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APEH ch 15.notebook 1 October 17, 2013 Chapter 15 18th Century Europe Netherlands The United Provinces of the Netherlands became independent after winning its war against Philip II of Spain in the 1580s. Spain did not recognize its independence until the Peace of Westphalia of 1648. Later in the 17th century France became its great rival, along with England at times. It was the only great power which was a republic. It was very decentralized, as each province was selfgoverning. There was absolute freedom of religion, despite the Calvinist majority, for Jews and Catholics. The Dutch Republic had an enormous overseas trading empire. Private companies colonized territories (New Netherland in North America, some Caribbean islands, northeastern Brazil, South Africa, Ceylon, and the East Indies) around the world for profit. Within Europe, the Dutch dominated shipping. They carried goods like textiles, grain, lumber, dried fish, and whale products between all European ports. The most important banks in Europe were in the Netherlands. The first stock market in the world was established in Amsterdam. The Netherlands was the most urbanized country in Europe, as most Dutch lived in cities. Its economy was dominated by trade, finance, manufacturing, and shipping. Dutch agriculture was very intensive and land was carefully managed, as much of it is below sea level. Its focus was on highly profitable pursuits like cattle (for cheese) and flowers.

Transcript of APEH ch 15.notebookmiamikillianhs.enschool.org/ourpages/auto/2013/8/15... · 2013. 8. 15. · APEH...

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Chapter 15 18th Century EuropeNetherlands

• The United Provinces of the Netherlands became independent after winning its war against Philip II of Spain in the 1580s. Spain did not recognize its independence until the Peace of Westphalia of 1648. Later in the 17th century France became its great rival, along with England at times.• It was the only great power which was a republic. It was very decentralized, as each province was self­governing. There was absolute freedom of religion, despite the Calvinist majority, for Jews and Catholics.• The Dutch Republic had an enormous overseas trading empire. Private companies colonized territories (New Netherland in North America, some Caribbean islands, northeastern Brazil, South Africa, Ceylon, and the East Indies) around the world for profit. Within Europe, the Dutch dominated shipping. They carried goods like textiles, grain, lumber, dried fish, and whale products between all European ports.• The most important banks in Europe were in the Netherlands. The first stock market in the world was established in Amsterdam.• The Netherlands was the most urbanized country in Europe, as most Dutch lived in cities. Its economy was dominated by trade, finance, manufacturing, and shipping. Dutch agriculture was very intensive and land was carefully managed, as much of it is below sea level. Its focus was on highly profitable pursuits like cattle (for cheese) and flowers.

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France• Louis XV (r. 1715­1774) assumed the throne at age 5, and so there was a long regency. Nobles were able to regain some of their power and influence, and parlements reasserted their independence from royal power. Debts from the wars of Louis XIV remained a problem, as France never reformed its feudal tax system.• Louis XV grew up to be a mediocre and hedonistic king, interested only in hunting and his mistresses. He was indifferent to reigning and his responsibilities as king.

Great Britain• The House of Hanover assumed the throne in 1714 due to the Act of Settlement. Between 1714 and 1837, the British king was therefore also the ruler of Hanover.• Parliament was the ultimate sovereign, but it was not a democratic body. The House of Lords was unelected, and the House of Commons was elected solely by property owners. Some boroughs had very few voters, or even only one.• Parliament was dominated by two parties. The Tories were the landowning nobility and favored a strong monarchy and the Church of England. The Whigs included urban commercial and manufacturing interests and favored a strong Parliament and tolerance for all Protestants.

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• The office of prime minister was established during this time. He was the head of the government and led Parliament. The first prime minister was Robert Walpole, appointed in 1721.• Even though most people could not vote, public opinion still played a role in British politics. People could demonstrate and criticize their leaders, as Britain had freedom of speech and of the press. • The British nobility controlled Parliament, and Parliament, not the King, imposed taxes, so everyone paid taxes. This meant the British government could pay its expenses, including for warfare. In the long run, this will make Britain stronger than France, where the nobility and Church were tax­exempt.

Central and Eastern Europe• These states did not have overseas colonies. Their economies were much more agricultural than in the West. Serfdom still prevailed. Governments were weaker (more decentralized and less bureaucratic). Their populations were more diverse and there was less of a sense of national identity. Borders changed frequently. If there was any sense of loyalty, it was to a ruler, not to a nation.

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Sweden• Sweden controlled most of the Baltic after 1648, but poor leadership, a declining economy (based on iron mining) and disastrous wars led to Sweden's decline. Prussia took its German territory, and Russia took the eastern Baltic coast.

Ottoman Empire• In the 16th and 17th centuries the Ottoman Empire had been a fearsome and powerful empire. It ruled much of southeastern Europe and the Black Sea coast. Ottoman armies even besieged Vienna twice.• In the 18th century, however, it fell behind the rest of Europe. It weakened economically, as it did not participate in overseas trade. It did not develop modern bureaucratic structures. It did not participate in the Scientific Revolution and fell behind technologically. It lost Black Sea territory to Russia, and Hungary and other Balkan territories to Austria.

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Poland• Poland was a very large kingdom, but it was almost entirely agricultural and feudal, relying on the export of grain. It was very decentralized, with power in the hands of its lords. Poland had an elective monarchy, and so its kings had to respect the power of the nobles. Kings were often foreign. Nobles dominated Poland's Diet, but it operated through consensus, so it was very ineffective.• Weak Poland would fall victim to the ambitions of its stronger neighbors, which had more effective armies and governments. During the 18th century Poland was partitioned three times by Austria, Prussia, and Russia, until it disappeared from the map.

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Austria• Austria was ruled by the Hapsburgs, who still held the title of Holy Roman Emperor. Austria was a collection of very diverse domains, each with its own language, laws, political status, and economy.• The Hapsburg dynasty died out in the male line in 1740, and Austria followed Salic Law. Emperor Charles VI had to make an exception in order to allow his daughter to succeed him. All the different Hapsburg domains agreed to the Pragmatic Sanction, which allowed Maria Theresa to succeed her father.  

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Prussia• It began as the Electorate of Brandenburg, with its capital in Berlin. It began to acquire scattered territories in northern Germany, including Prussia, through war (especially the Thirty Years' War) and inheritance. It was ruled by the Hohenzollern dynasty.• Prussia became a great power under Frederick William, known as the Great Elector (r. 1640­1688). Prussian landowning nobles were called Junkers, and the Great Elector made a strong state and military by coopting the Junker class. The Junkers retained ownership of their lands, and control over their serfs, but in return they served the state as bureaucrats or army officers, and they paid taxes.• Conscription was introduced, which was almost unique in Europe at that time, in order to build up the army. Prussia had one of the largest armies in Europe as a result, and it became a very militarized society. Even its rulers wore military uniforms. Prussia was "an army with a state, rather than a state with an army." Prussia was able to expand at the expense of Sweden, Poland, and even Austria.• Under the Great Elector's son, Prussia became a kingdom.

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Russia• Russians, a Slavic and Orthodox people, were long isolated from the rest of Europe. Russia had been under Mongol rule. It did not experience the Renaissance, the Reformation, the Scientific Revolution, or overseas expansion.• Russia's relationship with the rest of Europe between the 15th and 17th centuries involved limited trade through its ports on the Arctic Ocean, which were frozen much of the year. Its most important exports were furs and lumber. Russia was otherwise diplomatically isolated, and did not participate in European conflicts.• Russia was ruled by a tsar, who claimed to be an absolute monarch. In reality, the tsar's power was limited by the landowning nobility, the boyars, who controlled Russia's serf majority. After 1613 tsars were members of the Romanov dynasty.

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• The ambition of Tsar Peter I "the Great" (r. 1682­1725) was to make Russia more modern in order to make it stronger militarily and to enhance his power as absolute monarch. He had no intention of introducing political representation for any social classes. • He reduced the power of the boyars by coopting them. They had to serve the state as bureaucrats or military officers in order to preserve their status. He created the Table of Ranks, which determined a boyar's rank according to his service to the state. The boyars even had to change their appearance in order to play the role of a European noble. They had to adopt European dress and were forced to shave their long beards, and were expected to reside in the new capital.• He made the Orthodox Church a branch of the state bureaucracy, like the Anglican and Lutheran churches. • He established a new capital city, Saint Petersburg, on the Baltic coast, which made it much more accessible to the rest of Europe. It was meant to be Russia's "window on the West." The city was designed and built by French and Italian architects to look European, not Russian.• Peter strengthened and modernized the Russian army. He introduced conscription and introduced European technology and training. Factories were built to manufacture weapons. A navy was established. He fought wars to expand Russian territory. The Great Northern War (1700­1721)against Sweden led to Russia's conquest of the Baltic coast, and a war against the Ottoman Empire led to Russia's acquisition of its first outlet to the Black Sea.