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Lecture 1 (21 Oct 2006)
Matrices and Determinants
Enrichment Programme for Physics Talent 2006/07Module I
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1.1 Matrices1.2 Operations of matrices1.3 Types of matrices1.4 Properties of matrices
1.5 Determinants
1.6 Inverse of a 33 matrix
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2 3 7
1 1 5A
1.1 Matrices
1 3 1
2 1 4
4 7 6
B
Both A and B are examples of matrix. A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers enclosed by a pair of bracket.
Why matrix?
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How about solving
7,
3 5.
x y
x y2 7,
2 4 2,
5 4 10 1,
3 6 5.
x y z
x y z
x y z
x y z
Consider the following set of equations:
It is easy to show that x = 3 and y = 4.
Matrices can help…
1.1 Matrices
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11 12 1
21 22 2
1 2
n
n
m m mn
a a a
a a aA
a a a
In the matrix
numbers aij are called elements. First subscript indicates the row; second subscript indicates the column. The matrix consists of mn elementsIt is called “the m n matrix A = [aij]” or simply “the matrix A ” if number of rows and columns are understood.
1.1 Matrices
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Square matrices
When m = n, i.e.,
A is called a “square matrix of order n” or “ n-square matrix”elements a11, a22, a33,…, ann called diagonal elements. is called the trace of A.
11 12 1
21 22 2
1 2
n
n
n n nn
a a a
a a aA
a a a
...11 221
n
ii nni
a a a a
1.1 Matrices
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Equal matrices
Two matrices A = [aij] and B = [bij] are said to be equal (A = B) iff each element of A is equal to the corresponding element of B, i.e., aij = bij for 1 i m, 1 j n.iff pronouns “if and only if”
if A = B, it implies aij = bij for 1 i m, 1 j n;
if aij = bij for 1 i m, 1 j n, it implies A = B.
1.1 Matrices
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Equal matrices
Given that A = B, find a, b, c and d.
1.1 Matrices
1 0
4 2A
a bB
c d
Example: and
if A = B, then a = 1, b = 0, c = -4 and d = 2.
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Zero matrices
Every element of a matrix is zero, it is called a zero matrix, i.e.,
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
A
1.1 Matrices
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Sums of matrices
1.2 Operations of matrices
If A = [aij] and B = [bij] are m n matrices, then A + B is defined as a matrix C = A + B, where C= [cij], cij = aij + bij for 1 i m, 1 j
n. 1 2 3
0 1 4
A
2 3 0
1 2 5
BExample: if and
Evaluate A + B and A – B. 1 2 2 3 3 0 3 5 3
0 ( 1) 1 2 4 5 1 3 9
A B
1 2 2 3 3 0 1 1 3
0 ( 1) 1 2 4 5 1 1 1
A B
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Sums of matrices
1.2 Operations of matrices
Two matrices of the same order are said to be conformable for addition or subtraction.
Two matrices of different orders cannot be added or subtracted, e.g.,
are NOT conformable for addition or subtraction.
2 3 7
1 1 5
1 3 1
2 1 4
4 7 6
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Scalar multiplication
1.2 Operations of matrices
Let be any scalar and A = [aij] is an m n matrix. Then A = [aij] for 1 i m, 1 j n, i.e., each element in A is multiplied by .
1 2 3
0 1 4
AExample: . Evaluate 3A.
3 1 3 2 3 3 3 6 93
3 0 3 1 3 4 0 3 12
A
In particular, , i.e., A = [aij]. It’s called the negative of A. Note: A = 0 is a zero matrix
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Properties
1.2 Operations of matrices
Matrices A, B and C are conformable, A + B = B + A
A + (B +C) = (A + B) +C
(A + B) = A + B, where is a scalar
(commutative law)
(associative law)
Can you prove them?
(distributive law)
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Let C = A + B, so cij = aij + bij.
Consider cij = (aij + bij ) = aij + bij, we have, C = A + B.
Since C = (A + B), so (A + B) = A + B
Example: Prove (A + B) = A + B.
Properties
1.2 Operations of matrices
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Matrix multiplication
1.2 Operations of matrices
If A = [aij] is a m p matrix and B = [bij] is a p
n matrix, then AB is defined as a m n matrix C = AB, where C= [cij] with
1 1 2 21
...
p
ij ik kj i j i j ip pjk
c a b a b a b a b
1 2 3
0 1 4
A
1 2
2 3
5 0
BExample: , and C = AB. Evaluate c21.
1 21 2 3
2 30 1 4
5 0
21 0 ( 1) 1 2 4 5 22 c
for 1 i m, 1 j n.
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Matrix multiplication
1.2 Operations of matrices
1 2 3
0 1 4
A
1 2
2 3
5 0
BExample: , , Evaluate C = AB.
11
12
21
22
1 ( 1) 2 2 3 5 181 2
1 2 2 3 3 0 81 2 32 3
0 ( 1) 1 2 4 5 220 1 45 0
0 2 1 3 4 0 3
c
c
c
c
1 21 2 3 18 8
2 30 1 4 22 3
5 0
C AB
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Matrix multiplication
1.2 Operations of matrices
In particular, A is a 1 m matrix and B is a m 1 matrix, i.e.,
1 1 11 11 12 21 1 11
...
m
k k m mk
C a b a b a b a b
11 12 1... mA a a a
11
21
1
m
b
bB
b
then C = AB is a scalar.
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Matrix multiplication
1.2 Operations of matrices
BUT BA is a m m matrix!
11 11 11 11 12 11 1
21 21 11 21 12 21 111 12 1
1 1 11 1 12 1 1
...
m
mm
m m m m m
b b a b a b a
b b a b a b aBA a a a
b b a b a b a
So AB BA in general !
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Properties
1.2 Operations of matrices
Matrices A, B and C are conformable, A(B + C) = AB + AC
(A + B)C = AC + BC
A(BC) = (AB) C
AB BA in general AB = 0 NOT necessarily imply A = 0 or B = 0
AB = AC NOT necessarily imply B = C How
ever
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Properties
Let X = B + C, so xij = bij + cij. Let Y = AX, then
1 1
1 1 1
( )
( )
n n
ij ik kj ik kj kjk k
n n n
ik kj ik kj ik kj ik kjk k k
y a x a b c
a b a c a b a c
Example: Prove A(B + C) = AB + AC where A, B and C are n-square matrices
So Y = AB + AC; therefore, A(B + C) = AB + AC
1.2 Operations of matrices
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1.3 Types of matrices
Identity matrix
The inverse of a matrix
The transpose of a matrix
Symmetric matrix
Orthogonal matrix
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A square matrix whose elements aij = 0, for i > j is called upper triangular, i.e., 11 12 1
22 20
0 0
n
n
nn
a a a
a a
a
A square matrix whose elements aij = 0, for i < j is called lower triangular, i.e., 11
21 22
1 2
0 0
0
n n nn
a
a a
a a a
Identity matrix1.3 Types of matrices
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Both upper and lower triangular, i.e., aij = 0, for i j , i.e., 11
22
0 0
0 0
0 0
nn
a
aD
a
11 22diag[ , ,..., ] nnD a a a
Identity matrix1.3 Types of matrices
is called a diagonal matrix, simply
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In particular, a11 = a22 = … = ann = 1, the matrix is called identity matrix.Properties: AI = IA = A
Examples of identity matrices: and
1 0
0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
Identity matrix1.3 Types of matrices
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AB BA in general. However, if two square matrices A and B such that AB = BA, then A and B are said to be commute.
Can you suggest two matrices that must commute with a square matrix A?
If A and B such that AB = -BA, then A and B are said to be anti-commute.
Special square matrix1.3 Types of matrices
Ans: A itself, the identity matrix, ..
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If matrices A and B such that AB = BA = I, then B is called the inverse of A (symbol: A-
1); and A is called the inverse of B (symbol: B-1).
The inverse of a matrix
6 2 3
1 1 0
1 0 1
B
Show B is the the inverse of matrix A.
1 2 3
1 3 3
1 2 4
A
Example:
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
AB BA
Ans: Note that Can you show the details?
1.3 Types of matrices
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The transpose of a matrix
The matrix obtained by interchanging the rows and columns of a matrix A is called the transpose of A (write AT).
Example:
The transpose of A is
1 2 3
4 5 6
A
1 4
2 5
3 6
TA
For a matrix A = [aij], its transpose AT = [bij], where bij = aji.
1.3 Types of matrices
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Symmetric matrix
A matrix A such that AT = A is called symmetric, i.e., aji = aij for all i and j.
A + AT must be symmetric. Why?
Example: is symmetric.1 2 3
2 4 5
3 5 6
A
A matrix A such that AT = -A is called skew-symmetric, i.e., aji = -aij for all i and j.
A - AT must be skew-symmetric. Why?
1.3 Types of matrices
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Orthogonal matrix
A matrix A is called orthogonal if AAT = ATA = I, i.e., AT = A-1
Example: prove that is orthogonal.
1/ 3 1/ 6 1/ 2
1/ 3 2 / 6 0
1/ 3 1/ 6 1/ 2
A
We’ll see that orthogonal matrix represents a rotation in fact!
1.3 Types of matrices
Since, . Hence, AAT = ATA = I.
1/ 3 1/ 3 1/ 3
1/ 6 2 / 6 1/ 6
1/ 2 0 1/ 2
TA
Can you show
the details?
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(AB)-1 = B-1A-1
(AT)T = A and (A)T = AT
(A + B)T = AT + BT
(AB)T = BT AT
1.4 Properties of matrix
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1.4 Properties of matrix
Example: Prove (AB)-1 = B-1A-1.
Since (AB) (B-1A-1) = A(B B-1)A-1 = I and
(B-1A-1) (AB) = B-1(A-1 A)B = I.
Therefore, B-1A-1 is the inverse of matrix AB.
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1.5 Determinants
Consider a 2 2 matrix: 11 12
21 22
a aA
a a
Determinant of order 2
Determinant of A, denoted , is a number and can be evaluated by
11 1211 22 12 21
21 22
| |a a
A a a a aa a
| |A
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11 1211 22 12 21
21 22
| |a a
A a a a aa a
Determinant of order 2easy to remember (for order 2 only)..
1 2
3 4Example: Evaluate the determinant:1 2
1 4 2 3 23 4
1.5 Determinants
+-
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1.5 Determinants
1. If every element of a row (column) is
zero, e.g., , then |A| = 0.
2. |AT| = |A|
3. |AB| = |A||B|
determinant of a matrix = that of its transpose
The following properties are true for determinants of any order.
1 21 0 2 0 0
0 0
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Example: Show that the determinant of any orthogonal matrix is either +1 or –1.
For any orthogonal matrix, A AT = I.
Since |AAT| = |A||AT | = 1 and |AT| = |A|, so |A|2 = 1 or |A| = 1.
1.5 Determinants
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1.5 Determinants
For any 2x2 matrix 11 12
21 22
a aA
a a
Its inverse can be written as 22 121
21 11
1 a aA
a aA
Example: Find the inverse of1 0
1 2A
The determinant of A is -2
Hence, the inverse of A is
1 1 0
1/ 2 1/ 2A
How to find an inverse for a 3x3 matrix?
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1.5 Determinants of order 3
Consider an example:1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
A
Its determinant can be obtained by:
1 2 34 5 1 2 1 2
4 5 6 3 6 97 8 7 8 4 5
7 8 9
A
3 3 6 6 9 3 0
You are encouraged to find the determinant by using other rows or columns
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1.6 Inverse of a 33 matrix
Cofactor matrix of 1 2 3
0 4 5
1 0 6
A
The cofactor for each element of matrix A:
11
4 524
0 6A 12
0 55
1 6A 13
0 44
1 0A
21
2 312
0 6A 22
1 33
1 6A 23
1 22
1 0A
31
2 32
4 5A 32
1 35
0 5A 33
1 24
0 4A
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Cofactor matrix of is then given by:
1 2 3
0 4 5
1 0 6
A
24 5 4
12 3 2
2 5 4
1.6 Inverse of a 33 matrix
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1.6 Inverse of a 33 matrix
Inverse matrix of is given by:1 2 3
0 4 5
1 0 6
A
1
24 5 4 24 12 21 1
12 3 2 5 3 522
2 5 4 4 2 4
T
AA
12 11 6 11 1 11
5 22 3 22 5 22
2 11 1 11 2 11