Focus

Focus • Under Construction: Building a Safer Industry

C onstruction is a risky occupation—on a daily basis, constructionworkers face environmental

exposures to many dangerous materialsand practices. Drillers, sandblasters,drywall sanders, and brick masons riskinhaling particles of dust, sand, and crys-talline silica, which can lead to lungcancers, tuberculosis, and silicosis.Welders and other metalworkers riskinhaling metal fumes, which can causelung ailments, airway disorders, and can-cer. Asphalt used in paving and roofinghas been linked to throat irritation,nausea, and chronic lower respiratoryinfections. Workers doing finishing workcan breathe in toxic fumes from paints,adhesives, floor finishes, and other mate-rials. And renovation and demolition ofold buildings exposes workers to leadpaint, asbestos, and toxic molds.

Over the past decade, however, thebuilding industry has been taking aim atenvironmental hazards for workers. Theresults have spawned a new generation ofsafer materials and better safety trainingand practices to decrease risks and safe-guard worker health.

Along with changes within the industry,outside forces are also helping to shape thelandscape. For instance, a growing number ofconsumers are demanding that builders anddevelopers use environmentally friendlier andsafer materials. Architects are increasingly tak-ing into account the human health impacts ofbuilding materials. Numerous governmentagencies have specified the purchase of“green” building materials, thus encouragingan expanding market for these products.Regulatory agencies, manufacturers, andnonprofit organizations have established stan-dards and guidelines for hazardous emissions

from building materials. And efforts toimprove worker education in environmen-tal health are increasing. The result is thatmany construction workers are handlingfewer toxic materials, and homeownersand office workers are better able to liveand work in healthier environments.

Hard Hat AreasIt can be difficult to tease out the effects ofspecific building materials and practices onhuman health because of possible con-founding factors such as multiple toxicexposures, worker lifestyle factors, previousillnesses, and chemical sensitivities that canexacerbate tendencies toward occupationalillness. Respiratory diseases can occur dueto interactions among workplace hazardexposures and other factors such as nutri-tion, exposure to chemicals throughhobbies, cigarette smoking, and illnesses

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such as gastroesophageal reflux disease andviral infections. Workers who smoke, forexample, have a 10 times higher risk ofdeveloping lung cancer from asbestos expo-sure than workers who do not smoke,according to Asbestos in Construction, ahazard alert published by The Center toProtect Workers’ Rights, a research andeducation program of the AFL-CIO basedin Silver Spring, Maryland.

Unusual sensitivities to chemical orhazardous materials also contribute to

occupational illnesses. Some researchersargue that a long-term, low-level exposure toa hazardous substance, or a large one-timedose, can turn the biological switch thatactivates chemical sensitivity. “When youlook at the range of the human population,there may be up to a tenfold difference inchemical sensitivity,” says Kaye H. Kilburn, aphysician specializing in environmental med-icine and occupational health at theUniversity of Southern California KeckSchool of Medicine in Los Angeles. “A onehundredfold or one thousandfold or tenthousandfold increase in chemical sensitivityfrom the normal range says that somethinghas happened to make this person hypersen-sitive. There are hundreds of people running

around with chemical sensitivity who wereperfectly normal before an indoor air expo-sure or exposure to a dose of chemical,”she says.

Still, there are many known effects fromspecific exposures that the construction laborforce, homeowners, and residents near con-struction sites face. And it is in reducingthese effects in particular that efforts arebeing directed.

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs).VOCs are organic chemicals that become a

breathable vapor or gas at room temperature.VOCs such as formaldehyde, benzene, ethyl-ene glycol, and vinyl chloride are commonlyused in building materials including solvents,binding agents, and cleaning agents.Managing VOCs remains one of the mostimportant considerations in controllingindoor air pollution and health effects forinstallers and occupants of new construction.

For many years, high-VOC paint wasthe industry standard. Heavy amounts ofVOC solvents were added to paint toenhance color and spreadability, and alsoto function as fungicides and biocides. ButVOCs “off-gas” during the applicationand curing of paint, and even after thepaint is dry. These emissions can cause

headaches, respiratory problems, andallergic reactions.

It is difficult to determine the averagelevel of worker exposure and a specific“unsafe” VOC dose for two reasons. First,VOCs in paint can react in the air and withother chemical coatings to create new com-pounds with health effects that are not fullyknown. Also, VOCs can be harvested fromnatural or synthetic sources, and the healtheffects can vary widely, depending on theVOC source.

Perhaps the easiest way to control VOCsis by using environmentally friendly paint.Since the mid-1990s, most manufacturers ofbrand-name paints have significantlyreduced VOCs in some of their productlines. These “low-emitting” paints reducethe quantity of indoor air contaminants thatare irritating or dangerous for installers andoccupants. Products that are labeled zero- orlow-VOC must meet U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency (EPA) standards forVOC levels; manufacturers can also meet avoluntary Green Seal Standard for still lowerVOC levels.

The difference in the standards resultsfrom how different organizations classifyVOCs. The EPA’s classification system isbased on smog control and, as such, leavesout many chemicals in paints, such asacetone and methyl acetate, that may bedangerous to inhale but that do not fit theagency’s VOC definition. However, whilesome solvents may not be on the EPA’s listof VOCs, they still may end up on theEPA’s list of hazardous air pollutants thatrequire stringent reporting. Green Seal is anindependent, nonprofit organization basedin Washington, D.C., that identifies andpromotes environmentally safer and less-polluting products by affixing a “GreenSeal” protected by federal copyright law.Their standards are often more stringentthan those set by the federal government. Forexample, the EPA VOC standards for flatand nonflat interior paints are 250 g/L and380 g/L, respectively. In contrast, the GreenSeal standards are 50 g/L and 150 g/L.

Environmentally friendly paint mayhave practical or aesthetic limitations, how-ever. Low- or zero-VOC paints are generallylimited to colors such as white, beige, andpastels. “Anytime you had colorant, you addchemicals,” says Gail Lindsey, an architectbased in Wake Forest, North Carolina, and aconsultant on green building principles forfederal agencies. “The amount of colorantyou put in is connected to the VOC level.”

“Materials in general are becomingsafer to the user,” says Alex Wilson, execu-tive editor of Environmental BuildingNews. “There’s been a big shift away fromthe solvent-based, high-VOC materials to

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Perils of painting. Breathing paint fumes containing toxic VOCs can lead to a host ofillnesses, but new paints are lowering or eliminating these components.

acrylic- and water-based prod-ucts that are lower in VOCsand tend to be less noxious.The old complaint that newerproducts aren’t as good anddon’t last as long is largely nottrue, either. The quality hasimproved tremendously.”

For decades, formaldehydehas been an almost ubiquitousVOC used in building materials.Manufacturers add formaldehyde,which is relatively inexpensive, asan ingredient to help bind woodchips and sawdust together. Thereare two kinds of formaldehyde-based binder used in buildingproducts. Urea formaldehyde isused to manufacture pressed-wood products such as particleboard in subflooring and shelving,hardwood plywood paneling indecorative wall covering andcabinets, and medium-densityfiberboard in cabinets and furni-ture tops. Urea formaldehyde, which is anonwaterproof binder, generally emitshigher levels of VOCs than does phenolformaldehyde, which is a waterproofbinder used in exterior-grade plywood andhouse framing.

Individuals exposed to formaldehydecan suffer brain impairment, leading tosymptoms such as prolonged reaction time,abnormal balance and clumsiness, short-term memory problems, and elevatedanger and confusion levels, says Kilburn.

Exposure to formaldehyde inhuman studies is linked to a risein lung cancer and nasopharyn-geal cancers, according to theEPA. The rate at which form-aldehyde is released is accelerat-ed by higher temperatures andhigher humidity.

In recent years, manufacturershave generally lowered formalde-hyde levels in their buildingproducts. Changes have beendriven partly by governmentstandards but also by nonprofittrade groups.

In the 1970s and 1980s,there was concern about form-aldehyde emissions from particleboard and hardwood plywoodbonded with waterproof resins.These concerns led to regula-tions that restricted the amountof formaldehyde that could beemitted from a product. Since1985, the U.S. Department of

Housing and Urban Development has had astandard for formaldehyde emissions inmanufactured housing of less than 0.2 ppmfor plywood and 0.3 ppm for particle board.Many products are stamped to indicatecompliance with these standards, which aredesigned to maintain an ambient level of 0.4ppm or less in manufactured housing. TheNational Indoor Environmental Institute, theAmerican Society of Heating, Refrigeration,and Air-Conditioning Engineers, and theAmerican National Standards Institute rec-ommend a limit of 0.1 ppm for indoor levels.

Other manufacturers have designed newproducts containing formaldehyde “scav-engers,” specific ureas that bind to form-aldehyde and prevent it from volatilizing.Even so, there continue to be emissionsfrom both waterproof and nonwaterproofbinder products.

Asphalt fumes. Asphalt is a solid or semi-solid material made from distilled crude oilthat is used primarily in paving, roofing, andasphalt-based roof paints. Over 350,000U.S. workers are exposed to asphalt at pavingsites, hot-mix asphalt facilities, and roofingand manufacturing sites.

Asphalt fumes are responsible for a hostof health ailments including nausea, stom-ach pain, decreased appetite, headache,fatigue, and skin, eye, nose, and throat irri-tation, according to a December 2000National Institute for Occupational Safetyand Health (NIOSH) hazard review titledHealth Effects of Occupational Exposure toAsphalt. There is substantial evidence thatlinks acute lower respiratory tract symptomsto asphalt fume exposure, and moreresearch is being done to clarify the rela-

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Crystalline killers. Silica crystals inhaled during sandblasting cancause severe long-term effects. A push is on to require use of respira-tors to prevent such inhalation.

Unfriendly fumes. Asphalt gives off toxic fumes, but new guidelines are focused on lesseningthe opportunity for exposure.

tionship, according to the review. Re-searchers also recommend additional studieson possible links between asphalt exposureand several chronic diseases, includinglung cancer.

Some safety measures recommended bythe hazard review include using personalprotective equipment to prevent skin expo-sure, maintaining the lowest possibleasphalt temperature for application, andusing appropriate respiratoryprotection. In response to theNIOSH report, William A.Good, executive vice presidentof the National RoofingContractors Association, recom-mended in a 6 February 2001letter to association membersthat they consider using kettleswith engineering controls andkeeping them in open areas farfrom building air intakes, usinglow-fuming asphalt, monitoringheating temperatures, and usinginsulated pipes.

Before the December 2000NIOSH report, several manufac-turers including Blaw-Knox,Caterpi l lar /Barber-Greene,Cedarapids, Roadtec, and Cham-pion collaborated with NIOSHand several union and laborhealth organizations to developdraft guidelines used by contrac-tors and manufacturers of largehot-mix asphalt pavers. This ledto exhaust control guidelines forhighway-class hot-mix asphaltpavers. The guidelines stress theimportance of proper ventilationsystems for paving machinery,certification of paver perform-ance, and adequate worker train-ing for the operation and repair ofpaver exhaust ventilation systems.

Silica. Crystalline silica is amineral from the earth’s crustfound in sand, flint, agate,quartz, and other materials.Silica inhalation, even with low-level, unprotected exposures, cancause adverse health effects includ-ing silicosis—scarring and hardening oflung tissue that prevents oxygen from enter-ing the blood. During sandblasting ofbuildings and other similar activities, silicais broken up into very fine particles.Without proper protective gear, workerscan inhale silica particles less than 5microns in diameter into their lungs.Larger particles may be inhaled into thenose or throat and can be swallowed.Silicosis is generally a result of prolongedexposure, but symptoms may not appear

until 5–10 years after exposure.NIOSH recommends that workers use no

sand or abrasive containing more than 1% sil-ica, and the agency requires that workers useNIOSH-approved respirators, provide out-side air sources, and perform air samplingduring projects.

Metal fumes. When metalworkers weldat very high temperatures, vaporized metalcan cool quickly and form a fine particulate

fume made up of tiny solid particles lessthan one micron in diameter. Due to theirsmall size, fumes are able to penetrate deepinto the respiratory system to the alveoli.Safety experts are concerned about the pres-ence of certain toxic metals includingchromium, nickel, cadmium, zinc, and cop-per in the fumes.

Of particular concern is the chromiumcompound called hexavalent chromium. Itis used as pigment in paints, inks, and plas-tics, as an anticorrosion agent in protective

coatings, and in chrome plating. Workerscan be exposed to hexavalent chromiumwhen welding or cutting chromium-containing metals such as stainless steel.Hexavalent chromium is recognized as apotential human carcinogen, althoughthere is limited evidence in humans andinadequate evidence in experimental ani-mals for the carcinogencity of chromiumcompounds in welding fumes, according

to NIOSH.Inhaling such fumes also

can lead to ailments such asmetal fume fever, which causessymptoms similar to those of avery bad case of the flu.Workers are at risk for metalfume fever when heating stain-less steel and zinc. Fumesinhaled from cadmium alloys,coatings, and silver solderingcan cause chemical pneumonia,a condition that can prove fatalif not treated quickly.

Under Occupational Safetyand Health Administration(OSHA) rules, mechanical ven-tilation must be provided whenwelding or cutting is done insmall spaces or where the weld-ing space has structural barriersthat interfere with cross-ventilation. For outdoor stain-less steel welding or cutting,approved respirators must beworn. But workers also musthave access to informationabout the substances they arewelding. “You need to havelocal exhaust ventilation right atthe source, and workers need tohave material safety data sheetson welding materials to knowwhether the materials containcadmium or other hazardoussubstances,” says MichaelMcCann, director of safety andergonomics for The Center toProtect Workers’ Rights.

Issuing respirators alonemay not prove effective because

many workers take them off forthe sake of convenience. “In the past,workers using respirators to protect againstnickel and manganese might run out of air,then pull the mask off to finish the jobrather than get another air tank,” saysKilburn. A number of ventilation strategiesare therefore recommended to help protectmetalworkers from dangerous fumes.Ventilation that pulls fumes away fromwelders’ faces can reduce the risk, particu-larly for those who do not use respiratorsall the time.

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Welders’ woes. Welding metals releases a number of toxic fumesthat can be avoided with the use of proper ventilation systems.

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Chromated copper arsenate (CCA)–treated wood. Federal regulators are study-ing the health risks of using wood preservedwith CCA to construct decks, playgroundequipment, docks, fence posts, and otherstructures. People who touch or rub CCA-treated wood can absorb small amounts ofarsenic through the skin. Very young chil-dren can ingest much higher levels of arsenicwhen they put their hands in their mouthsafter playing on CCA-treated playgroundequipment. Homeowners and laborers cut-ting CCA-treated wood can inhale arsenic indust, resulting in speech and central nervoussystem impairment that may be irreversible.

Wood was the major ingredient in 136million tons of building-related construc-tion and demolition debris in 1996, accord-ing to a 1998 EPA study, Characterizationof Building-Related Construction and Demo-lition Debris in the United States. At least 500wood processing facilities in the UnitedStates receive wood supplies from construc-tion and demolition sources, according tothis study. It is currently difficult to distin-guish untreated wood from CCA-treatedwood in construction and demolitiondebris, so consumers who buy mulch orwood chips made from recycled construc-tion wood can be exposed to potentiallyhazardous doses of CCA, as well as enhance

dispersal of the chemical byspreading contaminated mulch intheir yards.

Helena Solo-Gabriele, an envi-ronmental engineer at the Univer-sity of Miami, and colleagueTimothy Townsend of theUniversity of Florida in Gainesvilleare investigating ways to distinguishCCA-treated construction waste.One possibility is spraying thewood with a chemical stain that willchange color if it comes into con-tact with CCA. Consumers andworkers can protect themselves byusing gloves when handling CCA-treated wood. When using powertools, workers and consumersshould use respirators to avoidinhaling CCA in dust created dur-ing sawing or drilling.

The EPA has initiated a riskassessment of CCA. During thisassessment, the EPA will examineall uses of CCA, including thepotential risk to children who playon structures built with CCA-treated wood. The agency isexpected to make available for pub-lic comment the preliminary riskassessment during spring 2002.

In 2001, manufacturers com-mitted to begin an information

program to help consumers identify CCA-treated wood and its hazards. Manufacturersagreed to attach information tags on each pieceof treated wood and provide information

through store displays, a Web site, and a toll-free number.

Lead. Lead paint was used for more thana century for both interior and exterior sur-faces. Painters and other tradesmen in prox-imity to lead paint can suffer effects fromlead including loss of appetite, nausea, vom-iting, fatigue, moodiness, and joint or muscleaches. Severe health problems include dam-age to the central nervous system resulting intremors, seizures, convulsions, and wrist orfoot drop, in which muscle or nerve damagecauses deformities of those parts of the body.Acute lead poisoning can be fatal.

Renovation and demolition projects onold buildings can be particularly dangerousto workers and homeowners as lead is morelikely to be present in older constructionmaterials. Lead paint was also commonlyused on steel girders to protect them fromthe corrosive effects of weather. Using torch-es during maintenance and repair work canvaporize lead.

Ventilation and tenting procedurescan contain poisonous fumes, therebyprotecting repairers and passersby.NIOSH lead safety procedures includewearing personal protective equipmentsuch as respirators, showering andchanging clothes before leaving thework site, and periodic testing of air andblood concentrations.

Asbestos. Between 1940 and 1979, anestimated 27 million people in the UnitedStates experienced occupational exposureto asbestos, according to an August 2001report by the RAND Institute for Civil

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Unsafe to solder. Exposure to lead during soldering without protective gear can lead toa number of neurologic effects and even death. Most at risk may be workers engaged inrenovations of older buildings.

Scary sealants. New research shows that chromatedcopper arsenate, used to treat wood for decks andother construction, can leach into skin and be inhaled.

Justice titled Asbestos Litigation in theU.S.: A New Look at an Old Issue. Asbestoswas used as an insulating and fire-preventionmaterial. Structures built in the United Statesafter 1980 were prohibited from containingasbestos, but the presenceand removal of this haz-ardous substance is stillcreating major healthproblems.

Breathing asbestosfibers can cause asbestosisand scarring of the lungs,which create difficulty inbreathing. Exposure toasbestos is also linked tomesothelioma, a cancer ofthe chest and stomach lin-ing, and increased risk oflung cancer, according toAsbestos in Construction.

Nothing revealedthe lingering dangers ofasbestos so plainly as theaftermath of the Sep-tember 11 terrorist attackon New York’s WorldTrade Center towers.Asbestos was used forfireproofing during con-struction of the north

tower and was never removed. The col-lapse of the north tower dispersedasbestos in a huge cloud of dust.During the cleanup, workers haverisked asbestos inhalation each timethey have dislodged rubble or cartedaway pulverized materials.

In the United States and aroundthe world, workers will continue toexperience the health consequences ofasbestos installed decades ago. By1999, asbestos use was prohibited inmuch of the world, yet 30 years afterpeak asbestos exposure levels (deter-mined by adding together the quantityof asbestos produced and importedper capita during the 1970s, then sub-tracting asbestos exports for thoseyears), 30,000 citizens from WesternEurope, North America, Japan, andAustralia are diagnosed with asbestos-related cancers each year, according toAntti Tossavainen of the FinnishInstitute of Occupational Health.

Moreover, many nations in thedeveloping world continue to useasbestos in construction, guaranteeinga rise in certain cancers and other ill-nesses decades hence. At the 11thAnnual Congress of the EuropeanRespiratory Society in September

2001, Tossavainen noted that world-wide asbestos production topped 2

million tons in the year 2000. The RussianFederation produced 700,000 tons, Chinaproduced 450,000 tons, and Canada pro-duced 335,000 tons, exporting almost allof it.

In the United States, OSHA requiresprotections for asbestos-abatement work-ers including full-body protective gearand bans on eating, smoking, anddrinking in areas where asbestos maybe present.

Molds. An emerging concern is thepresence of irritating and toxic molds inbuildings. High levels of mold exposurecan cause a variety of symptoms, includ-ing allergic reactions. Certain molds canalso exacerbate respiratory problems. Themolds in building structures that arereceiving the most attention include cer-tain species of Aspergillus, Penicillium,and Stachybotrys.

Mold and moisture problems inbuildings have many causes, includinguncontrolled humidity, inadequate venti-lation, roof leaks, and gutters that directwater under buildings. A major factor inthe recent surge in mold growth is the useof paper-faced gypsum wallboard, anideal cellulose food source for molds.Molds can also grow on the surface ofdamp glass, metal, and concrete if thesubstance is coated with organic material.

A. fumigatus causes the illnessaspergillosis, which can lead to pulmonaryinfection, allergic bronchopulmonarydisease, and death, if not treated promptly.The toxic by-products of the fungus S.chartarum (formerly known as S. atra)have been linked to an outbreak of infantillnesses and deaths due to bleeding in thelungs [see EHP 106:A11–A12 (1998) and108:A20–A23 (2000)]. Researchers foundlarge volumes of S. chartarum in the

homes of the infants who haddied, although other factorssuch as exposure to tobaccosmoke may have contributedto the lung bleeding. Somemedical experts believe thisfungus can cause serioushealth problems in adults aswell.

Informed designers andbuilders now use techniquesto minimize the potentialfor building moisture. Moldremediation involves identi-fying and fixing underlyingproblems, then drying anddecontaminating or remov-ing damaged materials, asometimes costly and diffi-cult process, depending onthe extent of contamina-tion. The EPA recommendsthat, at a minimum, workersremoving molds wear eyeprotection, gloves, a respira-tor, and disposable overalls.

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Hidden harm. Toxic molds can grow in materials such as gypsum wallboard andcause allergic reactions if inhaled during drilling or other construction activities.

Costly cleanup. Workers removing asbestosfrom buildings must protect against inhaling thecancer-causing fibers.

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Constructing SolutionsOver the past 20 years, the building industryhas increasingly recognized that improvedtraining and education are essential to pro-tecting workers from dangerous materialsand practices. “If you’re trained and knowhow to do your job and if you follow therules, then construction is pretty much assafe as any other job,” says Andrew Port,project manager for environmental healthand safety at the Whitman Companies, anenvironmental engineering and manage-ment firm in East Brunswick, New Jersey.“But if you cut corners, you can get introuble. That’s why education is so impor-tant to explain the risks and hazards andways that workers can protect themselves.”

Nevertheless, workers in some con-struction sectors may actually have lessaccess to apprenticeships and safety train-ing than they once did. That’s becausefewer workers today belong to unionsthan they did 20 years ago, according toMcCann. An estimated 70% of U.S. con-struction workers belonged to laborunions in the 1970s, but that participa-tion shrank to approximately 20% of theconstruction workforce in the 1990s.

Meanwhile, though, OSHA educationand training programs have significantlyimproved safety training, especially forlarge construction companies. But a con-tinuing problem, some believe, is thathigh-quality training can be expensive,especially for small companies. This maybe overcome, though, by making use ofgovernment-sponsored training, countersH. Berrien Zettler, the OSHA deputydirector for the directorate of construction.

In fiscal year 2001, OSHA budgetedapproximately $67 million in training andeducation for U.S. workers. “For the large orsmall contractor, education cost is not a sig-nificant barrier because OSHA does notcharge a lot,” says Zettler. Many trainingmaterials are available for free on the WorldWide Web, he says. Construction firms canalso receive low-cost safety training uponrequest when they contact a local area OSHAoffice. In addition, OSHA has established aconsultation program for the small-businessemployer in each state. The program is con-ducted by a state agency but receives 90% ofits funding from the federal government.

Another part of the problem is the reluc-tance of some contractors to send theirworkers to training courses. “The trainingresources are available to contractors if theycould overcome their hesitation about sendingemployees or even supervisors to the courses,”says Zettler. “The obstacle is that some smallbusinesses on the financial margins considerany time away from the job site, even for safe-ty training, to be unproductive time.”

For fiscal years 1997–2001, OSHAreceived special congressional appropriationsto offer safety training to residential construc-tion contractors, trade union employeesengaged in residential construction, andOSHA compliance officers. But OSHA facesstill other roadblocks in offering these pro-grams to some construction sectors. Manysmall construction firms, particularly thoseinvolved in residential building, can be diffi-cult for OSHA to locate. The residentialbuilding industry is highly fragmented, andmost home builders are small-businessmenwho construct fewer than a dozen homes ayear. “The most obvious challenge is knowingwhere these people are,” says Zettler. “There’sno one central information source for locat-ing construction employees. If they areworking on a large housing project, we caneasily find them. But if they are buildingindividual houses on individual lots, which isa major part of the residential constructionindustry, they are very hard to find.” Manyresidential contractors employ different work-ers from project to project, and may only hirewhen they have work to do. Residentialcontractors are also the ones most likely toemploy lesser-trained workers and employeeswho do not speak English as a first language.

“The problem of locating workers forsafety training is even worse for renovation,because there’s not a consistent permit systemthroughout the country,” says Zettler. Bigcities such as Washington, D.C., usually havewell-established permitting systems for reno-vations, but many rural areas lack permittingrequirements of any kind.

LEEDing the ChargeA growing number of developers, buildingowners, government agencies, manufacturers,and architects are embracing specialrating systems that help the building indus-try select environmentally friendly buildingmaterials and processes for entire structures.The most prominent rating system is theLeadership in Energy and EnvironmentalDesign (LEED) standard created by the U.S.Green Building Council, a nonprofit coali-tion of architects, construction companies,engineers, product manufacturers, and oth-ers. “The LEED system has created a lotmore interest in new products and technolo-gies as well as in analysis of buildings,” saysWilson. “It’s created interest among main-stream companies that may never have paidattention before.”

Through performance standards, LEEDsets up objective, measurable criteria for the“greenness” of buildings. Developers andbuilding owners can voluntarily have theirstructures certified as “green” by reducingwater consumption, using passive cooling orsolar heating technologies, providing for

alternative transportation, using low-emission materials, or making a host ofother changes. Applicants can apply for basicLEED certification or accumulate extrapoints to reach silver, gold, or platinumLEED status. Building owners who attainLEED certification can qualify for somestate and local tax credits and other incen-tives. Because LEED ratings are based uponbuilding design and renovation, not long-term use, ratings are in effect for just fiveyears. Then buildings must undergo anoperations-and-maintenance rating forLEED status to be retained.

In establishing standards for certifi-cation, the LEED system has borrowedfrom regulations and guidelines set byvarious government agencies and non-profit organizations. For instance, inestablishing the LEED’s VOC emissionstandards, the Green Building Councilreferenced adhesive and sealant limitsestablished by two California air qualityagencies, paint and coating standardsformulated by Green Seal, and a carpettesting procedure from the Carpet andRug Institute of Dalton, Georgia.

Some states, localities, and federalagencies have encouraged green construc-tion by implementing policies that callfor their own buildings to meet certainenvironmentally friendly standards.Seattle, Washington, has gone perhapsthe furthest, requiring that all new publicbuildings in the city be built to at least asilver level of LEED certification. TheGeneral Services Administration (GSA),which provides space, goods, and servicesfor the federal government, influencesthe management of more than 8,300 gov-ernment-owned buildings or leasedbuildings. GSA is working to earn LEEDratings for all of its new and renovatedbuildings. Eleven GSA projects have beenregistered to attempt certification.

Governments spend billions each yearon new and renovated buildings, so thisis a powerful market for green buildingproducts. Many large architectural andengineering firms, which have contractsto build or renovate environmentallyfriendly government buildings, are takingthis expertise to private-sector clients,who are showing an increased interest ingreen construction. By requiring innova-tions in public agencies, governments arespawning greater acceptance of environ-mentally friendly building products andtechniques in the private sector, whichshould lead to both a safer and healthierbuilding industry and safer and healthierbuildings.

John Tibbetts