A White Paper for Your Housing Group - HACT · The physical form of a space directs use and...

Social Sustainability

A White Paper for Your Housing Group

December2015

SocialSustainability AwhitepaperforYourHousingGroup

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Introduction

Socialhousingprovidersoftendiscussthevariousfunctionstheyperformbeyondthecoreprovisionofhousing.Theseoftenincludedebtadvice,supporttohelptheirtenantsgetintoemployment,volunteeringopportunities,careandsupportservicesforvulnerabletenants,aswellasworkingcloselywithotherlocalserviceprovidersonarangeofotheractivitiesforlocalcommunities.Housingprovidersstrivetobuildcommunitiesthatarestrongandvibrant,aswellascommunitieswherepeoplewanttolive(andwanttocontinueliving),wherepeopleforgetieswiththeirneighbours,wherepeopleareincluded,wheretheyfeelasenseofprideandownership,andwherepeopleinvest(andfeelinvested)intheirownneighbourhoods.

Akeyquestionforsocialhousingprovidersisthereforecentredonthenotionofcreatingsociallysustainablecommunities.Thepurposeofthispaperistoclarifytheconceptof‘socialsustainability’sothathousingproviderswillbeabletodetermine(fromapositioninformedbyevidence)theelementsofsocialsustainabilitytheycanpositivelyaffectintheneighbourhoodsandcommunitiesinwhichtheywork.Wewillexplorethewaysthatsocialsustainabilityisdefinedindifferentcontexts,thewaysthatitcanbeapplied,andtheelementstoconsiderwhencuratingsociallysustainablecommunities,aswellaspotentialmetricsformeasuringsocialsustainability.

Defining Social Sustainability

Theterm‘sustainability’isoftenusedtorefertoenvironmentalorecologicalsustainabilityspecifically;however,withmanychallengingtheprimacyoftheenvironmentinsustainability,‘socialsustainability’isemergingasanincreasinglyimportanttheme(TurkingtonandSangster,2006;Valanceetal,2011).

TheUN’sdefinitionofsustainabilityisperhapsthemostfamousandwidelycited:‘[s]ustainabledevelopmentisdevelopmentthatmeetstheneedsofthepresentwithoutcompromisingtheabilityoffuturegenerationstomeettheirownneeds’(UNWCED,1987:43).TheEUBristolAccordoffersamorenuanceddefinitionofsustainablecommunitiesas:

Placeswherepeoplewanttoliveandwork,nowandinfuture.Theymeetthediverseneedsofexistingandfutureresidents,aresensitivetotheirenvironment,andcontributetoahighqualityoflife.Theyaresafe,inclusive,wellplanned,builtandrun,andofferequalityofopportunityandgoodservicesforall.(ODPM,2006:12)


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Attheheartofboththesedefinitionsisthenotionof‘liveability’,whichisundoubtedlykeytosocialsustainability(Godschalk,2004).Asustainablecommunityisoneinwhichnotonlyarepeopleabletolivesuccessfully,but‘actuallywanttolive’(Valanceetal,2011:345,italicsadded).Thatbeingsaid,weshouldnotendeavourtopindowntopreciseadefinitionforsustainability.Socialsustainabilityisbestunderstoodnotasasingleconcept,butratheranamalgamationofintersectingelements(Valanceetal,2011).Theseelementswillbepresentedandunpackedinthefollowingsection.

Likewise,socialsustainabilitydoesnotimplyaspecificlevelofinvestigation;onecouldtalkofsocialsustainabilityatneighbourhood,local,regionalornationallevel.Forthepurposesofthispaper,socialsustainabilitywillbeconsideredattheneighbourhoodlevelforanumberofreasons.Firstly,recentpolicyandacademicliteraturehasconsideredtheneighbourhoodasanimportantsitefortheconsiderationofsustainability(ForrestandKearns,2001;Dempseyetal,2009)

Secondly,theneighbourhoodisthelevelmostwithinthepurviewofthispaperasaconsiderationoftheroleofhousingprovidersincreatingsociallysustainablecommunities.Socialsustainabilityatregionalornationallevelisinfluencedbythingssuchasmacro-economics,migrationandgovernmentpolicy.Whilstsomelargernationalhousingassociationsmaybeabletoinfluencesuchthings,manywillnot.Forthisreason,theliteraturediscussedwillbedrawnlessfromeconomicsandmorefromsubjectssuchasgeography,anthropologyandsociology,whichfocusmoreonlocal,communitylevel.

Therearetwoconceptswithinsocialsustainabilitytoconsider:‘community’and‘space’–whatconstitutesa‘community’andhowdopeopleinteractinthe‘space’ofcommunities.


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Community

Thenotionof‘community’isoneofthosetermswhichweintrinsicallyunderstand,yetturnsouttobemoreamorphouswhenwetrytodefineitorconsideritsconstituentparts(JenksandDempsey,2007).Certainlythereisaterritorialelementtoit;communityishardtodivorcefromitsgeographicalsetting(Blackman,2006;Dempseyetal,2009):a‘communityisthatcollectivitythemembersofwhichshareacommonterritorialareaastheirbaseofoperationsfordailyactivities’(Parsons,1991:60).

However,itismorethanmerelyagroupofpeoplelivinginanarea;bothsociologyandanthropologytendtoconsidercommunityassomethingmore.Theremustbea‘collectiveconscience’:ageneralsharedsenseofbelonging,normsandbeliefsthattiespeopletogether.Thesecollectivefeelingsexistabovetheindividual,heldbynoonepersoninparticular,butthecommunityingeneral(Durkheim,1997).

Thismeansthatacommunitycansustainmembershipchangewithoutlosingitscharacter,asthecollectivebeliefsrelyonnoonememberinparticular.Forexample,atitsmostbasiclevel,agroupofthreecanbeacommunity,asitcouldcopewithonepersonleavingandstillbeabletomaintainitscharacter;twocannotconstituteacommunitybecauseitcouldnotsustainonepersonleaving,whilstmaintainingitscollectivecharacter(SimmelandWolff,1950).

Therefore,acommunitycanbeunderstoodasagroupofpeoplelivingtogetherinanareaandsharingasenseofcollectivitybuiltuponcommonbeliefsandnorms.Aswellasbeingimportantforunderstandinghowtheliteraturetofollowconceivesofcommunity,thisisalsopotentiallyapointofinterestforhousingassociations,manyofwhichdedicateagreatdealofresourceintocommunityinvestment.Ifcommunityisthoughtofasconsistingofthesesharednormsandbeliefs,aswellasthecollectionofpeoplewhoshareageographicallocation,communityinvestmentmayalsocometobeseenasawaytoencourageorimprovethissharedidentity,aswellasimprovingindividuals’lives.Thiscouldmeanfocussinginvestmentonactivitiesthathavesecondarybenefitsofbringingresidentstogether,suchasgroupeventsorpeerlearning.Agoodexampleofthelatterwouldbe‘digitalchampions’,thatmanyhousingassociationshaveaspartoftheirdigitalinclusionschemes,wherebydigitallysavvyresidentshelplessableresidents(forexample,OyamaandalHarbi,2004).


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Space

Therearevariouswaysofthinkingaboutthe‘space’ofacommunity.Onecouldthinkofspaceassimplytheplaceinwhichpeoplegoabouttheiractivities.Inotherwords,merelyavesselinwhichthingshappen.However,wefavourthedefinitionmoreoftenfoundinthesocialsciences,ofspaceasacombinationofmaterialfactorsandsocialfactors–spacesbothinfluenceandareinfluencedbythepeoplewithinthem.Forexample,Lefebvre(1991)discussesthe‘socialproductionofspace’,wherebyspacesgainmeaningfromhowtheyareusedandperceivedbypeople,asmuchasfromtheirphysicalform.Similarly,Low(2008)usestheterm‘synthesis’todescribehowpeopleknittogetherthevariousphysicalelementsoftheirenvironmentthroughuse,andtakesanareafromacollectionofphysicalformstoanactualspace.Inbothconceptions,therelationshipbetweenpeopleandspaceissymbiotic.Thephysicalformofaspacedirectsuseandmeaning,whilstsimultaneouslypeopleimposetheirownuseandmeaningonthespacesimplythroughtheireverydayacts.

Understandingthatthisishowspacesexist,notasemptyvesselsforpeoplebutasbothforming,andbeingformedby,people’sactionsiscentraltounderstandingmuchoftheliteraturethatistofollowinthispaper.Moreover,itisrelevanttohousingassociationsdirectly.Ifthegoalistocreatesociallysustainablecommunitiesitiscertainlyimportanttounderstandtherelationshipbetweencommunitiesandthespacewhichtheyinhabit.Understandinghowacommunityoperatesandinteractswithspaceiswillgiveabetterunderstandingofhowtoeffectivelychangethatspaceinsuchawayastoencourageoutcomesdesiredbythehousingassociation.Forexample,asweshallsee,asenseofattachmentisanimportantelementofsocialsustainability,butitwouldbeimpossibletomakeanychangestoengenderthiswithoutfirstunderstandinghowspaceworks.

Seeingspaceasanactiveagent,ratherthanapassivevessel,ineverydaylifeopensthedoortoamorenuancedengagementwiththephysicalformofacommunity,whichasweshallsee,runsthroughalltheelementsofsocialsustainability.


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Elements of Social Sustainability

Asmentionedpreviously,whilst‘liveability’couldbepinpointedascentraltosocialsustainability,itwouldbebettertounpacktheconceptratherthanaimforasingledefinition.Thereareanumberofelementsthatcontributetoacommunitybeingsociallysustainable(Dempseyetal,2009).Whilst,forclarity,thesewillbepresentedseparately,theyshouldnotbeunderstoodasdiscreet.Aswillbedemonstrated,theyarelargelyinterlinked.

Social Equity

Acommunitywithhighlevelsofinequalityisnotasustainableone;atitscoresocialequityisaboutjusticeandequality.Anequitablesocietyisoneinwhichtherearenobarrierstoparticipationeconomically,sociallyorpolitically(Dempseyetal,2009).

Thereisageneralconsensusaroundtheservicesandamenitiestowhicharesidentneedsaccesstobeabletofullyparticipate:doctororGP;PostOffice;chemist;supermarket;bankorbuildingsociety;cornershop;primaryschool;restaurant,caféortakeaway;pub;library;sportsorrecreationfacility;communitycentre;facilityforchildren;publicandopengreenspaces(Dempseyetal,2009).Tothesewecouldalsoaddaccesstoemploymentopportunities,publictransportandaffordable,secure,goodqualityhousing(Bramleyetal,2009).Therefore,asustainablecommunityisoneinwhichallresidentsareabletoaccessallofthese,withnobarriers.Barrierscantaketwoforms:geographicalandsocial.

Geographicalbarriersareperhapsthosethatcometomindmostreadily.Thisisexpressedinareasofdeprivationorinequitableaccesstoservicesandamenities.Geographicalbarrierscanbeliteralphysicalbarriers,suchasawalls,buildings,ormajorroad,whichpeoplecannotcrosstogettowheretherequiredserviceoramenityiscreated,or“psycho-geographical”,wherebypeoplearetheoreticallyphysicallyabletocrossabarrierbutfeeldiscouragedfromdoingso(Debord,1958).Tothisend,asustainablecommunitymustbe‘porous’(Sennett,nodate).Thatis,residentsmustbefreelyabletomoveacrossurbanborders,whetherthatbeintobuildings,publicspaceorotherneighbourhoods,inordertoaccesstheservicesandamenitiestheyneed.

Therearealsosocialbarrierstoaccessthatareequallyimportant.Removingphysicalconstraintsdoesnotnecessarilygiveanindividualfreedomtoactivelyparticipate(Fromm1941;Berlin,1958).Awell-knownexampleofthisisinhealthcare,whereethnicminoritiesarelesslikelytoaccesshealthserviceseveniftheyhaveeasygeographicalaccess,becausetheymaylackthe‘linguisticcompetence’orthe‘culturalcompetence’(Szczepura,2005).


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Intermsofaddressingthesepoints,thereareanumberoftangiblethingsthatahousingassociationcoulddo.Firstly,clearlybeforeworryingaboutsocialorpsychogeographicalbarrierstoaccess,physicalaccessmustbeprovided.Thismeansthepreviouslymentionedessentialservicesandamenitiesmustbelocatedincloseproximitytothecommunityinquestion,or,wherethisisnotpossible,accesstocommunitytransportshouldbeavailabletoeasilytravelthere.Equallyimportantwouldbetoidentifywhereexistingservicesareatriskofclosureandhelpcommunitiesmaintainthem,forexamplebyfacilitatingthecommunitytotakeoveralocalpuborcafé.

Oncephysicalaccessisensured,psychogeographicalbarrierscanbetackled.Debord(1958)explainsthatthewishtotakecertainroutesoverothersisbasedonourbrain’sunconsciousperceptionoftheenvironment.Therefore,theporosityofanareacanbeimprovedbyremovingordiscouragingthingsthatcreatenegativeperceptionsandencouragingorenablingthosethatcreatepositiveones.

Thechiefinstigatorsofnegativepsychogeographicalperceptionsareanti-socialbehaviour,vandalismandgraffiti,whichallcreateanegativeperceptionofthesafetyofanarea.Positivesincludewell-maintainedhomesandpublicspaces,andgeneralneighbourhoodcleanliness(RossandMirowski,1999).Therefore,routesviawhichresidentscanaccesstheservicesandamenitiesdiscussedpreviouslyshouldreflectthis.Ensuringthattheseroutesareclean,pleasant,wellmaintainedandthattheyfeelsafewillmeanresidentsfeelableandarewillingtowalkthroughthem,thusremovingorminimisinganypsychogeographicalbarrierstoserviceaccess.

Itisalsoimportanttoaddresssocialbarriers;allgroupsinthecommunitymustbeprovidedwiththelinguisticandculturalcompetencetoaccessservices.ThismeansprovidinglanguageclassesforthosewhoseEnglishisinsufficient.Italsomeansmakingsurethatallgroupsareaccessingtheavailableadviceandguidance.Likewise,housingprovidersdonotnecessarilyneedtodeliveralloftheseservicesthemselves;manyhousingassociationsreferresidentstootherserviceprovidersinthelocalareatoensureESOLclassesareprovidedforresidents.Housingassociationsshouldmakesuretheircommunityandoutreachworkisreachingalldemographics,andifitisnot,shouldspecificallytargetthosewhoarebeingmissed.Anotherelementofsocialbarriersiscost;theservicesandamenitiesneedtobeaffordableforallinthecommunity.

Social Capital

Socialcapitalissomewhatlinkedtothediscussionofsocialbarrierstoaccess,andequallyrunsthroughmanyoftheelementstofollow.Asanimportantpartofsustainability(ForrestandKearns2001),socialcapitalcanbesummedupas‘whoyouknow’–anindividualwithlotsofsocialcapitalisonewhocanwieldtheirsocialconnectionstogainaccesstodesirableorvaluablepeople,networks,groupsorinstitutions,andcanusethistoadvancetheirownambitions.Socialcapitalisnotphysical,


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but‘existsintherelationsamongpersons’(Coleman,1988,p101).Themostcommonlycitedexampleofthisisthe‘oldboysnetwork’thatallowscertainpeopletoaccesscareerssuchaspolitics,financeorlaw,whilstlockingoutotherswhodonothavetherightconnections(Bourdieu,1986).

Themoresocialcapitalacommunityhas(bothasawholecommunityandasindividuals),themoresociallysustainableitwillbe.Highsocialcapitalmakesreciprocityandspontaneouscooperation(Putnam,1993)amongstcommunitymembersmorelikely,andthereforecreatesamorecohesivecommunity.Hence,itiswidelyfeltthatsocialcapitalisadesirablesocialgood(ForrestandKearns,2001).

Fortunately,socialcapitalcanbeengineered.Whilstindividualscannotbedirectlygivensocialcapital,institutions(forinstance,ahousingassociation)caninvestincreatingsocialcapitalbyrunningformalgroupsoreventsthatbringpeopletogetherandthereforeallowattendeestomakeconnectionsandaccruesocialcapital(SanderandLowney,2006).Thereareafewwaysthiscouldbeachieved-forexample,throughvolunteeringorcommunitychampionsschemes.Similarly,housingassociationscouldfacilitate‘timebanking’,whereresidentstradeportionsoftheirtimetooffertheirskillstoeachother,againbringingtogetherpeoplewhomaynototherwisemeet,aswellasmeetingresidents’needs.Thesemethodsallhavetheadvantageofreachingacrossartificialorsocialboundariesbybringingtogetherdiversepopulationsandpeopleofdifferentgenerations.

Whatevermethodischosen,thehousingassociationwouldhavetomakesurethatthesocialcapitalbeingcreatedisbeingdistributedequallyacrossthecommunity.Itisnogoodrunningschemeslikethosesuggestedifitisconsistentlythesamepeopleusingandleadingthem.Whateverschemesareimplemented,housingprovidersshouldendeavourtogetallmembersofthecommunityinvolved.Theseactivitiesshouldtakeplaceatvarioustimesandplacesthroughoutthecommunity,and,wherenecessary,housingprovidersmayneedtoactivelyencourageparticularpeopleandgroupstoparticipate.

Social Interaction, Collective Groups and Networks

Asdescribedpreviously,agroupofpeoplerequiressharedbeliefs,ideasorattitudestodeveloptobeconsideredacommunity.Socialinteractioniscrucialtothis–withoutinteractionthesesharedconceptsclearlycannotdevelop.Interactionalsoallowssocialnetworkstodevelop,whichsupportindividuals’valuesandidentitiesandarehencecivicsocietyitself(Dempseyetal,2009).

Therefore,socialtiesareextremelyimportanttosocialsustainability.However,thestrengthoftiesnaturallyvariesthroughoutacommunity(Dempseyetal,2009);acommunitywhereeverybodyhasstrongtiestoeverybodyelseisarareone.However,weakties–whatsomerefertoas‘sidewalk


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contacts’(Jacobs,1961)in‘spacesoftransit’(Amin,2002)–canbemoreimportantincreatingandmaintainingacommunitythanstrongones.Residentsbeingonfriendlytermswithabroadnumberofpeopleintheircommunityismoreconducivetoasociallysustainableneighbourhoodthanhavingasmallnumberofdeeperrelationships(Granovetter,1973).Ahousingassociationwishingtodevelopasustainablecommunitywouldcertainlyhavetoworktoengenderthesesocialties.Principally,therearetwowaysthiscouldbedone.

Thefirstisthroughurbanform.Neighbourhoodsthatarehigh-densityandmixed-use(inotherwordsnotsolelyresidential),withplentifulgoodqualityandaccessiblepublicspacearethoughtmostconducivetothis.High-densitymixed-useneighbourhoodscreatesocialtiesbyencouragingchanceinteractions(thepreviouslymentioned‘sidewalkcontacts’)betweenresidents,aspeopleareincloseproximitywitheachotherandcanwalktogetwhattheyneed(Jacobs,1961).Incontrast,low-densityresidentialdevelopments,wherethecarisnecessarytogetanywhere,generallyremoveordiscouragemostopportunitiesforinteractionwithothercommunitymembersandresidents.

Therefore,ahousingassociationshouldseektobuildthesehigh-densitymixed-useneighbourhoods,andbesuretoincludelotsofpubliccongregationspaceandconvergingroutesbetweenresidencesandamenities,tomaximisethechancesofinteractionandthustheformationofweakties.Itshouldalsobeensuredthatexistingpublicspaceisviewedinawaythatencouragespositiveuseofit.Forexample,communityeventscouldbeheldthatwillhelptocreatepositiveassociationsandimagesofthespaceforlocalresidents,whichinturnencouragesmorepositiveusage.

Sucheventswouldalsofulfilthesecondmethod:participationincollectivegroups.Whetherthegroupsareformalorinformal,participationbringstogethercommunitymembersandthusincubatessocialties(Dempseyetal,2009).Tothisend,housingassociationsshouldruncommunityeventsandpushstronglytogetasmanypeopleinvolvedaspossible.Thesecouldbeformalevents,butequallyeffectivecouldbesimplyfacilitatinginformalgroups.Forexample,providingaspaceforresidentstoplaysporttogether,orfacilitatingthesettingupandadvertisementofsharedinterestgroups.Anothersimple,butlikelyquiteeffective,changeahousingassociationcouldmakewouldbeto,whereverpossible,deliverinterventionsandservicesinagroupformat,asopposedtoone-to-onework.

AcaveattothisisthatevidencefromtheUnitedStatessuggeststhatthereisastrongnegativecorrelationbetweencommutetoandfromworkandinvolvementinthelocalcommunity(Putnam,2000).Therefore,attemptstogetpeopleinvolvedincollectivegroupsmusttakethisintoaccount.Forexample,investmentincreatinglocalemploymentopportunitiescouldhavethesecondarybenefitofboostingcommunityparticipation.Similarly,ahousingassociationshouldmakesurethatthereareplentyofeventsandgroupsthatrunduringtheeveningsandparticularlyattheweekends


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forthosewhoareunabletotakepartduringtheday,ordon’twishtoaftercommutinghomefromwork.

Community Stability

Acommunityrequireswell-established,long-termresidentsinordertobesustainable(Silburnetal,1999).Thisisbecauserelationships(orsocialcapital),socialnetworksandsocialgroupsneedtobebuiltupovertime,andcanonlybemaintainedwithacriticalmassofpeopletoperpetuatethem.Thatbeingsaid,acertainamountofpopulationturnoverishealthyforacommunity,asnewpeoplebringnewideas,relationshipsandconnections(KearnsandForrest,2000).Nevertheless,lowturnoverisgenerallyregardedasapositivesocialquality(Power,2004).

Fromahousingassociationpointofviewthisemphasisestheimportanceofacoreoflong-termresidents.Thepreviousthreeelementsrealisticallycanonlybeachievedonanyscaleinacommunitythathasasolidfoundationoflong-termresidents(oratleast,residentswhointendtoputdownroots).Thesearetheresidentswhowillviewthecommunityastheirhomeandthereforemakeanefforttoinvolvethemselvesingroups.Moreover,associalcapitalandnetworkscanonlydevelopovertime,throughrepeatedinteraction,acommunitythathastootransientapopulationwillstruggletodevelopeither.

Tothisend,ahousingassociationwouldwanttoreallyfocusonmakingsureitscommunitiesretainresidentsbybeingplacespeoplewishtostay,ratherthanbeingsuitableonlyforparticularlifestages(Dempseyetal,2009).Thisisofcourseisavirtuouscycle.Themoreresidentswishtostaylong-termandbeinvestedinthecommunity,themoresociallysustainablethecommunitybecomes,andthemoreitwillbeappealingassomewheretostaylong-term.

Intermsofhowahousingassociationcanencouragecommunitystability,thebiggestfactoristhesocio-economicstatusofthecommunity.EvidencefromtheNetherlandssuggestspeoplearemuchlesslikelytofeellikeleavingacommunitythatisimprovingitssocio-economiccondition,whilstmorepeopletendtoleavethosecommunitiesshroudedinaperceptionofdecreasingstatus(FeijtenandvanHam,2009).Therefore,thebestthingaHousingassociationcandotocreatecommunitiesinwhichpeoplewishtoremainistohelpthosecommunitiesimprovetheperceptionoftheireconomicstatus,byhelpingasmanyaspossibleintogood,securework.Supportinglocalsocialenterprisesandhelpingresidentswhowishtostarttheirownbusinesseswouldalsohelpcreatetheperceptionofacommunityimprovingitssocio-economicstatus,andthusbesomewherepeoplewishtostay.


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Theothermajorinterventionthatcouldbedoneistoensurecommunitiesarebalancedacrossallagedemographics.Thisisbecausethestrongestindicatorofhighturnoverisayoungpopulation:neighbourhoodswithahighproportionofyoungadults(nineteentotwenty-nine)aremuchmorelikelytoexperiencehighturnover(BaileyandLivingston,2007).Thisisunsurprising,sincethisagerangerepresentsperhapsthemosttransitoryinlife,generallyencompassingsomeorallofthefollowingmajorlifechanges:leavingeducation,leavingthefamilyhome,embarkingonacareerandstartingafamily.Thuspeopleinthisagerangeareofnecessitythemosttransitoryinspatialterms,needingtomovetoaccommodatethesechanges.

Therefore,itwouldbeundesirabletohaveaneighbourhoodtoodominatedbypeopleinthisagerange,andahousingassociationwishingtocreateasustainablecommunitywouldhavetobeconsciousoftheageprofileofitscommunitiesandtrytoengineerabalancebetweenages.Thealternativeistotacklethenecessitytomove.Ifneighbourhoodsofferthenecessaryamenitiesandservicesforvariouslifestages,andthepossibilityofmovingintoabigger(orsmaller)propertyifnecessary,thepushtoleavethecommunitywhenchanginglifestagecouldberemovedorreduced(Dempseyetal,2009).

Pride/Sense of Place

Acommunitylackingasenseofprideorattachmenttoitsneighbourhoodwillstrugglemoretoengendercommunitystability,asitwillbealessattractiveplacetostayforalongerperiodoftime.

Attachmentcanrelatetoboththephysicalplaceandpeople,butalsotolesstangibleaspectssuchascommonnorms,beliefsorcollectivesenseofbelonging(KearnsandForest,2000)andthemeaningthatcanbeattachedtoaplaceinmemoriesandexperiences(Tonkiss,2005).Inordertostokethisattachmentinresidents,aplacemusthaveits‘ownorder,itsspecialensemble,whichdistinguishesitfromthenextplace’(Relph,1976:2).

Inshort,inorderforresidentstobeproudoforattachedtotheirneighbourhooditmustmeansomethingtothembeyondbeingtheplacetheylive.Thisiswhereourpreviouslydiscussedconceptionof‘space’ismostrelevant.Spaceisgivenmeaningbyhowpeopledecidetouseitandtheimagesandvaluestheyattachtoit.Therefore,inorderforasenseofplaceorattachmenttodevelop,communitiesmustbeallowedtoshapetheirownspace,todecideforthemselveshowitshouldlookandhowitisused.Inbeingallowedtodothis,theywillnaturallyinteractwitheachotherandthebuiltenvironment,andbegintogivemeaningtothephysicalformsoftheirneighbourhood.


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Sennett(2006;nd)proposes‘incompleteform’asapossiblewayforwardhere.Thisdoesnotmeancreatingbuildingsandpublicspacethatisliterallyunfinished,butrather‘lightarchitecture’-leavingbuiltformopentochangeandinterpretation,architecturethatisnotdeterministic.Thismeansbuildingsthatcanbeeasilyaddedtooralteredasrequiredfunctionchangesandpublicspacethatisadaptabletohowthecommunitywishestouseit,asopposedtobuildingstooarchitecturallyweddedtotheirinitialfunctionandpublicspacethatinsistsonacertainuse.

Architectureofthissortwouldallowcommunitiestoshapetheirphysicalenvironmentsuchthatitreflectedhowthecommunitysawitandwishedtouseit,andwouldthereforebeanexcellentwaytocreatethesenseofplacenecessaryforsocialsustainability.Fromahousingassociationpointofview,thismightexpressitselfinhousingthatisinternallyadaptable,allowingdwellingstochangeasfamilies’lifestageschange.Itmayincludesharedcommunitystructuresthatcanbeadaptedtomultipleusesbythecommunityandpublicspacewithnoparticularimplieduse.

Anotherpossibilityistoinvolvethecommunityinthedesignprocessitself.Thisshouldinvolvearangeofmethodsofengagement,asthereisnotgoingtobeonemethodthatsuitsallpeopleinallsituations.Theconsultationprocessmustbewellpublicisedandeventsmusttakeplaceatdifferenttimesofdayandindifferentlocations.Theactualmethodofengagementshouldbedictatedbythosetakingpart,andcrucially,communitymembersshouldbeabletoseetheimpactoftheirinvolvementinthefinaloutput,otherwisetheywillfeelapatheticabouttheprocess(RIBA,2011).RIBA(2011)givesanumberofexamplesofhowarchitecturefirmsusedcommunityengagementindesigningprojects,allofwhichahousingassociationwouldmostlikelybeabletodo.NeighbourhoodPlanningisonewaythiscanbedone,withthehousingassociationsupportingthecommunitythroughtheprocessofexercisingtherighttodothis.

Safety and Security

Maslow’s(1954)‘hierarchyofneeds’placessafetyassecondonlytophysiologicalconcerns(hunger,thirst,etc.)intermsofimportancetotheindividual.Thishierarchyisequallyapplicabletocommunities.Withinaneighbourhood,safetyisabasicrequirementthatneedstobefulfilledbeforeanyotherelementsofsocialsustainabilitycanbeconsidered(Bartonetal,2003;Valanceetal,2011).Quiteclearly,nocommunitywhereresidentsfeelunsafeissociallysustainable.Highvisibilitywithintheneighbourhood(forexamplepublicspacethatisoverlookedbyhousing)isoftenseenasimportantinincreasingthefeelingofsafetyanddecreasingcrimeandvandalism(Jacobs,1961).Needlesstosay,tacklinganti-socialbehaviourandvandalismwillalsoincreasetheperceptionofaneighbourhoodassafe.


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Summary

Theelementsthatmakeupsocialsustainabilityare:

- Socialequity:communitieswheretherearenotgeographicorsocio-culturalbarrierstokeyservices.

- Socialcapital:theabilityofindividualstogetaccesstovaluablepeople,groupsorinstitutions.

- Socialinteraction,collectivegroupsandnetworksinthecommunity:communitymembershaveties(weakorstrong)withmanyothermembersofthecommunityandtakepartincollectiveactivities,formallyorinformally.

- Communitystability:acoreoflong-termresidentswhoarecommittedtoactiveinvolvementinthecommunity.

- Pride/senseofplace:communitymembersfeelasenseofattachmenttowheretheylive- Safetyandsecurity:communitymembersfeelfreefromworriesaboutthesafetyorsecurity

ofboththeirselvesandthecommunitymorebroadly.

Asmentionedpreviously,thesearenotdisconnectedelements;togethertheyaretheconstituentpartsofsocialsustainability,buttheyequallyaffectandinteractwitheachother.

Thinkingaboutsocialsustainabilityinthismodularwaymayproveuseful,asitmakesitmoretangible,withspecificgoalstoaimforwithintheconstituentelements,ratherthanthemoreabstractnotionofsocialsustainabilityasthegoalinitself.Thismayalsomeanitismorepossibletoquantifyandthereforemeasurethroughtheproxyofmeasuringindividualelements.

Measuring Social Sustainability

Thereareahandfulofexistingmethodstomeasuringsocialsustainability,allofwhichbroadlygetatthesameelementsoutlinedabove.Bramleyetal(2009)developedasetofmetricsbuildingupontheaboveelements.Eachelementwasbrokendownintoanumberoftopics,withresidentsaskedtogivenegative,neutralorpositiveresponsetovariousstatementsineachtopic,suchas‘theneighbourhoodreflectsme’and‘Iamproudofmyneighbourhood’withinthe‘Pride/SenseofPlace’element.


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Thenegative,neutralandpositiveresponseswereassignedascoreof0,100and200respectively.Doingthisacrossalltheelementsandthentakingameanprovidedwhatcouldbetermeda‘socialsustainabilityscore’.

Thereisalsoanexampleofahousingproviderattemptingtomeasuresocialsustainability.DixonandWoodcraft(2013)developedaframeworkforsocialsustainabilityforhousebuilders,aftertheBerkeleyGroupcommissionedSocialLifeandtheUniversityofReadingtodevelopaframework.TheaimwastocreateapracticalandcosteffectivewayofmeasuringcommunitystrengthandqualityoflifeacrosstheBerkeleyGroup.Theframeworkconsistsofthreedimensions:‘amenitiesandinfrastructure’,‘socialandculturallife’and‘voiceandinfluence’.Theyalsoidentified‘changeinneighbourhood’asimportant,butatthetimethe2011censusdatawasnotavailabletocompareagainst.Todevelopthemetrics,pre-existingnationaldatasetsorindustrystandardassessmentstoolswereused,with45questionsarrivedatintotal.A‘red,amber,green’scalewasdevelopedtovisualisewhethertheresultforanindicatorwasworse,aboutthesame,orbetterthanexpectedincomparisontonationaldatasets.

However,perhapsthemostwidelyusedistheEganWheel(Manzietal,2010)below.Ascanbeseen,althoughlabelleddifferently,thewheelmoreorlessdescribesthesameelementsofsocialsustainabilitythathavebeenoutlinedinthispaper.Itsstrengthisthatitisnon-hierarchical,andsoreflectsthenatureofsocialsustainabilityasmadeupofmultipleinterlockingfactorsthatmustallbepresentinacommunity.


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Thisisnottosuggestthatahousingassociationnecessarilyfollowanyofthesemethods,butitisindicativethatitisreasonabletotryandquantifyandmeasurethesocialsustainabilityofcommunities.

Source:Freethinker(2014)


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Ways Forward

Anumberofsuggestionsforachievingsustainabilitywerediscussedpreviously,withinthecontextofeachelement.Forease,thesehavebeensummarisedinthetablebelow.

Element Potential Ways to Address

Social equity Improve community transport; facilitate community ownership of amenities; make routes to services and amenities accessible and welcoming; language classes; targeted outreach work to unengaged demographics; ensure affordability of services and amenities.

Social capital Volunteering and community champion schemes; timebanking.

Social interaction, collective groups/networks

High density, mixed use neighbourhoods; pleasant and plentiful public space; community events in public spaces; deliver services as group work.

Community stability Support residents into work; support local businesses; support local social enterprises; help residents set up community businesses; ensure mix of age demographics in neighbourhoods; provide amenities necessary for all life stages.

Pride/sense of place Incomplete form via adaptable dwellings and community structures; open and adaptable public space; Neighbourhood Planning and co-production; tackle ASB and vandalism.

Safety and security Neighbourhoods with high visibility; tackle ASB and vandalism.

Clearly,ifsociallysustainablecommunitiesaretobecreatedthen,aswellastheabovesuggestions,anelementofmeasurementneedstotakeplacetomakesureanyinterventionsareinfacthaving


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thedesiredeffect.Asoutlinedthereareexistingwaysofdoingthis,howeverdevelopingitsownmetricsmaybesomethingahousingassociationwouldwishtoconsider.Doingsowouldmakesurethatthemeasurementwouldbereflectingelementsthatthehousingassociationfeltmostgermanetotheirwiderbusinessobjectivesandfittedinwithexistingprojectsandprogrammes.

Itwouldseemquitepossibletodesignsuchameasurementsystembasedonexistingandavailablemetrics,ratherthancreatingnewones.HACT’sSocialValueBankcontainsmanyoutcomesthatcouldquitereadilybeusedtoassesstheelementsofsustainability.Similarlytherearemanymoreopen-datameasurementsthatcouldbegeneratedviaCommunityInsightthatwouldalsoeasilyservethepurpose.Thetablebelowoutlinessomesuggestedexamplesinbothcategoriesforeachelementofsocialsustainability.

Element Social Value Bank Outcome Community Insight Metric

Social Equity ‘full-time employment’; ‘secure job’; ‘high confidence’; ‘able to pay for housing’

‘Index of multiple deprivation’; ‘health deprivation’; ‘households in poverty’; ‘households with no car’; ‘unemployment to available jobs ratio’

Social Capital ‘able to obtain advice locally’; ‘talk to neighbours regularly’; ‘member of social group’; ‘active in tenants group’; ‘high confidence’

‘social rented housing’; ‘private rented housing’; ‘owner occupied housing’; ‘population density’

Social interaction, collective groups/networks

‘regular attendance at voluntary or local organisation’; ‘able to obtain advice locally’; ‘talk to neighbours regularly’; ‘go to youth clubs’; ‘member of a social group’; ‘active in tenants group’

‘no people in household have English as a main language’; ‘population density’;

Community Stability

‘good neighbourhood’; ‘talks to neighbours regularly’; ‘feel belonging to neighbourhood’; ‘feel in control of life’

‘population aged 0-15’; ‘population aged 65+’; ‘migrants; ‘vacant dwellings’; ‘owner occupied housing’; ‘social rented housing’; ‘economically active’; ‘unemployment to available jobs ratio’;


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‘unemployment benefit’; ‘youth unemployment’

Pride/Sense of Place

‘No problem with vandalism/graffiti’; ‘not worried about crime’; ‘no problem with anti-social behaviour’; ‘no litter problems’; ‘good neighbourhood’; ‘feel belonging to neighbourhood’; ‘afford to keep house well decorated’

‘anti-social behaviour’; ‘criminal damage’; ‘vacant dwellings’

Safety and Security ‘no problem with vandalism/graffiti’; ‘not worried about crime’; ‘no problem with anti-social behaviour’

‘anti-social behaviour’; ‘criminal damage’; ‘vehicle crime’; ‘violent crime’

Ascanbeseen,betweentheSocialValueBankandthedatasetsavailableviaCommunityInsight,alltheelementsofsocialsustainabilityhavearangeofmeasuresthatcouldbeusedtoquantifythem,andprovideanindicationofwhetherthesustainabilityofacommunityisincreasingasinterventionsareundertaken.Additionally,HACTandOCSIwillbereleasingatrancheof600newindicatorsonCommunityInsightintheautumn,whichmayprovidefurtherrelevantindicators.

Ontopofthis,ifitweresomethingahousingassociationfeltwouldbeuseful,thereisarangeofmorequalitativeprimarydatathatcouldbecollected.Forexample,totargeteffectivelytheremovalofpsychogeographicalbarriersresidentscouldbeaskedfortheirviewsontheareasthroughwhichtheymustpasstoaccessservices.Similarly,qualitativeresearchcouldbecarriedouttoinvestigatemoreindepthissueslikeprideandsenseofplace.Nonetheless,thiswouldseemmorelikelytobeusefuladditionalworkifdesired,ratherthancentraltomeasurement.Theabovemetricssuggestitwouldbemorethanpossibletodevelopameasurementofthesocialsustainabilityofacommunitywithouthavingtocreateanynewmetricsspecifically.

Conclusions

Sustainabilityhasinrecentyearsmovedonfrombeingsolelyconcernedwithenvironmentalorecologicalsustainabilitytowardsinterestinsocialsustainability.Oneresultofthisisthatvariousdefinitionshavebeendevelopedbydifferentsourcesleadingtosomeconfusionoverthemeaningoftheterm.However,socialsustainabilityismoreusefullyunderstoodasanamalgamationofvarioussubordinateconceptsthatareallinterrelated.


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Themosteffectivewayoftacklingsocialsustainabilityistotakestepstoaddresstheelementsindividually,asthisgivesmoretangibleobjectivesthanageneralaimof‘sustainablecommunities’.Thereareahandfulofdifferentmethodsforlookingatandmeasuringsocialsustainability,howeverthereismostlikelyscopeforahousingassociationtodevelopitsownmetrics,basedonthatindicatorsitwouldconsidermostusefulandthatwouldmostfitwiderbusinessgoals.


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