Breaking Down the Argument

ARGUMENT

HOW NOT TO ARGUE…

PARTS OF AN ARGUMENT

• An argument has two basic parts:

• Claims—the ideas that writers want us to believe or act on

• Evidence—the reasoning based on facts, emotional appeals designed to affect our feelings, and ethical appeals based on trusting the writer’s credibility and motives

PARTS OF AN ARGUMENT (CONT.)

Strong written arguments should include counterarguments and refutations.

• Counterargument—the oppositions’ position on the topic.

• Refutation—The writer’s response to the counterargument.

Important! As you’re writing the persuasive essay, make sure you:

• Pull in the key counterargument(s) to your argument.

—AND—

• Offer a refutation those counterarguments to strengthen your overall argument and make your readers more likely to be persuaded by the argument.

OUTLINE OF AN PERSUASIVE ESSAYTake a look at the sample persuasive essay on pages 72-75 in your book to see how this writer approaches the essay.

There is another persuasive essay on pages 229-234 at the end of the MLA section, if you’d like to look at another example

TOUMLIN ARGUMENT

• Model for an argument, developed by Stephen Toumlin

• Argument has three basic parts:• The claim is the assertion, or thesis, being proved in the work.

• The support is the evidence the author provides to convince the audience of his/her claim, such as facts, examples, statistics, and expert testimony. This can also include appeals.

• The warrants are the underlying assumptions or beliefs behind the claim and support. They may or may not be stated.

TOUMLIN ARGUMENT

• Warrants

• Can act as links between the claim and the support

• Reflect our observations, our personal experience, and our participation in a culture

• They are often broad generalizations that can apply to a number of different situations (whereas the claim is specific)

• Most importantly, cultural associations vary.

• This is where you need to keep perspectives of others in mind. If you don’t, your audience members who operate under different assumptions than you do will automatically reject your argument.

TOUMLIN ARGUMENT EXAMPLE

Claim: Laws making marijuana illegal should be repealed.

Support: People should have the right to use any substance they wish.

Warrant: No laws should prevent citizens from exercising their rights.

• People may disagree about how much the government and laws should interfere with people’s lives.

TOUMLIN ARGUMENT EXAMPLE

Claim: Development will bring undesirable changes to the present way of life on the Eastern shore, a life of farming and fishing, peace and quiet.

Support: Developers will build express highways, condominiums, casinos, and nightclubs.

Warrant: A pastoral way of life of fishing and farming is superior to the way of life brought by expensive, fast-paced modern development.

• Is it better? Some may agree, while others believe in the benefits of modern development.

YOUR TURN…

• Claim: People should adopt a vegan diet (meat, egg, and dairy-free diet).

• Support:

• Warrant:

YOUR TURN…• Claim: People should adopt a vegan lifestyle.

• Support:

• You’ll slim down, be more energetic, and be healthier.

• No animals die for any meals that you eat.

• There are lots of alternatives to meat and dairy products available in most grocery stores.

• Vegan recipes are often less expensive than recipes with meat.

• The diet promotes heart health and can help prevent cancer and diabetes.

YOUR TURN…

• Claim: People should adopt a vegan lifestyle.

• Warrant:

• It’s healthier Is it always?

• It’s ethical and compassionate (emphasis on animal rights) Do you agree? There are varying opinions on this.

• It’s better for the environment Is it really?

APPEALS

• Appeals—a writer appeals to the audience in different ways in an effort to persuade them. These appeals play into the support for the argument.

• Three types:

• Logical

• Emotional

• Ethical

APPEALS (CONT.)

Logical—logical reasoning based on sound principals of inductive and deductive reasoning.

• The author has avoided logical fallacies

• The argument is based on factual evidence (facts cannot be disputed)

APPEALS (CONT.)

Emotional—that arouse the audience’s emotions: sympathy, patriotism, pride, anger, and other feelings based on values, beliefs, and motives. These are often description or narratives (stories about people).

• Emotions can be used to encourage your audience to support your ideas.

• However, be careful that your argument isn’t overly emotional. This can cause your audience to interpret your argument as a rant and/or see your ideas as less credible because they are overly influenced by emotion.

APPEALS (CONT.)

• Ethical appeals—based on the audience’s impressions, opinions, and judgments about the author making the argument; these judgments play into the author’s credibility. The ethical appeal is about the credibility of the author.

• Questions to consider:

• How does the author establish credibility?

• How does the author prove he/she is knowledgeable, trustworthy, and fair?

• What are the author’s credentials?

• Has the author provided counterarguments?

ETHICAL APPEALSOne example that may help is the “Letter from Birmingham Jail” by Martin Luther kind Jr. Martin Luther King Jr. understood the power of ethos (establishing credibility with the audience) full well. He was able to convey in writing a respect for subject and audience, an intelligence and superior degree of knowledge, that combined to create for him enormous credibility:

"His voice and moral stature were eloquent weapons in the fight for civil rights and integration in the 1960s" (Horner 51). In his "Letter from Birmingham Jail," King calmly explains to several priests, rabbis, and ministers in Birmingham who felt he was an "outside agitator," unwelcomed in their town, why he joined the protests in Birmingham. In the first paragraph, he uses an even, rational tone. He cites the Apostle Paul in the second paragraph.

These help to build King's ethical appeal within an audience that is very hostile toward his actions. "He leaves his readers with the firm impression that he is a person of intelligence, virtue and goodwill arguing a just cause and it is in his words, sentences, and allusions that King establishes his character" (Horner 54).

Adapted from: http://papyr.com/hypertextbooks/comp1/ethos.htm

PRACTICE• Let’s practice identifying appeals in an argument.

• The situation: You are arguing that there should be a law that prohibits drivers from using their cell phones while driving.

• On a piece a paper, jot down some examples for each kind of appeal that could be used in this argument.

PRACTICEAppeals Examples

Logical

Emotional

Ethical

Appeals Examples

Logical -Studies about dangers of cell phone use while driving-Studies on distraction-Studies on reaction times and multitasking-Studies the number of accidents caused from cell phone use-Driver safety manuals-Whether there are laws concerning cell phone use while driving

Emotional -Personal stories of loss from accidents caused by cell phone use while driving-Especially examples involving children

Ethical Using expert testimony:-Chief of Police-Paramedics-People in accidents caused by cell phone use while driving-Emergency responders-Your own experiences

Using credible , reliable sources of information (Department of Revenue, Traffic Safety Commission, scientific studies, etc.)Addressing the opposition (including counterarguments) and refutations

ROGERIAN ARGUMENT• Developed by Carl Rogers

• Goal of this model for using this model for argument is to bridge the conflict with opponents by finding common ground.

• Video on Rogerian Argument

Acknowledges Opposition

•The author acknowledges some of the opponent’s arguments

Presents Claim

•Then, the author explains his/her point of view

Finds Common Ground

• The author moves toward a final position that involves compromise and agreement

LOGICAL FALLACIES

Logical fallacies are poor logic, and they should be avoided.

• If there are logical fallacies in your argument, it will weaken the argument, which will make you less likely to persuade your audience.

Hasty Generalization - A conclusion reached with too few examples or with examples that are not representative.

• Example: A man suffering from depression murdered people at his place of work. Therefore, all people with depression are potentially dangerous.

LOGICAL FALLACIES

LOGICAL FALLACIES

Ad Hominem - Attacking the individual instead of the argument.

• Example: You are so stupid your argument couldn't possibly be true.

• Example: I figured that you couldn't possibly get it right, so I ignored your comment.

Post hoc, ergo propter hoc—Latin for “after this, therefore because of this.” When one event is followed by another event, and people mistakenly assume that the first event caused the second.

• Example: A new solar field was connected, and then power went out in the city. Precautions need to be taken when new forms of energy are added to the grid.

LOGICAL FALLACIES

LOGICAL FALLACIES

Appeal to Pity - Urging the hearer to accept the argument based upon an appeal to emotions, sympathy, etc. Example: You owe me big time because I really stuck my neck out for you.

• Example: A BBC News article, ”Jurors shown graphic 9/11 images,” gives another clear example of an appeal to pity:

“A US jury has been shown graphic images of people burned to death in the 11 September 2001 attack on the Pentagon. The jurors will decide whether al-Qaeda plotter Zacarias Moussaoui should be executed or jailed for life… Prosecutors hope such emotional evidence will persuade the jury to opt for the death penalty.”

Bandwagon Appeal- Urging the hearer to accept a position because a majority of people hold to it.

• Example: The majority of people think something is a good idea. Therefore, it is a good idea.

• Remember, even if 50 million people believe in a fallacy, it’s still a fallacy.

LOGICAL FALLACIES (CONT.)

Straw Man: One side of the argument is presented as so extreme that no one will agree with it. Often this is done by referring to the exception, rather than the rule, and inferring that the exception is the rule.

Examples:

• “All PETA supporters support the bombing or destruction of laboratories.”

• “If you surrender your freedoms, the terrorists have already won. You don’t want that, do you?”

• “Hitler supported gun control, you know.”

LOGICAL FALLACIES (CONT.)

LOGICAL FALLACIES (CONT.)

Cause and Effect - Assuming that the effect is related to a cause because the events occur together. Just because two events happen together, that doesn’t mean they are related.

• Example: When the rooster crows, the sun rises. Therefore, the rooster causes the sun to rise.

• Example: When the fuel light goes on in my car, I soon run out of gas. Therefore, the fuel light causes my car to run out of gas.

Appeal to Tradition - Trying to get someone to accept something because it has been done or believed for a long time.

• Example: This is the way we've always done it. Therefore, it must be the best way.

• Remember, just because it’s the way something has always been done it doesn’t mean it’s logical.

LOGICAL FALLACIES (CONT.)

LOGICAL FALLACIES (CONT.)

Circular Argument—Argument goes in circles because the claim and evidence have the same meaning.

• Example: Bob Smith is the most successful mayor the town has ever had because he's the best mayor of our history.

LOGICAL FALLACIES (CONT.)Non Sequitur - Comments or information that do not logically follow from a premise or the conclusion.

Examples:

• It rained today because I washed my car.

• If you do not buy this type of pet food, you are neglecting your dog.

• The administration must know where the WMDs are, or they wouldn’t have sent American troops into look for them.