentioned as 8est. +his my plot

that I am going to desing siturated in commercial area. Every

facilites available here, such as 9/osue, chool, ark,

grounds and !ide roads in front side and back side. In this

:olony main road !idth is "# ft, and other that in colony are 2

ft to 0# ft !ide.

Home 4esigning

I have dra! apro;imatly 1* dra!ings in this assignment.


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1. Inde; lan2. ite lan0. E;cavation /ethod". Landscape lan. ingle Line lan

=. oundation 4esigning*. (asement-. 1st loor &. 2nd loor 1#. urniture Layout11. Electric Layout12. ui 5as Layout10. 8ater supply 4ra!ing

1". e!erage ystem 4ra!ing1. ront Elevation 4etail1=. (ack Elevation 4etail1*. ection at A.A$

ubstructure 4esigning

+he part of building that is do!n!ard from .L and !e can notseen is called ubstructure.

E;cavation

1st of a all e;cavated the selected plot !ith kassi through labor.

+otal height of e;cavation is 0$%#'.

:oncrete /at

+he ratio of concrete is >1)0)=', material use in course

Aggregate sand. /aterial use in fine aggregate crushes 1?2$$.

(ricks !ork in oundation up to 4..:


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irst class bricks use in foundation. @atio of /ortar use in

foundation is 91)"

@:: (eam in oundation

@:: (eam +hickness is &'. our steel bars are used in @::

(eam 9iBe) 1?2$$.

4etail specifications of 4amp roof :ourse

8e spread 4: up to floor level, for this !e use various

method that a Head of depart or Engineer instruct. In common

concrete surface thickness is 2' this surface use as a 4:.

+he ratio of 4: is 91)2)"./aterial 9A

In 4: the crush that is used in concrete less than C'. +he

crush made by hard tone. (efore use !ash it properly, in this

concrete sand that are used should be thick. +his sand should

be saving from :lay and Drganic matters. +he siBe of its grain

should be 0?1='. (efore use this should be clear from every

type of !aste. +he cement that is used in should be ort Land,

and !ater that is used in this material should be :lean.

/i;ing 9(

or 4: the concrete prepared by the volume of

measurement of various ingredients. According to volume siBe:ement bags !eight should be 12 ft0 in !eight # kg. or

preparation of this mi;ture first of all design a plat form and

:ourse aggregate spread over it. All materials like 9:ement,

and !ill be mi;ed over it !ith !ater, and this all materials !ill

be shaking three time. 8ater proofing agent in age 0%


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oodle or any other material !ill be use !ith the instruction of

Engineer.

reparation of (ase 9:

(efore use 4: !e ready the !alls surface. Dn the plinth

level last layer 9:ourse of bricks !ill be on edge and e;cept

this last layer !ill be lat and the frog of bricks should be do!n

!ord. Fp side of bricks should be clean !ith iron hairs brush

and also filled !ith !ater

Laying 94

According to 4: the thickness of superstructure !ill besuggested, for its alignment straight edge !ill be used or

suggested thickness made teel mould !ill be used inside.

4oors and other opened area 4: !ill not use. After Laying

4: in the side of length and !idth !ill be level properly and

compress it. In !hole length not any 3oint !ill be represent. If

!ork stop due to any cause !e should stop on doors or other

points. After lying the surface of bricks should be rubbed !ith

steel brush for better bricks 3oint !ith 4:.

:uring 9

After 4: laying for * days all 4: should be :uring. And the

all !ork should be started after 12hrs and (ricks !ork should

be start after "-hrs but :uring should be start for * days.

4etailed pecifications of irst :lass (rick 8ork

In 1st class buildings the 1st class bricks are used. In 1st class

bricks !ork the detail of material, brick !ork, 3oints, curing and

scaffolding standard are use.


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/aterial 9A

or the 1st class brick !ork the brick should be 1st class. +hese

all bricks should be same in shape and siBe. +he corners and

edge of bricks should be sharp, if !e cullied 2 bricks the nice

sound should be produce. +he surface of these bricks shouldbe clean and clear no any :rack or crush should be on these

bricks, any type of salt or other material should not be appear

on the surface of bricks. After 2"hrs remaining in !ater these

brick absorb only 2# !ater, and compression strength

should be not less than 1##kg ? cm0 910* pond ? cubic inch

in the first class brick !ork fresh ortland :ement !ill be used.

or first class brick !ork the sand that is used should be

coarse, clean and sharp sided. In this sand any other type of

organic matters should not be involve. In brick !ork the !ater

that !ill be use in mortar should be clean, in this !ater any

type of oil or other matters should not be involve this should be

clean !ater from the every type. After this in the !ater acidity

and alkalinity also should be in normal e;tinct.

/ortar 9(

In the 1st class brick !ork should be use !ith cement, this

mortar ingredients ratio should be selected by the related

engineer, for the mi;ture preparation a bo; !ill be design. +he

siBe of this bo; should be 1 ; 1 ; 1.2 ft that is same siBe !ith

a cement bag. +he volume of a cement siBe is #.#0 cubic

meter the volume of the sand count in dry condition, if the

sand is !et the bulking of sand should be keep in mind. +he

uantity of sand should be used more than selected uantity. If

!e use more than selected value the related engineer !ill

allo! then !e can use more uantity of sand. +he ratio of


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cement, sand and !ater this ratio of each thing related

engineer !ill select. /ortar uantity should be only in that

state that !e can use in 0# mints.

JOINTING BRICKWORK AS PART OF THE

BRICKLAYING PROCESS

Brickwork joints generally vary in thickness between 8and 15 mm. This thickness also depends upon thedesired architectural “image” o a wall and thevariationin the dimensions o the bricks chosen. The joint

comprises !"# to !5# o the total wall surace.$n 1%%&' analyses o damage in relation to the (ualityo the joints in brickwork )in some cases less than 1" yearsold*resulted in the +B,-/, publication 0The (uality o joints in brickwork.0

$n addition to the introduction o hardness classes or joints and the (uality levels to be realised or mechanically compacted joints' it was alsorecommended that brickwork be jointed by smoothingand lightly compacting the joints as part o thebricklaying process.

The entirely mistaken assumption is often made that it is

possible to make brickwork waterproof by pointing the joints later after the bricklaying process has been finished.

This is far from the truth. After all, a joint is still a porous

filling between the bricks.

This mistaken assumption is often made in connection with

half-brick masonry work in garages and storage sheds where


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the joints are raked out on both sides, as a result of which the

remaining thickness of the mortar layer between the bricks is

sometimes barely 6 cm. The assumption that the joint applied

later will ensure that the brickwork remains waterproof is

frequently proved wrong in such cases.In particular for brickwork where recessed joints are desired,

jointing the brickwork by smoothing and lightly compacting

the joints as part of the bricklaying process is to be preferred

rather than pointing the joints at a later stage.

When using bricks that have only a very weak

tendency to absorb water (class IW1 according totable 4 of BRL 1007), it is recommended that the

brickwork be jointed by smoothing and lightly

compacting the joints as part of the bricklaying

process.

$ traditional joints are pointed in this

type o brickwork' the act that the pointing mortal is slightly damp meansthat it will bond only weakly to thesurace o the brick and practically theonly bond that will be ormed is withthe underlying bricklaying mortar.

The bricklaying process itself should be carried out using an

ample supply of mortar so that the vertical joints as well asbed joints are amply filled with mortar. The bricklayer then

finishes the joints by raking out the excess mortar and

finishing them off with bricklaying mortar.

A special roller jointer has been developed especially

for this purpose, which makes it possible to strike the


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brickwork joints and recess them to a constant depth

(between 5 mm and 15 mm).

Flush joints cannot ! "!alis!# $ith this t!chni%u!&

By using special profiles, it is also possible to give the

joint a special outward appearance. The surface of

the mortar in the joint is also compacted somewhat by

this process. As a result, the bricklaying mortar forms

a monolithic entity between the bricks.

If brickwork is jointed in this fashion, joint bonding will always

be good. The quality of brickwork jointed in this fashion is

therefore high. However, this jointing technique does require a

different technical skill of the bricklayer.

Manufacturers of prefab mortars have developed special

jointing mortars for this purpose, which allow one to have

more control over the exact time when the joints arefinished without the stability of the mortar being impaired

while it is being worked with or compacted. The choice of

this prefabricated jointing mortar should be adjusted to

the category in which the brick falls in terms of initial

water absorption. These mortars are also available in

various colours.There is a trend towards making brickwork that is jointed in

this fashion without vertical joints. The vertical joints are

then not filled with bricklaying mortar and have a

theoretical width of 2 mm. This type of brickwork

emphasises the horizontal lines of the design, particularly if


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the jointing process also results in recessed joints.

In some cases, after the bricks are laid out in an ample

bed of mortar, the joints are simply raked out to the desired

depth, after which the brickwork is brushed off with a hard

broom. A point to remember in this regard is that thevertical joints and bed joints must be raked out to the same

depth and width. This method is suitable only for recessed

joints.

Soak bricks

Bricks should be soaked in water before use for a period that issufficient for the water to just penetrate the entire depth of bricks.

The period of soaking is generally at least six hours. The period of

soaking can be determined by a simple field test at site. The bricks

are soaked in water for different periods and then broken to find the

extent of water penetration. The least period that corresponds to

complete soaking will be one allowed for. If the bricks are soaked forthe required time in water that is frequently changed, the soluble salts

in the brick are bleached out and subsequent efflorescence reduced.

etting of bricks assists in remo!ing the dirt, sand and dust from

them.

nglish Bond2

"nglish bond #also known as $ncient Bond% requires quarter bondwork in its construction of a course of stretcher bricks and a course of

header bricks laid alternately. It is the strongest brickwork bond. It is

howe!er, one of the most expensi!e because of the labour time. The

&ictorians, when building many of their classical gardens, introduced

a !ariation on


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"nglish Bond, called "nglish 'arden all Bond which introduces the

course of headers in between fi!e courses of stretchers. This

maintains the strength, looks attracti!e and is cheaper and quicker to

build.

It can be seen from the diagram that "nglish bond requires closureson each course to maintain the bond. This type of closure, a brick cut

down the middle of its length, is called a (ueen )loser.

*aying bricks

term you probably ha!e heard of before+ face brick. There are three basic parts to recognie. They are called the face or front, the top or bottom, and the ends #figure -%. epending on how the brick is goingto be used, each of the three parts of the brick can be laid in two positions. The illustrations below show the six basic bricklaying

positions.

The pattern that brick is laid in is actually called the /Bond./ e aregoing to lay our brick in a pattern calledrunning bond #also referred to as half bond%. 0igure 1 shows a walllaid up in running bond.

"ach row of brick is called a /course/ and walls are usually the result

of a duplication of two courses, the first #or layout% course and thealternate course. The alternate courses will ha!e half bricks on theends.

The folks at the masonry supply yard can ad!ise you on the type of brick to be used on your project. Standard brick will costapproximately 234 to 564 each, depending upon what you select andwhere you li!e.


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These prices probably shock you, as they still do me. 7eeping a tightcontrol on the amount of brick necessary for a specific project is your only hedge against waste, and, thankfully, the math in!ol!ed is !erysimple.

There are se!en standard8sied brick in one square foot. 9ultiply thelength of your project by the height to get the number of square feet,then multiply this by se!en. 0or example+ If your project is going to be -6: long and 1: high you will need 153 bricks.

-6: long x 1: high ;-


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?CDT*$> )"9">T ?*$ST"D$)DE*I) 0I>ISF

Scope+

'uide specifications for the minimum requirements for the systemand application of portland cement plaster #stucco% with an acrylicfinish. The contractor shall pro!ide all materials, labor andequipment necessary to complete this system of portland cement plaster as shown on drawings andor as described herein. 0lashing,caulking, sealants, sealers, shall be furnished and installed by others.

Standards+

orkmanship and installation shall be performed per+

$.>orthwest all G )eiling Bureau Standards

B.$ST9 )8-3A2 installations of lathing and furring for portlandcement plaster.

).$ST9 )8H


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Be prepared for a pre8job meeting with the architect, owner, generalcontractor, and the >orthwest all G )eiling Bureau, if required, before the start of lathing and plastering procedures.

9aterials+ To be deli!ered to job in original containers with labelsintact and legible.

$.Storage and protection of all products are the responsibility ofthe contractor performing the scope of the work.

ob )onditions"n!ironmental Dequirements for cement plaster.

$.)old eather

-. o not use froen material.


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ouble Back method 8 whereby the scratched and brown coats areapplied and cured as one system is appro!ed.

$.The second coat #brown% should be applied as soon as the firstcoat is rigid.

ob conFionsen!ironmental requirements for acrylic finish

$.o not use acrylic finish materials if they ha!e been froen.

B.o not apply acrylic finish when ambient temperature is lessthan 53 degrees 05.5 degrees ).

).o not apply acrylic finish unless the temperature has been 53

degrees 0.5.5 degrees ) for at least


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).>o area should exceed -1 lineal feet in length without a control joint.

.Install control joints for surface areas of approximately -63square feet.

". here dissimilar back8up materials join.

0. )ontrol joints are recommended at surface penetrations,#windows, doors, etc% and at areas of structural stress.

9aterials?roducts

Building ?aper

$.0ederal Specifications KK8B8=H3$, Style


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". Standard trim items+ control joints, casing beads, exterior corner beads, and base screeds.

?laster 9aterial

-. ?ortland )ement+ $ST9 )-63 Type I or II


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$.- ?ortland )ement- 9asonry )ement- -< 8 < -< Ibs. of -


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". )ement plaster must be applied with sufficient force #by hand or machine% to de!elop full adhesion between plaster and thesubstrate.

0. )ement plaster base coat must be rodded off to a true flat plane."!en and le!el with screeds. 0ollow this by wood floating ordarbying the surface. 0ill all !oids and dress surface for acrylicfinish.

)ement plaster directly o!er masonry surface.

$.9asonry surfaces must ha!e two coats of cement plaster.

B.9asonry surface to be clean and in condition for a direct bond of

cement plaster. ?re8wet the wall before plastering.

).)ement plaster must be applied with sufficient force #by hand or machine% to de!elop full adhesion between plaster and thesubstrate.

.$pply a -5/821/ cement plaster base coat. *et cure for 51hours before applying second base coat. Dough surface for good

bond of second coat.

". $pply second base coat so that total thickness of both coats is -


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$.9ust be applied continuously and in one operation to the entirewall area.

B.$ wet edge must be maintained.

).0inish to be applied so that there are no scaffold lines or other

marks due to the application.

.The mixing and application must follow the manufacturersrecommendations.

". Texture and color as selected by $rchitect andor Cwner.

CONCRETE

:oncrete is the product of mi;ing, aggregate, cement and

!ater.

+he setting of concrete is a chemical reaction bet!een the

cement and the !ater, not a drying process.

+his reaction is called hydration, it evolves heat as does any

chemical reaction, and the process is irreversible.

+here is an initial set !hen the concrete !ill cease to be liuid

but have little strength 9e.g. = to 2"hrs. old, thereafter the

concrete !ill gradually gain strength over time until it achieves

the strength reuired.

4iffering mi; proportions and cement types !ill achieve

reuired strengths in differing time spans.

:D7+I+FE7+ D :D7:@E+E

:ement, Aggregate and 8ater, 9and sometimes additives.

Aggregate


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Aggregates are usually distinguished bet!een fine and coarse

aggregate.

Aggregates are classed as inert materials, such as !ashed

natural sand 9fineG and natural gravel, !hich can be crushed to

produce the appropriate siBe and grading of aggregate, and

similarly crushed, uarried stone 9coarse.

+he aggregate must have a minimum inherent strength

reuirement for structural concrete, the coarse aggregate must

not be !eaker than the concrete paste.

All aggregate must be clean, i.e. not contaminated !ith

organic matter or clay?silty soils and overburden during

e;traction and storage.

Cement

(asically a material made by heating limestone and a suitable

clay to produce a clinker rich in calcium silicates.

+his clinker is ground to produce a fine po!der, this is cement.

(y using different clinkers, grinding them to differing degrees of

fineness and the use of additives many different types of

cement are produced !ith varied properties in their use, e.g.

rapid hardening cement, sulphate resisting cement, etc..

5enerally speaking the more cement in a mi; the stronger

more durable the concrete produced !ill be, but this does have

to be related to other factors, primarily the amount of !ater

used in the mi;, i.e. !ater?cement ratio.

8ater

8ater is an e;tremely important part of concrete, and drinking

uality !ater is usually reuired, or !ater from an approved

source free from impurities.


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Additives

+he most commonly used additive is a foaming agent to

produce air entrained concrete, mainly for carriage!ay

concrete, but also other e;posed situations.

Another common use of an additive is to increase the

!orkability of concrete !ithout adding e;tra !ater and thus

increasing the !ater?cement ratio and decreasing the strength

of the concrete.

+I/E +AE7 +D LA:E :D7:@E+E A+E@ (A+:HI75

rom the time of adding !ater to the cement the chemical

reaction has begun and you only have a limited amount of time

to place and compact the concrete, this is usually specified as

minutes.

+he delivery ticket of the load of concrete !ill be stamped !ith

the time of batching.

ADDITION OF WATER

given a set amount of cement and aggregate there is an

optimum amount of !ater to be added to produce a chemical

reaction to give the ma;imum obtainable strength, too little or

too much !ater !ill produce a !eaker concrete.Fnfortunately as in all things, life is not that simple, and the

!orkability of the concrete has to be considered !hen placing

concrete, especially in difficult situations.

+hese situations can be areas of high density of reinforcing

bars, complicated form!ork design, or !here the concrete


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needs to be suitable for pumping.

In these situations !ater content is increased to make the

concrete more !orkable, (F+ this increase in !ater content is

calculated at the design stage and the cement content is

increased accordingly to retain the strength of the mi;.

or every designed concrete mi; !ith a specified strength

there is a set 8A+E@):E/E7+ @A+ID !hich must be retained

in order to achieve the designed strength.

8A+E@ HDFL4 7E


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High !orkability concrete is needed in situations of high

density of reinforcing steel to enable the concrete to flo!

around all the reinforcing !ithout leaving any voids.

SPECIFYING CONCRETE STRENGTH

+he strength?grade of concrete is specified and measured in

ne!tons?s. mm., megane!tons?s. meter or even

megapascals, in fact the numerical figure !ill be the same in

each case.

E.g. strength of 2# ne!tons?s.mm. is the same as 2#

megane!tons?s.metre.

+he strength?grade of concrete is normally specified by stating

the strength you !ish the concrete to achieve after a period of

2- days.

+he specifications governing the design, use and testing of

concrete have undergone tremendous changes in the lat fe!

years, I !ill not go into this topic on this page other than to say

you may like to be a!are of the introduction of,

( -##%1)2##2):oncrete % :omplementary (ritish tandard

to ( E7 2#=%1

art 1 ) /ethod of specifying and guidance for the specifier ( -##%2)2##2):oncrete % :omplementary (ritish tandard

to ( E7 2#=%1

art 2 ) pecification for constituent materials and concrete

+hese are (ritish tandards that have been published to help


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you understand, the current standard for concrete, !hich is,

( E7 2#= % 1 ) :oncrete ) art 1 ) pecification, performance,

production and conformity

and it is likely that you !ill need the help of ( -##, even then

it may prove difficult to understand ( E7 2#=. It is not a user

friendly document.

/EAF@I75 :D7:@E+E +@E75+H

+he strength is measured by crushing concrete cubes to failure

and recording this strength.

:oncrete cubes are made from fresh concrete sampled at the

time of pouring by placing correctly sampled concrete into a

steel mould and compacting to remove air voids.

+he concrete is allo!ed an initial set period of 2" hours, the

mould is then stripped and the cube is cured in !ater at a

temperature of 2# deg.c for 2- days prior to crushing.

If you !ish to strike shuttering before 2- days, e;tra cubes !ill

be reuired to determine that the in%situ concrete has achieved

the appropriate strength at the time you !ish to strike the

shuttering.

+his is usually an arrangement agreed by the contractor, the

concrete supplier and the engineer.

A/LE :D7:@E+E /IKE, D@ 5FI4A7:E D7LJ 9but

you !ill be able to understand them

(elo! are a number of different types of concrete mi;es


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sho!ing batch !eights and cement contents !hen a particular

source of clean crushed river gravel and sand !here used, so

they are only an indication of concrete composition and !ill not

be suitable for all aggregates ? sand ? cement.

I have included this item because of !hat I believe is the lack

of basic concrete information that is readily available to young

engineers and engineering technicians !ishing to improve their

!orking kno!ledge of concrete.

+hese mi;es are in fact concrete mi;es produced to comply

!ith the pecification for @oad and (ridge !orks of 1&=0, i.e.

still current in 1&=& to 1&*2 !hile I !as !orking on the /= Link

for D!en 8illiams and artners.(ack in this period, !hen I !as beginning my career in

high!ays materials, specifications and (ritish tandards !ere

!ritten in such a !ay that basic information regarding concrete

could be obtained from them, and they !ere my original

learning tool.

It is my opinion that this is no longer the situation !ith current

specifications and standards hence the publication of ( -##,

arts 1 2, and I !ould not regard these as particular user

friendly for a beginner.

(asic concrete mi;es are basic concrete mi;es, and these are

e;amples of basic concrete mi;es.

I kno! things have moved on, and there are no! many typesof cement, admi;tures and fibres that produce enhanced

concrete for particular uses, and that you do need to take into

account the density of the aggregates, and the !orkability of

the produced concrete, the source?chemical composition of the

aggregate, etc., etc..


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(ut remember this is +he IdiotMs 5uide to High!ays

/aintenance, and this is some basic information to assist

those !ho !ant to kno! a little bit more about concrete for

basic on site uses, and possibly minor structures.

or most uses you !ill be buying your ready mi;ed concrete

from an established supplier to an appropriate, modern,

specification, but it does not hurt to have some kno!ledge of

!hat you are buying and ho! it !as produced.

I have used the original broad descriptions 9e.g. AN used in

this specification to describe the types of concrete, each type

having a particular use !ith regard to reuired strength,!orkability and cost to produce.

+hese mi;es !ere used in the Longford


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cubic metres.

As !ith any ne! concrete mi; you must take cubes and crush

them at appropriate dates to determine the real strength of the

concrete you have designed ? produced, only then can you

consider using it in the !orks ?structure, and you should e;pect

to attain the reliminary strengths in your trials to ensure the

8orks strength for normal production.

+he cement used in these standard mi;es !as D:

9Drdinary ortland cement, and the strengths uoted are for

1#mm. 9= inch cubes crushed at 2- days.

And do not forget to !eigh your cubes and determine the

density, as density is a good indication of a !ell designed

concrete, and if you have crushed as many concrete cubes as

I have, you !ill have noted that for each mi;, cube making

and curing being constant, the cubes !ith the highest density

!ill give the highest strengths.

urface 4ry (atch 8eights for a number of :lasses of

:oncrete

:oncr

ete

:lass

trength 9/n

% lbs?inO :ement

9kgs?l

bs

and

9kgs?l

bs

Aggregate

Agg. ?:eme

nt

@atio

8ater?:e

ment @atiorelimin

ary

8or

ks

2#m

m.%

mm.

"#m

m.%

2#m

m.


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21#% ".2 #.2

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+he amount of free !ater added to the above aggregate is

based on the !ater cement ration and the moisture contents of

the aggregates, especially the sand.

+hat is !hy batching !eights are initially given as surface dry,

you then determine the total amount of free !ater by applying

the !ater cement ration to the uantity of cement.

E.g. the !ater cement ratio for the concrete mi; belo! is #.",

!ater 6 #."

cement

+herefore)% !eight of !ater 6 !eight of cement ; #." 6

0*1 ; #." kgs. 6 1=*kgs.?litres 9near enough for the

purposes of demonstration

+o better indicate this I include belo! a reproduction of a

batching chart for JP concrete used at a concrete batching

plant, i.e. as the moisture content of the aggregate, usually the

sand, increases the added !ater decreases.

Ho!ever at times of heavy rainfall and !ith smaller aggregate

the coarse aggregate can retain sufficient !ater that it needs to

be taken into account, especially !ith high strength concrete.

+his indicates the importance of kno!ing the moisture contentof the sand in the stockpiles, and often in the different levels of

the stockpile.


31/56

and

/oisture

:ontent

1#mm.

:rushed

5ravel

and Added

free 8ater :ement

#-"#kgs. ?

1-#lbs.

12*1kgs. ?

2-#1lbs.

1=-litres ?

0=.galls

0*1kgs. ?

-2#lbs.

1 '12-"kgs. ?

2-0#lbs.

1litres ?

0".#galls.'

2 12&*kgs. ?

2-=#lbs.

1"1litres ?

01.#galls.

0 10#&kgs. ?2--lbs.

10#litres ?2-.galls.

" 102#kgs. ?

2&1#lbs

11-litres ?

2=.#galls.

100"kgs. ?

2&"#lbs.

1#litres ?

20.#galls.

= 10"*kgs. ?

2&*#lbs.

&1litres ?

2#.#galls.

* 10&kgs. ?

2&&lbs.

**litres ?

1*.#galls.

- 10*2kgs. ?

0#2lbs.

==litres ?

1".galls.

& 10-0kgs. ?

0##lbs.

2litres ?

11.galls.

1# 10&*kgs. ?

0#-#lbs.

"#litres ?

&.#galls.


32/56

LINTELS

Step 1: Wall Constructon

8hat is the !all constructionQ

• Ca(it) Wall

• Ti*!" F"a*!

• E+t!"nal soli# $all

• Int!"nal ,a"tition o" loa# !a"in- $all

Step !: Structural openn"

Ho! !ide is the structural openingQ

a& .!asu"! th! si/! o0 th! st"uctu"al o,!nin- i&!& th!o,!n s,ac! !t$!!n th! $alls $h!"! th!#oo"1$in#o$ 0"a*! is 2tt!#

& A## 345** *ini*u* to !ach !n#


33/56

Step #: $oa% on $ntel

8hat load is to be supported by the lintelQ

+ypes of load include)

• Roo0 t"uss!s

• Floo" joists

• .ason")

• Co*ination o0 th! ao(!

• I0 )ou a"! unsu"! o0 th! i*,os!# loa#6 call Catnic

T!chnical S!"(ic!s on7 589 85:: ;955

Step &: Select 'our $ntel

Dnce you have)


34/56

a& Wall const"uction& Out!" l!a0 !&-& 358**c& Ca(it) !&-&


35/56

Types o beams

(eams are characteriBed by their profile 9the shape of theircross%section, their length, and their material. Incontemporary construction, beams are typically madeof steel, reinforced concrete, or !ood. Dne of the mostcommon types of steel beam is the I%beam or !ide%flange

beam 9also kno!n as a universal beam or, for stoutersections, a universal column. +his is commonly used insteel%frame buildings and bridges. Dther common beamprofiles are the :%channel, the hollo! structural section beam,the pipe, and the angle.

(eams are also described by ho! they are supported.upports restrict lateral and?or rotational movements so as tosatisfy stability conditions as !ell as to limit the deformations toa certain allo!ance. A smple (eam is supported by a pinsupport at one end and a roller support at the other end. Abeam !ith a laterally and rotationally fi;ed support at one end!ith no support at the other end is called a cantle)er (eam. Abeam simply supported at t!o points and having one end orboth ends e;tended beyond the supports is called an o)er*an"n" (eam.

+tructural characteristics

/oment of inertia

+an artcle: +oment o, nerta

+he moment of inertia of an ob3ect about a given a;isdescribes ho! difficult it is to change its angular motion aboutthat a;is. +herefore, it encompasses not 3ust ho! much massthe ob3ect has overall, but ho! far each bit of mass is from thea;is. +he farther out the ob3ectMs mass is, the more rotationalinertia the ob3ect has, and the more force is reuired to changeits rotation rate.

http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/profilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforced_concretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I-beamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I-beamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollow_structural_sectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipe_(material)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moment_of_inertiahttp://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/profilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materialhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforced_concretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I-beamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollow_structural_sectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipe_(material)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_steelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moment_of_inertia


36/56

4iagram of stiffness of a simple suare beam 9A and universalbeam 9(. +he universal beam flange sections are three timesfurther apart than the solid beamMs upper and lo!er halves.+he second moment of inertia of the universal beam is ninetimes that of the suare beam of eual cross section 9universalbeam !eb ignored for simplification

tress in beamsInt!"nall)6 !a*s !+,!"i!nc! compressive6 tensile an# shear stresses as a"!sult o0 th! loa#s a,,li!# to th!*& T),icall)6 un#!" -"a(it) loa#s6 th! o"i-inal l!n-th o0 th!

!a* is sli-htl) "!#uc!# to !nclos! a s*all!" "a#ius a"c at th! to, o0 th! !a*6 "!sultin-

in co*,"!ssion6 $hil! th! sa*! o"i-inal !a* l!n-th at th! otto* o0 th! !a* is sli-htl)

st"!tch!# to !nclos! a la"-!" "a#ius a"c6 an# so is un#!" t!nsion& Th! sa*! o"i-inal l!n-th

o0 th! *i##l! o0 th! !a*6 -!n!"all) hal0$a) !t$!!n th! to, an# otto*6 is th! sa*! as

th! "a#ial a"c o0 !n#in-6 an# so it is un#!" n!ith!" co*,"!ssion no" t!nsion6 an# #!2n!s

th! n!ut"al a+is >#ott!# lin! in th! !a* 2-u"!?& Ao(! th! su,,o"ts6 th! !a* is !+,os!#

to sh!a" st"!ss& Th!"! a"! so*! reinforced concrete !a*s in $hich th! conc"!t!is !nti"!l) in co*,"!ssion $ith t!nsil! 0o"c!s ta=!n ) st!!l t!n#ons& Th!s! !a*s a"!

=no$n as priestesses concrete !a*s6 an# a"! 0a"icat!# to ,"o#uc! aco*,"!ssion *o"! than th! !+,!ct!# t!nsion un#!" loa#in- con#itions& Hi-h st"!n-th st!!l

t!n#ons a"! st"!tch!# $hil! th! !a* is cast o(!" th!*& Th!n6 $h!n th! conc"!t! has

cu"!#6 th! t!n#ons a"! slo$l) "!l!as!# an# th! !a* is i**!#iat!l) un#!" !cc!nt"ic a+ial

loa#s& This !cc!nt"ic loa#in- c"!at!s an int!"nal *o*!nt6 an#6 in tu"n6 inc"!as!s th!

*o*!nt ca"")in- ca,acit) o0 th! !a*& Th!) a"! co**onl) us!# on hi-h$a) "i#-!s&

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_(physical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shear_stresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforced_concretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prestressed_concretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_(physical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shear_stresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforced_concretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prestressed_concrete


37/56

+he primary tool for structural analysis of beams is the EulerR(ernoulli beam euation. Dther mathematical methods fordetermining the deflection of beams include method of virtual!ork and the slope deflection method. Engineers areinterested in determining deflections because the beam may

be in direct contact !ith a brittle material such as glass. (eamdeflections are also minimiBed for aesthetic reasons. A visiblysagging beam, even if structurally safe, is unsightly and to beavoided. A stiffer beam 9high modulus of elasticity andhigh second moment of area produces less deflection.

/athematical methods for determining the beam forces9internal forces of the beam and the forces that are imposed on

the beam support include the moment distribution method,the force or fle;ibility method and the direct stiffness method.

3eneral shapes

/ost beams in reinforced concrete buildings have rectangularcross sections, but the most efficient cross section for a simplysupported beam is an I or H section. (ecause of the parallel

a;is theorem and the fact that most of the material is a!ayfrom the neutral a;is, the second moment of area of the beamincreases, !hich in turn increases the stiffness.

An I%beam is only the most efficient shape in one direction of

bending) up and do!n looking at the profile as an I. If the

beam is bent side to side, it functions as an H !here it is less

efficient. +he most efficient shape for both directions in 24 is abo; 9a suare shell ho!ever the most efficient shape forbending in any direction is a cylindrical shell or tube. (ut, forunidirectional bending, the I or !ide flange beam is superior.Sctaton nee%e% T

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler%E2%80%93Bernoulli_beam_equationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler%E2%80%93Bernoulli_beam_equationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_workhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_workhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stiffnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulus_of_elasticityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_moment_of_areahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moment_distribution_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexibility_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_stiffness_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforced_concretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_axis_theoremhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_axis_theoremhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutral_axishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler%E2%80%93Bernoulli_beam_equationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler%E2%80%93Bernoulli_beam_equationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_workhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_workhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stiffnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulus_of_elasticityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_moment_of_areahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moment_distribution_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexibility_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_stiffness_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinforced_concretehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_axis_theoremhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_axis_theoremhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutral_axishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed


38/56

Efficiency means that for the same cross sectional area9volume of beam per length sub3ected to the same loadingconditions, the beam deflects less.

Dther shapes, like L 9angles, : 9channels or tubes, are alsoused in construction !hen there are special reuirements.

4el4T Bridge 4esign 6anual

.a) 8554 Cul(!"t6 Ri-i# F"a*! an# A"ch @!si-n ;3

hapter +even

Cul(!"t6 Ri-i# F"a*! an# A"ch @!si-n

INTROD-CTION

Cul(!"ts a"! t),icall) "!ctan-ula"6

ci"cula"6 o" !lli,tical ,i,! st"uctu"!s $hich

a"! u"i!# an# #!si-n!# $h!n o$in- 0ull

to ! su*!"-!# an# un#!" h)#"aulic

,"!ssu"!& Th!) a"! usuall) us!# to #"ain ta+

#itch!s o" s*all st"!a*s& .ost la"-!

cul(!"ts a"! const"uct!# $ith h!a#$alls6

$in-$alls6 cuto $alls6 an# scou" a,"ons&

S!! Fi-u"! ;3 0o" a t),ical cul(!"t& This

cha,t!" $ill #iscuss (a"ious t),!s o0

cul(!"ts that a"! us!# ) @!l@OT& Fo"


39/56

"!lat!# issu!s s!! Cha,t!"s :6 46 an#


40/56

co*,action a"oun# th! st"uctu"!6 h!i-ht o0

2ll "!%ui"!#6 an# total $i#th o0 *ulti,l!

c!lls& In *ost cas!s6 a th"!!si#!# 0"a*! o"

a"ch is ,"!0!""!# to ,"o(i#! a natu"al st"!a*otto* an# lo$o$ chann!l& Ho$!(!"6

th!s! "!%ui"! scou" ,"ot!ction& A t),ical

cul(!"t $ith a natu"al st"!a* otto* an#

scou" ,"ot!ction is sho$n in Fi-u"! ;3& Fo"

th! at to,o-"a,h) t),ical o0 *ost o0

@!la$a"!6 tall!" cul(!"ts a"! unsuital!& In

th!s! con#itions6 !lli,tical ,i,!s6 a"ch ,i,!s6

o" o+!s *a) ! #!si"al!& In an) cas!6

cul(!"ts shoul# ! #!si-n!# to !cono*icall)*!!t th! h)#"aulic an# !n(i"on*!ntal

#!*an# o0 th! location&

GENERA$ PO$ICY

Cul(!"ts shall ! #!si-n!# to *!!t th!

cu""!nt an# 0utu"! h)#"aulic an#

t"ans,o"tation n!!#s o0 th! location& All

cul(!"ts shall ! const"uct!# o0 conc"!t!

un#!" Int!"stat!6 S6 an# @!la$a"! "out!s&


41/56

@!si-n!"s *a) consi#!" usin- st"uctu"al

,lat! o" ,ol)!th)l!n! cul(!"ts to

"!in0o"c!1"!lin! #!t!"io"at!# cul(!"ts in li!u

o0 "!,lac!*!nt& This s!ction $ill #iscuss th!

@!,a"t*!nts ,olic) "!lat!# to cul(!"t

h)#"aulics6 0oun#ations6 $in-$alls6 cuto

$alls6 scou" a,"ons6 !tc&


Cul(!"t6 Ri-i# F"a*! an# A"ch @!si-n ;8 .a) 8554

7igure -1a

Bo9 ulvert 9ample - +ection

4el4T Bridge 4esign 6anual.a) 8554 Cul(!"t6 Ri-i# F"a*! an# A"ch @!si-n ;:

7igure -1b

Bo9 ulvert 9ample - levation


Cul(!"t6 Ri-i# F"a*! an# A"ch @!si-n ; .a) 8554

C-$.ERT HYDRA-$ICS

R!0!" to Cha,t!" Th"!! o0 this *anual&

FO-NDATION DESIGN


42/56

Susu"0ac! in(!sti-ations shall !

con#uct!# an# anal)/!# to #!t!"*in!

allo$al! loa# !a"in- ca,acit)& Susu"0ac!

in(!sti-ations an# #!si-n shall !ca""i!# out in acco"#anc! $ith Cha,t!"


43/56

E+ca(ation an# Bac=2llin- 0o" St"uctu"!s&

Bac=2ll shall *!!t th! "!%ui"!*!nts o0

o""o$ t),! C o" o""o$ t),! B in $!t

con#itions&HEADWA$$S

H!a#$alls 0o" ,i,!s consist o0 an !nti"!

"!tainin- $all st"uctu"! a"oun# th! inl!t an#

outl!t o0 th! ,i,!6 inclu#in- th! 0ootin-&

H!a#$alls shall ! consi#!"!# on la"-!"

,i,!s 0o" h)#"aulic !ci!nc)6 stailit)6 an#

"!#uc!# n!!# 0o" "i-hto0$a) ac%uisition&

Fo" a R!in0o"c!# Conc"!t! Bo+ >RCB?6

h!a#$alls "!0!" to that ,o"tion o0 th!st"uctu"! *ount!# on to, o0 th! o+ at th!

outl!t an# inl!t to contain th! !a"th on th!

to, an# a"oun# th! cul(!"t&

Wh!"! $a""ant!#6 h!a#$alls shall ha(!

conc"!t! t"ac a""i!"s *ount!# on to, o0

th!*&

CONCRETE ARCHES

Conc"!t! a"ch!s a"! t),icall) us!# to


44/56

acco**o#at! lon- s,an an# lo$ "is! sit!

"!%ui"!*!nts& T),ical conc"!t! a"ch s,ans

"an-! 0"o* :5 to 45 0!!t D9 to 34 *&

Conc"!t! a"ch!s a"! us!# to s,an st"!a*san# s!asonal $at!"$a)s $h!"! a natu"al

st"!a*!# is #!si"al! an# ,"!0!""!# 0o"

!n(i"on*!ntal o" a!sth!tic "!asons&

All n!$ conc"!t! a"ch!s a"! ,"!cast&

E+t!nsions o0 !+istin- a"ch!s *a) ! cast in

,lac!&

6;T,$;


45/56

$ith a,,"o(al o0 th! B"i#-! @!si-n

En-in!!"&

All "!in0o"cin- st!!l shall ! ,"ot!ct!#

$ith 0usionon#!# !,o+)& E,o+) coatin-con0o"*in- $ith AASHTO .8 D.8.

shall ! s,!ci2!#&

4+$3=

R!0!" to S!ction 46 Conc"!t! St"uctu"!s6

an# S!ction 386 Bu"i!# St"uctu"!s an#

Tunn!l Lin!"s6 in th! ;;+>T

+peci:cations& Th! #!si-n ,"oc!#u"!s in

S!ction 4 a,,l) 0o" #!si-n o0 conc"!t!

a"ch!s $h!"! soil int!"action is not4el4T Bridge 4esign 6anual

consi#!"!#& Soil int!"action is consi#!"!#

onl) $h!"! th! a"ch is ,ou"!#

*onolithicall) $ith th! 0ootin-& In this cas!6

us! th! ,"oc!#u"!s in S!ction 38&

T$o *ats o0 st!!l a"! us!# in conc"!t!

a"ch!s& Conc"!t! a"ch!s shoul# ! #a*, ,"oo0!#

!0o"! ac=2llin-&


46/56

T>$?=++

Th! *ini*u* thic=n!ss 0o" conc"!t!

a"ch!s is in D855 **&

=,T @, Th! *ini*u* co(!" o(!" "!in0o"cin-

st!!l is 8 in D45 ** on th! to, an# otto*

o0 th! a"ch&

PRECAST PROPRIETARY STR-CT-RES

P"!cast ,"o,"i!ta") st"uctu"!s *a) !

,"o,os!# ) cont"acto"s as alt!"nati(!s to

@!,a"t*!nt,"!,a"!# #!si-ns o0 "i-i# 0"a*!

o" conc"!t! a"ch!s& P"o,"i!ta") st"uctu"!s

*a) ! consi#!"!# on a cas!)cas! asisan# *ust *!!t th! 0ollo$in- "!%ui"!*!nts

0o" a,,"o(al7

M #!si-n!# usin- th! sa*! AASHTO

*!tho#s us!# ) th! @!,a"t*!nt

M ,"o(i#! st"uctu"al loa# "atin- usin-

acc!,t!# *!tho#s

M *!!t th! s,!ci2!# *ini*u* conc"!t!

st"!n-ths


47/56

M 0u"nish #ocu*!ntation o0 th! st"uctu"al

st"!n-th o0 th! st"uctu"! inclu#in- actual

t!st "!sults

M ,"o(i#! #ocu*!ntation o0 lon-t!"*s!"(ic! to sho$ #u"ailit) an#

M ,"o(i#! conn!ction !t$!!n units&

STR-CT-RA$ P$ATE PIPE STR-CT-RES

@!si-n!"s *a) s!l!ct 0"o* a (a"i!t) o0

*anu0actu"!"s a(ailal!& Sha,!s inclu#!

!lli,tical a"ch!s o0 (a"ious "a#ii6 ,i,!6 ,i,! a"ch6

an# !lli,s!& Si/! an# sha,! shall !

as!# on h)#"aulic an# sit! "!%ui"!*!nts&

G!o*!t")6 *at!"ials6 .annin-s n (alu!6an# ,lat! -au-! shall ! as!# on

a(ailailit) an# *anu0actu"!"s #!si-n

cha"ts& @!si-n!"s shall "!0!" to

*anu0actu"!"s #!si-n cha"ts $h!n

,"!,a"in- th! ,lans&

Th! otto* is t),icall) #!,"!ss!# to

allo$ 0o" natu"al 2llin-& St"uctu"al ,lat!

,i,! cul(!"ts shall ! #!si-n!# $ith


48/56

h!a#$alls6 an# thos! const"uct!# $ith

otto* ,lat!s shall ha(! cuto $alls&

Bac=2ll shall *!!t *anu0actu"!"s

"!co**!n#ations o" @!l@OT Stan#a"#S,!ci2cations& Foun#ation #!si-n shall

0ollo$ th! "!%ui"!*!nts o0 Cha,t!" Si+ o0

this *anual6 an# *!asu"!s shall ! ta=!n to

,"ot!ct th! 0ootin- 0"o* scou"&

Th! cont"acto" shall su*it sho,

#"a$in-s an# calculations s!al!# ) a

,"o0!ssional !n-in!!" 0o" @!,a"t*!nt

a,,"o(al& All !"!ction an# ac=2ll shall !

in acco"#anc! $ith th! *anu0actu"!"s sho,#"a$in-s&

PO$YETHY$ENE P$ASTIC PIPES

Hi-h #!nsit) ,ol)!th)l!n! ,lastic >H@PE?

,i,! is acc!,tal! 0o" us! on @!,a"t*!nt

,"oj!cts& Pl!as! "!0!" to @!,a"t*!nt

-ui#!lin!s 0o" installation "!%ui"!*!nts&

+ATERIA$


49/56

.at!"ial ,"o,!"ti!s an# s,!ci2cations

shall ! in acco"#anc! $ith ;;+>T

+peci:cations6 S!ction 38&

DESIGN St"uctu"al #!si-n o0 H@PE ,i,! shall !

in acco"#anc! $ith ;;+>T +peci:cations6

S!ction 38& Ea"th loa#s an# li(! loa#s shall

! in acco"#anc! $ith ;;+>T

Introduction

(uildings and structures are provided on ma3or haBard plant fora number of purposes. (uildings may serve to simply protectthe plant or control systems from !eather conditions or may be

provided as accommodation or shelter. /ore importantly theymay be part of the overall containment strategy i.e. to prevent,control or mitigate ma3or accident events. Dther structures areprovided as support for plant either !ithin buildings ore;ternally. ailures of buildings and structures closelyassociated !ith ma3or haBards plant may directly impinge uponthe plant itself thus initiating a haBardous event. It is thereforeclearly important that buildings and structures are designed to

!ithstand all foreseeable loadings and operational e;tremesthroughout the life of the plant.


50/56

General prncples

(uildings and structures should be designed to soundengineering principles in accordance !ith appropriate designcodes and fit for purpose. :onsiderations should be)

• E;treme !eather e.g. !ind loadings, sno! loadings,floodingG

• eismic activityG

• ire, especially !here flammable substances are heldG

• E;plosions overpressures from plant e;cursionsG

• :orrosion effects from local atmospheric conditionsG

•


51/56

codes are ( -1## for Lattice +o!ers and /asts and horerotection /anual.

4esign of non%standard structures and buildings !ill reuirespecial consideration, including structural analysis calculationsas appropriate.

lants should be provided !ith adeuate storm !ater drains todeal !ith potential flooding. As !ith other e;treme !eathersituations, the starting point is to consider historicalmeteorological data. ome regions !ill be far more vulnerableto flooding and particular attention should be paid to thisaspect in positioning safety critical plant, euipment and

control systems to allo! safe shutdo!n. 4esign methods fordealing !ith storm !ater are described in U:ontain liuid spillsand improve safety !ith a flooded storm !ater se!er, /asonand Arnold, :hemical Engineering &1, 1#$. +he design shouldinclude catchment basins correctly siBed to ensure thatcontaminated !ater is not released to the environment. +hereare t!o possible systems i.e. a gravity flo! system and a fullyflooded system. In gravity flo! systems the lines are designed

to run about three%uarters full at a slope of about #.= to #.-to a catch basin !ith a sand trap and liuid seal. In the fullyflooded system a dam is placed at the entrance to thecollection sump !hich causes the se!er to become fullyflooded. +he advantage of this system is that it prevents thepassage of flammable vapors and burning liuids along these!er.

A further most important aspect to consider !hen designingbuildings to cope !ith flooding is the possibility that tanks mayfloat !hen sub3ect to buoyancy forces. +his !ill be particularlyimportant !here tanks are !ithin !ells or deep bunds and maybring about catastrophic failure of the tank and associated pipe


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!ork !ith subseuent releases of haBardous substances to theenvironment and possible domino effects.

In general, the F is a lo! risk area for earthuakes and it isalmost al!ays possible to dismiss the risk from such events onfreuency grounds. 8here it is considered that theconseuences of catastrophic plant failure is of suchmagnitude that it may not be tolerated at the estimatedfreuency then the approach taken for the 7uclear Industry asoutlined in the HE document U 7uclear afety. afety

Assessment rinciples for 7uclear @eactors, 1&*&$ may beappropriate. Earthuake%resistant design involves theconsideration of the complete design including ground

conditions. 4esign methods are given in UFniform (uilding:ode, International :onference of (uilding Dfficials, FA 1&&1$of detailed dynamic analysis based upon the design basisearthuake or U44 E7< 1&&- Euro code) 4esign provisions forEarthuake @esistant tructures 94raft$ may be used.

Structural %es"n o, (ul%n"s to /t*stan% plant e0cursons

(uildings and structures should be designed to !ithstand firesand e;plosions, if their failure causes additional haBards ordomino effects. /ethods of ire rotection are discussed in the+echnical /easures 4ocument on Active ? assive irerotection. In general, !here structures are reuired to providefire resistance for a period of time in the event of fire, !aterspray or insulating coatings can be applied.

(uildings and structures are vulnerable to overpressures,shock or blast !aves and missiles generated by e;plosions.+hese may be)

• lash fires?deflagrationsG

•


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• ressure burstsG

• E;othermic reactions.

E;perimentally, normally designed plants have !ithstoodoverpressures of about #.0 bar 9 psig.

8here the design basis for safety relies upon the building orstructure remaining intact follo!ing significante;plosions?overpressure then appropriate design methodsshould be used. 4esign for such events is often carried out byconsidering the euivalent static pressure e;erted by the blast.Ho!ever it is preferable to use dynamic structural analysis. It isimportant to use a blast profile that accurately reflects the

event being considered. :ondensed phase e;plosives 9+7+blast profiles that are readily available are not representative ofprofiles for vapour cloud e;plosions etc. 4esign methods ofteninclude allo!ing for some measures of e;plosion relief viafragile roofs or !alls !hich allo! venting to a safe place so asnot to in3ure people or damage neighbouring property. +his isparticularly relevant to !arehouses storing drums?cylinders of

flammable substances 9see H951 torage of flammableliuids in containers.

@elevant design codes include U+he design of structures toresist e;plosions +/ 10##$ , Urotective :onstruction 4esign/anual , EL%+@%-*%*$ and Uundamentals of rotective4esign 9conventional !eapons, +/%-$.

/issiles may be classified as primary or secondary. rimarymissiles are generated from e;plosions or overpressures !ithinvessels or pipes causing their fragmentation !hereassecondary missiles are generated as ob3ects pick up energyfrom a blast !ave. :onsideration should be given toeliminating possible secondary missiles such as looseeuipment, light fittings etc in the design of buildingsvulnerable to blasts.

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+here are various methods available to determine the effects ofmissiles upon buildings and structures and design barricadesto protect more vulnerable plant. ome simple empiricalmethods such as that provided in U+he 4esign of (arricades,for HaBardous ressure ystems, :< /oore, 7uclear Eng.

4es. , -1 1&=*$ and UHigh ressure afety :ode, :o; (5,aville 5, High ress +echnology Assoc. 1&*$ and morecomple; models such as UE;plosions HaBards and Evaluation,8E (aker et al , Elsevier, Amsterdam 1&-0$. actors that needto be determined are the siBe, initial velocity, angle ofdeparture, flight tra3ectory and the target vulnerability.

or occupied buildings, a methodology is presented in the

recent :IA?:IHE: guidance :IA 5uidance for the locationand design of occupied building on chemical manufacturingsites. urther details are given in the +echnical /easures4ocument on :ontrol @oom 4esign.

iping containing haBardous fluids should be protected fromdamage by e;ternal mechanical impacts such as thoseimposed by e;plosions and missiles. ipe supports and

bridges should be designed !ith sufficient mechanical strengthfor the loads e;erted on them. +his is considered further in the+echnical /easures 4ocument on 4esign :odes % ipe!ork.

+antenance o, (ul%n"s %ama"e to plant2

alling masonry and steel!ork can initiate ma3or accidents bydamaging plant, it is therefore important that buildings and

structures are maintained to a high degree of integrity. @egularinspections should be carried out by a competent person andsystems should be in place to ensure that any remedial !orkreuired is undertaken promptly. ee also +echnical /easures4ocument on Inspection ? 7on%4estructive +esting 974+.

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Structural %es"n o, 3un%s

(unds are an essential secondary containment for haBardousliuids, particularly !here there are large uantities stored or inprocess. 9see +echnical /easures 4ocument on econdary:ontainment. /aterials of construction should be capable of!ithstanding the mechanical and thermal shock that occurs oncatastrophic failure of the primary containment. (unds aregenerally fabricated from brick?mortar or concrete but !hereliuids are being stored above their boiling point additionalinsulation, e.g. vermiculite mortar, may be added as cladding toreduce the evaporation rate. uch materials provide adeuatechemical resistance to most liuids. Ho!ever, !here surfaces

may be e;posed to strong acids for longer periods, acidresistant coatings such as phenolic resins should be used.

:are must be taken in the design of the bund !all to !ithstandthe dynamic loads upon bund !alls !hen a large liuid releaseoccurs. revious practices have been to design bunds to!ithstand only the hydrostatic load !ithin the tank from !hich itis released. It has been estimated that the dynamic load at the

base of the bund !all may be si; times this hydrostaticpressure.

8here bunds are particularly deep, consideration !ill need tobe given to buoyancy forces !hen filling !ith liuid. !hich maycause catastrophic failure of the tank and associated pipe!ork.

urther consideration of the design of bunds is included in the+echnical /easures 4ocument on econdary :ontainment.

Drana"e4splla"es

(uildings and structures should be designed to deal !ithflammable and to;ic liuid spillages. It is normal to provide 0

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separate effluent systems i.e. open drainage channels?se!ersfor clean storm !ater run%off, a closed domestic se!er and aclosed se!er for aueous effluent. +he reuirement for storm!ater drains is covered above.

Aueous effluent systems should be designed to preventspread of haBardous liuids and vapors around the site. +his isparticularly important for volatile and?or non%!ater miscibleflammable substances !hich may find sources of ignition somedistance from the origin of the spill. @un%off from plant areasshould be directed to interceptors or sumps !hich may provideseparation of non%!ater miscible substances and samplingprior to discharge. :onsideration should be given to)

• 7eutraliBation prior to dischargeG

• 4ischarge to drums or standby tanks for disposal or re%

useG

• Level measurement?alarms to detect spillagesG

• :leaning of sumps to prevent build up of solidsG

• rotection against freeBingG

• +he use of appropriate materials of construction forsumps, floors and drainage channels.

In most instances standard materials of construction i.e.concrete, brick!ork !ill be adeuate. Ho!ever !here strongacids are likely to be present for prolonged periods,consideration should be given to the use of acid resistantcoatings. +his should be e;tended to protection of structuralsteel!ork that may be e;posed to corrosive liuids and vapors.

ASIGNMENT AUTOCAD 1

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