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PLANNING Defining Goals

Establishing strategy

ORGANISING Determining what needs to be, how it will be

done and by whom

LEADING Directing and motivating people

Resolving conflicts

CONTROLLING Monitoring activities, people and performance

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SKILLS Do managers need each skill in equal

amounts? How do those amounts differ?

Management as an art learn as you go,

either have it or not Management as a profession develop

through experience Management as a science apply strict set of rules and processes – implies it can be learnt

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Legal justification equates managers with: Owners of firm exercising owners property

rights. Assumption they speak for & fairly

represent owners.

“Justification only valid to extent that managers do not surrender prerogatives

traditionally associated with their role in the firm”

Legal justification raises issue of agency

theory: Where interests of managers & other

stakeholders are in conflict. Classic example is American company

ENRON.

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EXPERT Derived from knowledge specific to a particular task or

role

REFERRANT Derived from status idolisation of followers

REWARD & COERCIVE

Self-explanatory

LEGITIMATE Societal or work based power derived from position i.e.

ability to exercise managerial prerogative

EXPERENT/REFERRENT Most likely follower response = commitment

REWARD/LEGITIMATE Most likely follower response = compliance

COERCIVE Most likely follower response = resistance

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TQM Holistic approach to long-term success that views continuous improvement in all aspects of a firm as a process and not as a short term goal. Aims to radically transform the organisation

through progressive changes to attitudes, practices, structures and systems. Encompasses every aspect of a firm and every

function: administration, communication, distribution, manufacturing etc. Means

(1) Commitment and direct involvement of senior management (2) quality is everyone’s job

(3) Build quality into products from the beginning (4) Quality requires understanding internal and external

customers (5) Focus on commitment based supportive leadership (6) Minimise barriers between management & workers

(7) Flexible training programmes and meaningful performance management

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT

Strategies and processes designed to identify, capture, structure, value, leverage and share an organisations intellectual assets to

enhance performance and competitiveness. Based on two critical activities (1) capturing and documenting individuals explicit and

tacit knowledge and (2) its dissemination within the organisation

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SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT Basically seeks maximisation of profit through machine AND worker

efficiency. Aims to achieve maximum job fragmentation to minimise skill requirements and therefore the time required to learn a particular job. Roles of workers to work and managers to plan keep strongly separate.

Time and motion, cost accounting, tool and workplace design key components of the workplace. Laid down the fundamental principles of

large scale assembly line manufacturing. BUT emphasised that process should maximise profits for the benefit of BOTH workers AND

management.

FORDISM A manufacturing philosophy that aims to achieve higher productivity by

standardising output using conveyor type assembly processes and breaking work down into small deskilled tasks. Different from Taylorism or Scientific

management in that it seeks to combine the worker and machine into a single unit and emphasises minimisation of costs rather than maximisation

of profits.

HAWTHORNES 3 STUDIES First Looked at effect of lighting levels on performance. Found that

lighting had minimal impact, unless so low you couldn’t see. 2nd One group given increasingly better conditions and privileges.

Productivity increased no matter what they were – due to Hawthorne effect.

3rd Built upon 2nd and identified role of social relations and norms in restricting productivity in groups.

Studies important because they demonstrated how much productivity is

affected by social aspects of work especially supervisor attention and group member relationships.

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PANOPTICON All seeing round the clock surveillance machine. Design ensured

that no prisoner could ever see the inspector who conducted surveillance from the central location. Prisoners never knew when they were being watched – mental uncertainty creates source of

discipline.

“The major effect of the Panopticon [was] to induce in the inmate a state of conscious and permanent visibility that assures the

automatic functioning of power. [It is set up] so to arrange things that the surveillance is permanent in its effects even if its is

discontinuous in its action; that the perfection of power should tend to render its actual exercise unnecessary… the apparatus

should be a machine for creating and sustaining a power relationship independent of the person who exercises it…”

(Foucault, 1975)

"He who is subjected to a field of visibility, and who knows it, assumes responsibility for the constraints of power; he makes

them play spontaneously upon himself; he inscribes in himself the power relation in which he simultaneously plays both roles; he becomes the principle of his own subjection“ (Foucault, 1995,

p.202)

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Theory X assumptions Workers are lazy, lack individual initiative, only

motivated by money, need to be controlled

Theory X organisations Use elaborate controls.

Motivate only with economic incentives. Managers role to ensure compliance.

Theory Y assumptions

Workers ambitious, capable of independent thought and initiative, motivated by extrinsic

as well as intrinsic factors.

Theory Y organisations: Integrate individual and organisational goals.

Latitude given to workers in terms of task performance.

Managers role to foster commitment.

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TASK BEHAVIOUR The extent that a leader engages in spelling

out the role of an individual or group Extent that a leader tells and individual or

group what, where, when and how to do the task

RELATIONSHIP BEHAVIOUR

Extent to which a leader engages in two-way communication, listening, supporting,

facilitating and giving psychological strokes.

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S1 – DIRECTING (Telling) Leaders define roles and tasks and supervise

them closely Decisions are made by the leader and

announced with mainly one way communication

S2 – COACHING (Selling)

Leaders still define roles and tasks but seek ideas and suggestions from the follower.

Decisions remain the leaders responsibility but communication links start to go two-way

S3 – SUPPORTING (Participating)

Leaders pass day-to-day decisions, such as task allocation and processes, to followers.

Leader facilitates and takes part in decisions, but control is delegated.

S4 – DELEGATING

Leaders are still involved in decisions and problem solving, but control is handed over. The follower now decides when and how the

leader will be involved.

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D1 Low readiness, unable, unwilling, uncommitted

and de-motivated e.g., new employees lacking in competence but

enthusiastic., focus on getting them started

D2 Low to moderate readiness, unable but willing and

motivated. e.g., competent but still relatively inexperienced

staff, or those starting a new role

D3 Moderate to high readiness, able but unwilling and

insecure e.g., staff whose competence means they don’t need much direction but some support to get

them to exercise their skills

D4 High readiness, able willing and confident

e.g., highly competent and confident staff able and willing to without on projects without direction

supervision

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STYLES BEST USED WHEN… Directive need immediate action, to establish overall

direction, when personnel need clarity or are inexperienced.

Consultative with complicated problems, team implementation required, group members are experienced

and have complementary skills Delegative leader lacks time, task represents a singular problem, require exercise of group members specialised

skills

LEADERS ROLES & HOW THEY MAKE DECISIONS Directive Commander who sells their decision

Consultative Moderator who relies on group decision making

Delegative Facilitator & information source who delegates to individuals

RESPONSES EXPECTED FROM FOLLOWERS

Directive Obedience Consultative Ownership, initiative, mutual

accountability Delegative Individual initiative.

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