8 th edition Steven P. Robbins Mary Coulter. Page 292Slide 2 What Is Motivation? Motivation The...

8th edition8th edition

Steven P. RobbinsMary Coulter

Steven P. RobbinsMary Coulter

92 Slide 2

What Is Motivation?

• Motivation

The willingness to exert effort to reach organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need.

Motivation works best when individual needs are compatible with organizational goals.

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Exhibit 14.1Exhibit 14.1

The Motivation Process

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What Is Motivation?

• NeedAn internal state that makes certain outcomes

(results) appear attractive.An unsatisfied need creates tension which is

reduced by an effort to satisfy the need.

• Early Theories of MotivationMaslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsMacGregor’s Theories X and YHerzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

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Early Theories of Motivation

• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory1. Physiological needs:

Food, drink, shelter, sexual satisfaction, others…

2. Safety needs Physical & emotional security and protection.

3. Social needs Affection, belongingness, acceptance and friendship.

4. Esteem needs Internal factors: Self-respect, autonomy, achievement External factors: Status, recognition and attention.

5. Self-actualization needs Growth, achieving one’s potential and self-fulfillment.

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• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs TheoryNeeds were categorized as five levels of lower- to

higher-order needs. Individuals must satisfy lower-order needs before

they can satisfy higher order needs. Satisfied needs will no longer motivate. Motivating a person depends on knowing at what

level that person is on the hierarchy.Hierarchy of needs

Lower-order (external): physiological, safety Higher-order (internal): social, esteem, self-

actualization

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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

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• McGregor’s Theory X and Theory YTheory X

Lower-order needs dominate individuals (little ambition, dislike work, avoid responsibility, require close supervision).

Theory Y Higher-order needs dominate (workers can exercise self-

direction, desire responsibility, and like to work).McGregor believed that Theory Y was more valid in

workers and proposed that participation in decision making, interesting jobs, and good group relations would maximize employee motivation.

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Early Theories of Motivation• Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are created by different factors. Hygiene factors: extrinsic (environmental) factors that

create job dissatisfaction. Motivators: intrinsic (psychological) factors that create job

satisfaction.Attempted to explain why eliminating hygiene factors

does not necessarily result in increased motivation. People won’t be dissatisfied, but they won’t be satisfied

nor motivated.To motivate people, Herzberg suggested emphasizing

motivators (the intrinsic factors) that increase job satisfaction.

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Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

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Contrasting Views of Satisfaction-Dissatisfaction

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Contemporary Theories of Motivation

Three-Needs TheoryGoal-Setting TheoryReinforcement TheoryEquity TheoryExpectancy TheoryDesigning Motivating Jobs

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Motivation and Needs

• Three-Needs Theory There are three acquired needs that are major

motives in work.

1. Need for achievement (nAch) The drive to excel, to achieve, and to succeed

2. Need for power (nPow) The need to influence the behavior of others

3. Need of affiliation (nAff) The desire for friendly and interpersonal

relationships

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Motivation and Needs

• Three-Needs Theory

High achievers do not necessarily make good managers; they focus on their own accomplishments while good managers emphasize helping others accomplish goals. The best managers tend to be high in the need for power and low in the need for affiliation.

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Examples of Pictures Used for Assessing Levels of nAch, nAff, and nPow

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Motivation and Goals

• Goal-Setting TheoryProposes that setting specific goals increase

performance, and difficult (challenging) goals result in higher performance than easy goals.

• Benefits of Goal-SettingThe specificity (particularity) of the goal itself acts

as an internal stimulus (stimulation). E.g. When a sales representative commits

(promises) to making eight sales calls daily, this commitment gives him/her a specific goal to attain.

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Goal-Setting Theory

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Motivation and Behavior

• Reinforcement TheoryAssumes that behavior is externally caused, and

controlled by its consequences (reinforcers). People will behave as desired if they are rewarded

for doing so, behavior that isn’t rewarded is less likely to be repeated.

Reinforcers are the consequences (rewards) that increase the probability that the behavior will be repeated

Ignoring undesired behavior is better than punishment which may create additional dysfunctional behaviors.

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Motivation and Perception

• Equity TheoryProposes that employees compare their inputs-

outcomes ratio with inputs-outcomes ratios of relevant others.

Inputs-outcomes ratio: what they get from a job situation (outcomes) in relation to what they put in (inputs). If the ratios are perceived as equal then a state of equity

(fairness) exists. If the ratios are perceived as unequal, inequity exists

and the person feels under-rewarded or over-rewarded. Employee motivation is influenced by relative rewards

as well as by absolute rewards.

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Equity Theory

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Motivation and PerceptionEquity Theory

Distributive justiceThe perceived

fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals (i.e., who

received what).– Influences an

employee’s satisfaction.

Procedural justiceThe perceived

fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards (i.e., how was it

distributed).– Influences an

employee’s organizational commitment.

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Motivation, Perception, and Behavior

• Expectancy Theory States that an individual tends to act in a certain

way based on

a) the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and

b) the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.

Key to the theory is understanding employee goals and the linkages (relationships) between effort, performance and rewards.

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Motivation, Perception, and Behavior

• Expectancy Relationships1. Expectancy (effort-performance linkage)

How hard do I have to work to achieve a certain level of performance? and Can I actually achieve that level?

2. Instrumentality (performance-reward linkage) What reward will that level of performance get me?

3. Valence or attractiveness of reward How attractive is the reward to me?

Whether employees are motivated or not depends on their particular goals and their perception of the level of performance needed to attain those goals.

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Simplified Expectancy Model

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Integrating ContemporaryTheories of Motivation

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Designing Motivating Jobs

Definitions:

Job enlargement (horizontal expansion) Increasing the scope (number of tasks) in a job.

Job enrichment (vertical expansion) Increasing responsibility and autonomy (depth)

in a job.

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• Job Characteristics Model (JCM)A framework for designing motivating jobs.

It identifies Five job characteristics and their impact on employee productivity, motivation and satisfaction. Skill variety: how many skills and talents are needed? Task identity: does the job produce a complete work? Task significance: how important is the job? Autonomy: how much independence does the jobholder

have? Feedback: do workers know how well they are doing?

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Designing Motivating Jobs• Job Characteristics Model (JCM)

According to the JCM, any job can be described in terms of five core dimensions:

1. Skill variety: The degree and variety of activities required so that an employee can use a number of different skills.

2. Task identity: The degree to which a job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work.

3. Task significance: The degree to which a job impacts the lives or work of other people.

4. Autonomy: The degree to which a job provides freedom in scheduling and determining procedures.

5. Feedback: The degree to which a job results in direct and clear information about performance effectiveness.

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Job Characteristics Model

Source: J.R. Hackman and J.L. Suttle (eds.). Improving Life at Work (Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 1977). With permission of the authors.

7 Slide 30


• Suggestions for Using the JCM Combine tasks (job enlargement): To increase skill variety

and task identity. Create natural work units: Design tasks that form a whole

so employees view their work as important rather than irrelevant and boring.

Establish client relationships: Between workers and their clients to increase skill variety, autonomy and feedback.

Expand jobs vertically (job enrichment): Gives employees responsibilities and controls that were reserved for managers. It increases employee autonomy (independence).

Open feedback channels: To let employees know how well they are performing their jobs. Employees should receive performance feedback directly as they do their jobs.

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Guidelines for Job Redesign

Source: J.R. Hackman and J.L. Suttle (eds.). Improving Life at Work (Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman, 1977). With permission of the authors.

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C H A P T E R R E V I E W 1/3

What Is Motivation? (slides 2, 4)

• Define motivation.

• Explain motivation as a need-satisfying process.

Early Theories of Motivation (slides 5, 6, 8, 9)

• Describe the five levels in Maslow’s hierarchy and how Maslow’s hierarchy can be used in motivational efforts.

• Discuss how Theory X and Theory Y managers approach motivation.

• Describe Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory.

• Explain Herzberg’s views of satisfaction and dissatisfaction.

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Contemporary Theories of Motivation (slides 13, 16, 18, 19, 21~23)

• Describe the three needs McClelland proposed as present in work settings.

• Explain how goal-setting and reinforcement theories explain employee motivation.

• Describe the job characteristics model as a way to design motivating jobs.

• Discuss the motivation implications of equity theory.

• Contrast distributive justice and procedural justice.

• Explain the three key linkages in expectancy theory and their role in motivation.

Slide 34


Motivating Organizational Members (slides 27, 28, 30)

• Describe the job characteristics model as a way to design motivating jobs.

8 th edition Steven P. Robbins Mary Coulter. Page 292Slide 2 What Is Motivation? Motivation The...

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