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اللغات)اآلسترو آسيوية -) Austro-Asiatic languages Langues austroasiatiques
Austro- Asiatic Languages
04
dialects
KhmerMonVietnamese
Munda
NicobareseMon- Khmer
0444
Nicobar Islands53
21
tone language
2
phonology
a,i,uvocalic nasalm,n
liquidl,r
phoneme
PearicSemelaicaspirated
k. t. pph
th
kh
Bahnaric
glottal
stop
Munda
Korko
Katui
c
Kattu
020222
Kherwaria
n
Kantu
Santali Phuan
g
Mundari Bru
Asuri Pacoh
Bhumij Lor
Hu
Leu
Birhor Tong
Koda
So
Korwa Alak
Turi
Stieng
Kharia
Chrau
0020222
Juang Sre
Sora Mnon
g
Gorum
Loven
Geta
Oi
Gutob Lave
Remo Sok
Nahali Sapua
n
Nicobar
ese
Car
0222
Cheng
Chorwra
Bahna
r
Teressa
Renga
o
Bompaka
Sedan
g
Camorta Talua
Nancowry Cua
Trinkut
Pearic
Pear
0220222
Katchall Samer
Nicobar Coastal
Great
Angra
k
Chong
Nicobar
Khme
r
Khmer
0022022
2
Shompe
Jahaic
Tonga
0222
Mon
Khmer
Khasi
Standard
Khasi
022022
2
Kensi
u
Lyngnagg
am
Jahai
Synteng Menri
q
War
Mon
Khme
r
Jahaic
Mintil
0222
Viet-
Muong
Vietname
se 02
Che
Wong
Moung
Senoi
c
Senoic
220222
May
Temer
Arem Lanoh
Tay Pong Semna
m
Mon
Mon
022
Semai
Niakuol
Jah
Hut
Mon
Khmer
Palaungi
c
Palaung
Semel
ia
Mah
Meri 0220222
Wa
Semel
ai
Riang-
Lang
Temo
q
Danaw
Semaq
Bri
Lawa
Kawa
Khamet
Mang
Bulan
Angku
Kham
uic
Khamu
Mal
Mrabi
Yumbre
Khao
Tayhat
Tin
Kha
Kwang
Lim
voiced
mbm
palatalčň
diphthongs
Dravidian languages
equational
pausebe
Semai
SanskritPali
taboo words
Alexander de
Rhodes
accent marks
2124
Wa
PacohLawaPumanMrabi
- W.W.SKEAT & C.O.BLAGDEN, Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula (1906).
اللغات)ألسترالية األصلية -) Australian aboriginal languages Langues aborigènes
d'Australie
Australian aboriginal languages164
Torres StraitTasmania
Arnhem land
cape
york
34
Mabuiag
03
12 10
3 6
Bidjandjara
m,p
interdental(n,t) alveolar
y,k
b,p
r
kangaroowallabykookaburra
coolibah tree
T.A.SEBEOK (ed), Current Trends in Linguistics, Vol. 8,& Linguistics in
Oceania (The Hague, Mouton 1974).
اللغات)اآلسترو آسيوية -) Austro-Asiatic languages Langues austroasiatiques
Austro- Asiatic Languages
04
dialects
KhmerMonVietnamese
Munda
NicobareseMon- Khmer
0444
Nicobar Islands
53
21
tone language
2
phonology
a,i,uvocalic nasal
m,nliquidl,r
phoneme
PearicSemelaicaspirated
k. t. p
ph
th
kh
Bahnaric
glottal
stop
Munda
Korko
Katui
c
Kattu
020222
Kherwari
an
Kantu
Santali Phuan
g
Mundari Bru
Asuri Pacoh
Bhumij Lor
Hu
Leu
Birhor Tong
Koda So
Korwa Alak
Turi
Stieng
002022
2
Kharia Chrau
Juang Sre
Sora Mnon
g
Gorum
Loven
Geta
Oi
Gutob Lave
Remo Sok
Nahali Sapua
n
Nicobar
ese
Car
0222
Cheng
Chorwra
Bahna
r
Teressa
Renga
o
Bompaka
Sedan
g
Camorta Talua
Nancowr
y
Cua
Trinkut
Pearic
Pear
022022
2
Katchall Samer
Nicobar Coastal
Great
Angra
k
Chong
Nicobar
Khme
r
Khme
r
002202
22
Shompe
Jahaic
Tonga
0222
Mon
Khmer
Khasi
Standard
Khasi
022022
2
Kensi
u
Lyngnagg
am
Jahai
Synteng
Menri
q
War
Mon
Khme
r
Jahaic
Mintil
0222
Viet-
Muon
g
Vietname
se 02
Che
Wong
Moung
Senoi
c
Senoic
220222
May
Temer
Arem Lanoh
Tay Pong Semna
m
Mon
Mon
022
2
Semai
Niakuol
Jah
Hut
Mon
Khmer
Palaungi
c
Palaung
Semel
Mah
Meri 022022
2
Wa
Semel
ia
ai
Riang-
Lang
Temo
q
Danaw
Semaq
Bri
Lawa
Kawa
Khamet
Mang
Bulan
Angku
Kham
uic
Khamu
Mal
Mrabi
Yumbre
Khao
Tayhat
Tin
Kha
Kwang
Lim
voiced
mbm
palatalčň
diphthongs
Dravidian languages
equational
pausebe
Semai
SanskritPali
taboo words
Alexander de
Rhodes
accent marks
2124
WaPacohLawaPumanMrabi
- W.W.SKEAT & C.O.BLAGDEN, Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula (1906).
اللغات)إفريقية ) Africa Afrique
Sigismund Koelle
Friedrich Muller
Lepsius
Carl Meinhof
Dietrich Westermann
Joseph Greenberg
2165
1
05
16
01
a
ba
05
221
su
ki
ki+ su= kisu
vi
vi+ su= visu
ki -su ki- kali ki- moja ki- me- poya
viki
vi- su vi- kali vi- name vi- me-potea
pata
patana
patanisha
patia
patiliza
patilizana
0
2
02
4
اللغات)القفقاسية -) Caucasian languages Langues caucasiennes
langues caucasiennes ou caucasiques
52
Abkhaze
Tchétchène
Géorgien
cyrillique2122 2151
oudi
phonèmes
21 oubykh
60 04
34
54 consonnes
voyelles24
32 32
consonnes occlusivessonores
bsourdes aspirées
Phsourdes
glottalisées
consonnes affriquées
verbes ergatifs
structure ergative
constructions affectivesindirectes
:
A.BYHAN, La Civilisation caucasienne, Payot (Paris, 1936).
J.C.CATFORD, Mountain of Tongues: the Languages of The Caucasus, (Annual
Review of Anthropology,n˚6,1977).
اللغات)الهندية اإليرانية -) Indo-Iranian languages Langues indo-iraniennes
Indo-Iranian Languages
2 DardicPisacha
KafiriKashmiriKhowarKohistani
Romani
1 IndicIndo-AryanPali
PrakritVedic
AssameseBengali
Bihari
GujaratiRajasthani
PunjabiSindhi
Eastern Indic
AwadhiWestern IndicKhari
BoliHindustaniUrdu
Marathi
Pahari
(Sinhalese Singhalese)
5 IranianAvestan
Old Persian
KhwarezmianOssetic
Pamir DialectsPushtu
BaluchiKurdish
Middle PersianPahlaviParthian
(Farsi) PersianTajiki
:
- S. K. CHATTERJI, Languages and Literatures of Modern India (Calcutta 1963).
- W. B.LOCKWOOD, A Panorama of Indo-European Languages (1977).
اللغات)األسترونيزية -) Austronesian languages Langues austronésiennes
Austronesian Languages
Malayo Polynesian
Proto- Austronesian
144 204
ChamorroPalauan
Celebes
MaduraLombok
Mon
Khmer
Malay22
Malacca Straits
lingua franca
borrowing
Javanese
Bahasa
MinangkabauKinchaiMadurese
GayoToba- Batak
23 25
30
Sanskrit
Sudanese20
Roman Alphabet
Madurese
1
Sumenep
Bali
5
Sasak
Nagadju
BanjareseBrunei MalayKutai
MalayIbanKahyanKapuas
Malagasy
Merina
1
Chamic03
14
RadeCuruJarai
04
LuzonMindoroPalawanVisayan
Tagalog21
2106
34
Bikol0
Cebuano
21 Mindanao
HiligaynonIlongo3
PanayCebuBohol
Pampangan
IlocanoIloko
3 BontocIfugao
TinggianGaddangIsnegPangasinan
MaranaoTiruray
BilaanTagabili
Formosan Languages
Atayal
SeedikAmiPaiwanBununThaoTsou
SaaroraKanabu
244
Aru IslandsDoberai Peninsula
Papuan languagesTimor
Less Sundas
04 Buginese0
GorontaloSuwawaSangir
MandarDuriMunaKendariSikka
HavuneseSumbaAmboneseBuliBiga
reduplication
voiced stops(b,d,j,g)voiceless
stops(p,t,c,k)m,n,ñ,η
oe
Oceanic544
Sorera Bay
MelanesiaMicronesiaPolynesia
26
20
Fijian
Sumoan144.444
Tongan
16.444 Tahitian
Society IslandsNew
Zealand Maori244.444 Hawaiian
TuamotuanCookMagareva
FutunanUvean
TokelauanEllice
kiwikavakakamoa
hula
particlesfunction
words
25
Mariana Islands6 5.444
Palauan
25.444
Nukuoro344 Kapingamarangi
Truk2344 Ponape
Marshallese
54.444 Gilbertese
36444 Gelbert IslandsTruk
52.444 HallMortlock
0444 6444
KorsaeanKorsae IslandCarolinese
SaipanUlithian
YapeseYapNauruan
velarized consonants
germinate
demonstrative pronouns
134
164.444
Motu20444
Moresby PortPapuanSuau
Dobu
KiriwinaTrobrianWedau
MorobeMadang
YabemGraged
Kranket
New Britain13
Tolai14 Admiralty64
Solomon04
MotaNguna-
Tongoa
-T.A.SEBOEK. Current Trends in Linguistics, Vol.8, 1971 (The Hague, Mouton
1974).
-ISIDORE DYEN, A Lexicostatistical Classification of the Austronesian
Languages(1963).
-G.W.GRACE, The Position of the Polynesian Languages within the Austronesian
“Malayo- Polynesian Language Family” (1959).
اللغات)االسكندنافية -) Scandinavia Scandinavie
Scandinavian Languages
North Germanic
Faeroese
144 644 213 Runic
Alphabet
Proto -
Scandinavian
AnglesJutesEider
344 044
Common Scandinavian
044 2434
Danelaw
OrkneysShetlandHebridesIsle of Man
0444
2034
2234
2134
Gutnish
caupövinum
helviti
helliwitihellewite
2134 2034
2034 2334
-R.H.ROBINS, A Short History of Linguistics (Longman, London 1969).
لغات)األسكيمو واألليوت -) Eskimo-Aleut languages Langues eskimo-aléoutes
Eskimo -
Aleut Languages
03.444
Greenland20.444
50.444 144
Chukchi
Bering Strait
2444
Aleutian Islands244
Inuk
Inupik
YukYupik
2002
Rasmus Rask2214
Hans Egede
2001
Samuel Kleinschmidt
Kq
K
Labrador2244 .
Ivan Veniaminov
Cyrillic2254
2202
Edmund Peck2202 2135
2102
2162
2102
2151
2150
uia
e
iia
u
25 12
54
2012
iglookayak
-T.A.SEBEOK,Current Trends in Linguistics, Vol.10 (London 1971).
لغات)األسكيمو واألليوت -) Eskimo-Aleut languages Langues eskimo-aléoutes
Eskimo -
Aleut Languages
03.444
Greenland20.444
50.444 144
Chukchi
Bering Strait
2444
Aleutian Islands244
Inuk
Inupik
YukYupik
2002
Rasmus Rask2214
Hans Egede
2001
Samuel Kleinschmidt
Kq
K
Labrador2244 .
Ivan Veniaminov
Cyrillic2254
2202
Edmund Peck2202 2135
2102
2162
2102
2151
2150
uia
e
iia
u
25 12
54
2012
iglookayak
-T.A.SEBEOK,Current Trends in Linguistics, Vol.10 (London 1971).
اللغات)األورالية -) Uralic languages Langues ouraliennes
Uralic Languages
Finno-UgricSamoyed
0 24
Kama
Ob
Hungarian
Ob-Ugric
MansiKhanti
Finno-Baltic
Karelian
IngrianLivonianVoticVeps
Lapp
Permian
UdmurtKomi
Mari
Mordivan
Nenets
EnetsNaganasan
Selkup
consonants
p/t/k/s/S/O/e/r/m/n/y/j/v/t′/s′/O′/l′/n′
p/t/sb/d/z
vowels
stress
backfront
Assimilation
syntax & morphology
vocabulary
- Collinder, Bjorn, Fenno-Ugric Vocabulary, 2nd
rev. ed. (Benjamins N. Am. 1977).
- Roheim, Geza, Hungarian and Vogul Mythology (1954 reprint, AMS Press 1988).
اللغات)األناضولية -) Anatolian languages langues anatoliennes
Anatolian Languages
Asianic Languages
Indo-European
Languages
Hethitolog
Anatolia
Anadolu
1534 1234
Karum
Kanesh
2614
HattusaBogazköy234
2146 H.Winkeler2121
13
Rozny2123
Hittite
William Wright
2201
Nesili
2
1
UgaritAlalakh
Palaic
Cuneiform Luwian
Hiroglyphic Luwian
2100
KaratepeH.Bossert
2135
Lycian
234 Xanthos
Carian
SideticSide
Pamphylia
Pisidian
Lydian
Sardes
Meriggi
waterwaterwasser
mewanew neuneos
novus
wettfetos
itariter
Phrygian
Midas
Gordiun
134
244
Koine
KhattianKhattic
2634
2344 LabarnaKhattsili
2044 2144
2044
HurrianMitanni
Subarian
Khurlili
2503
Urkish
044
Amenhotep III
agglutinatin
Uratian
Van
Khaldi
- Handbuch, der Orientalistik, l.Abt.,2. Band, 1, und 2. Abeschn, LFG2;
altkleinasiatische Sprachen (Leiden 1969).
اللغات)اإليطالية القديمة -) Italic languages Langues italiques
Italic languages
Apennine Peninsula
Po Valley
UmbrianOscanLatinFaliscan
Venetic
Iguvin Tables2000 Gubbio
SamniumBruttiumLucania
Campania
NolaAbella
Batina
Latium
EtruscanCeltic
1 phonetics
f
[bh][dh][gh]bhrátér
fraterdhe-kfacio
fakiiadfagsto
[v]
[b][d][g][f]
liberi
Louderobosloufroloferta
0 morphology
[a]-r
Hittite
Tocharian
[ï]
[o]
[-eis][-oi]
[-s]
Sanskrit
-u-v[-t(t)]
sdonavitduunated
donasto
2 vocabulary
animus
anamum
ignis
agnipirpÿr
fyraquaahwa
Gothicuturfilius
filiapuklofutir
portaveruarx
ocarmoeniamurus
feihuss
scriberescriftas
legere
Lexe
344
consul
meddixsenatus
comitiakumparakineis comono
kumbennieis
ceus
ceuis144
civisceivis
GUIITTON MANESSY, J. "l'indo-européen", dans: André Martinet,Le langage,
(Gallimard Paris 1968).
- C.D.,BUCK, A grammar of Oscan and Umbrian, (Boston 1904).
لغات)البابوا -) Papuan languages Langues papoues
Papuan Languages
Austronesian
Enga
Finisterre-Huon Phylum
Madang Phylum
tonestress
اللغات)البلطيقية -) Baltic languages Langues baltes
Baltic Languages
Lithuanian
1.064.444
044
Martynas Mazvydas
2300
Danielius Kleinas
2635 2630 2020 2024
Konstantinas
Sirvydas2611
Latvian
2.500.444 236.444
2323
2652
2600
2251 2260 2250 2203
seloniansemigallian
- F.THOMAS & W.R.SCHMALSTEIG, Baltic Linguistics (Penn. State University
Press 1970).
اللغات)األمريكية _الهندية -) American Indian languages Langues amérindiennes
Behring
American- Indian
Inuit
EskimoAleut
Algonquin
ArapahoBlackfootCheyenne
Hoka-SiouxCrowSiouxPawnee
Iroquois (Cherokee)Muskogee (Creek)
NadeneAthabaska (Apache)
Penutian (Chinook)
Uto-Aztec
Shoshonean (Comanche)Macro-Otomanguean
Macro-Chibchan
Andean-EquatorialGe-Pano-Carib
ArawakanAraucan
:
- W. T. HAGAN, American Indians (1961).
اللغات)األسترونيزية -) Austronesian languages Langues austronésiennes
Austronesian Languages
Malayo Polynesian
Proto- Austronesian
144 204
ChamorroPalauan
Celebes
MaduraLombok
Mon
Khmer
Malay22
Malacca Straits
lingua franca
borrowing
Javanese
Bahasa
MinangkabauKinchaiMadurese
GayoToba- Batak
23 25
30
Sanskrit
Sudanese20
Roman Alphabet
Madurese
1
Sumenep
Bali
5
Sasak
Nagadju
BanjareseBrunei MalayKutai
MalayIbanKahyanKapuas
Malagasy
Merina
1
Chamic03
14
RadeCuruJarai
04
LuzonMindoroPalawanVisayan
Tagalog21
2106
34
Bikol0
Cebuano
21 Mindanao
HiligaynonIlongo3
PanayCebuBohol
Pampangan
IlocanoIloko
3 BontocIfugao
TinggianGaddangIsnegPangasinan
MaranaoTiruray
BilaanTagabili
Formosan Languages
Atayal
SeedikAmiPaiwanBununThaoTsou
SaaroraKanabu
244
Aru IslandsDoberai Peninsula
Papuan languagesTimor
Less Sundas
04 Buginese0
GorontaloSuwawaSangir
MandarDuriMunaKendariSikka
HavuneseSumbaAmboneseBuliBiga
reduplication
voiced stops(b,d,j,g)voiceless
stops(p,t,c,k)m,n,ñ,η
oe
Oceanic544
Sorera Bay
MelanesiaMicronesiaPolynesia
26
20
Fijian
Sumoan144.444
Tongan
16.444 Tahitian
Society IslandsNew
Zealand Maori244.444 Hawaiian
TuamotuanCookMagareva
FutunanUvean
TokelauanEllice
kiwikavakakamoa
hula
particlesfunction
words
25
Mariana Islands65.444
Palauan
25.444
Nukuoro344 Kapingamarangi
Truk2344 Ponape
Marshallese
54.444 Gilbertese
36444 Gelbert IslandsTruk
52.444 HallMortlock
0444 6444
KorsaeanKorsae IslandCarolinese
SaipanUlithian
YapeseYapNauruan
velarized consonants
germinate
demonstrative pronouns
134
164.444
Motu20444
Moresby PortPapuanSuau
Dobu
KiriwinaTrobrianWedau
MorobeMadang
YabemGraged
Kranket
New Britain13
Tolai14 Admiralty64
Solomon04
MotaNguna-
Tongoa
-T.A.SEBOEK. Current Trends in Linguistics, Vol.8, 1971 (The Hague, Mouton
1974).
-ISIDORE DYEN, A Lexicostatistical Classification of the Austronesian
Languages(1963).
-G.W.GRACE, The Position of the Polynesian Languages within the Austronesian
“Malayo- Polynesian Language Family” (1959).
اللغات)الصينية التبتية -) Sino-Tibetan language Langues sino-tibétaines
Sino-Tibetan Languages
Sinitic Languages
Tibeto- Burmese Languages
لغات)التاي -) Thai language Thaï (langue)
ThaiSiamese
ThailandProto Tai
Family
Lao
LaosShanUpper Burma
YunnanTai Lue
Sipsong PannaTai Dam
Iowa
Bangkok
Chiangmai
IsanKorat
Chumpon
HmongLahu
KhmerMalay
Kam MuangYuan
Phuthai & Phuan
Tonal Language
2333
SanskritPali
Indic
William Gedney
2534 2060
Khun
اللغات)األلطية -) Altaic languages Langues altaïques
(
Altaic Languages
TurkicMongolianMongol
Manchu-Tungus
Altai Mountains
2600 2122
Turkish
Uzbek
Azerbaijani
Turkmen
Tatar
Kazakh
Kirghiz
Yakut63
Mongol
Kalmyk
BuryatDaghurMonguor
Tangus
NanaiEvenkLamut
phonology
vowels
consonants
back vowelsfront vowels
rounded vowelsunrounded vowels
syntax and morphology
agglutinative languagessuffixes
roots
grammatical gender
coordination
subordination
vocabulary
phonemes
writing system
2111
اللغات)القفقاسية -) Caucasian languages Langues caucasiennes
langues caucasiennes ou caucasiques
52
Abkhaze
Tchétchène
Géorgien
cyrillique2122 2151
oudi
phonèmes
21 oubykh
60 04
34
54 consonnes
voyelles24
32 32
consonnes occlusivessonores
bsourdes aspirées
Phsourdes
glottalisées
consonnes affriquées
verbes ergatifs
structure ergative
constructions affectivesindirectes
:
A.BYHAN, La Civilisation caucasienne, Payot (Paris, 1936).
J.C.CATFORD, Mountain of Tongues: the Languages of The Caucasus, (Annual
Review of Anthropology,n˚6,1977).
اللغات)الدرافيدية -) Dravidian languages Langues dravidiennes
Dravidian Languages
114
Indo-European
TamilMalayalamIrula
TodaKotaBadagaKodaguKannada
Tulu
TeluguGondi
KondaKuiKuwiPengoManda
KolamiNaikiParji
Ollari
BrahuiMaltoKurukh
134034655
suffixes
prefixesIndo-Aryan
:
- DAVID CRYSTAL, An Encyclopedia Dictionary of Language & Languages
(Blackwell Publishers 1992,1993).
- KIRSTEN MAMKJAER (ed.),The Linguistics Encyclopedia, Routledge
(London and New York 1996).
لغات)الرومانس -) Romance languages Langues romanes
langues romanes
225
regeerrege
genre neutre
o
a
e
e
s
o
eiae
ille
ille caballusle
chevalel caballoo cavaloil cavallo
calul
ille caballus
caballus ille
murusun mur
un
amavi
amai
ho amato
:
A.MARTINET, dir., Le Langage, Encyclopédie de la Pléiade (Paris 1968).
D.LINCOLN CANFIELD & J. CARY DAVIS, An Introduction to Romance Lin-
guistics (Southern Ill.Univ. Press 1975).
WILLIAM ASHBY, et al., eds., Linguistic Perspectives on the Romance Lan-
guages (Benjamins N. Am. 1993).
اللغات)األورالية -) Uralic languages Langues ouraliennes
Uralic Languages
Finno-UgricSamoyed
0 24
Kama
Ob
Hungarian
Ob-Ugric
MansiKhanti
Finno-Baltic
Karelian
IngrianLivonianVoticVeps
Lapp
Permian
UdmurtKomi
Mari
Mordivan
Nenets
EnetsNaganasan
Selkup
consonants
p/t/k/s/S/O/e/r/m/n/y/j/v/t′/s′/O′/l′/n′
p/t/sb/d/z
vowels
stress
backfront
Assimilation
syntax & morphology
vocabulary
- Collinder, Bjorn, Fenno-Ugric Vocabulary, 2nd
rev. ed. (Benjamins N. Am. 1977).
- Roheim, Geza, Hungarian and Vogul Mythology (1954 reprint, AMS Press 1988).
اللغات)السامية -) Semitic languages Langues sémitiques
Semitic LanguagesHamito-
Semitic LanguagesAfro-Asiatic
2053 2241 A.von Schlözer
1 Akkadian
1544 344 1444
Eblaite1044
0
Amorite1444 2344
Ugaritic
Canaanite
2344
PhoenicianPunic
MoabiteEdmoniteAmmoniteHebrew
204 2262
Hebrew
113 11
Aramaic
234
Syriac
11
2
Arabic
134
12
Maltese534.444
4
South Arabic
2544
244
Ethiopian Languages
2444
Ge‘ez
2444
Amharic
Cushitic
23
23
55
Tigrinya
Tigre
أبجديات بعض اللغات السامية
:
CRYSTAL DAVID, An Encyclopedia of Language and Languages (Blackwell
1992).
W.RANDALL CARR, Dialect Geography of Syria - Palestine, 1000-586 B.C
(Univ. of Pa. Press 1985).
اللغات)السالفية -) Slavic languages Langues slaves
اللغات)السلتية -) Celtic languages Langues celtiques
celtic languagesIndo-
European
Bretagne
Gatalian
1
1
Gaelic
WalesBrythonic
Isle of ManCornwall
CumbriaBreton
344.444
Cornish
Welsh
644.444
IrishScottishManx
034.444 14.444
macmap
144 2144
td
sz
Ulster Cycle
Cuchulain
Fenian Cycle
Finn MacCool
Lowland Scottish
2503
John BarbourBruce
Gawin DouglasRobert Henryson
William DunbarChaucer
2064 2065 James Macpherson
Walter Scott
AneurinTaliesin
Merlin
2204 2210 Owain CyfeiliogDafydd
ap Gwilym
John
HughesJohn JohnsDaniel Owen
Kate Roberts
Saunders LewisRichard LlewellynDylan Thomas
Emlyn Williams
2003 2252 Jean
François Le Gonidec2240 2212
2262
Tangi MalmancheRoparz Hémon
2113 Gwalarn
:
- COMRIE BERNARD ed., The World‘s Major Languages (Routledge 1987, 1989).
- DAVID CRYSTAL,An Encyclopedia of Language and Languages (Blackwell
1992).
- DOUGLAS B.GREGOR, Celtic: A Comparative Study (Oleander Press 1980).
اللغات)األسترونيزية -) Austronesian languages Langues austronésiennes
Austronesian Languages
Malayo Polynesian
Proto- Austronesian
144 204
ChamorroPalauan
Celebes
MaduraLombok
Mon
Khmer
Malay22
Malacca Straits
lingua franca
borrowing
Javanese
Bahasa
MinangkabauKinchaiMadurese
GayoToba- Batak
23 25
30
Sanskrit
Sudanese20
Roman Alphabet
Madurese
1
Sumenep
Bali
5
Sasak
Nagadju
BanjareseBrunei MalayKutai
MalayIbanKahyanKapuas
Malagasy
Merina
1
Chamic03
14
RadeCuruJarai
04
LuzonMindoroPalawanVisayan
Tagalog21
2106
34
Bikol0
Cebuano
21 Mindanao
HiligaynonIlongo3
PanayCebuBohol
Pampangan
IlocanoIloko
3 BontocIfugao
TinggianGaddangIsnegPangasinan
MaranaoTiruray
BilaanTagabili
Formosan Languages
Atayal
SeedikAmiPaiwanBununThaoTsou
SaaroraKanabu
244
Aru IslandsDoberai Peninsula
Papuan languagesTimor
Less Sundas
04 Buginese0
GorontaloSuwawaSangir
MandarDuriMunaKendariSikka
HavuneseSumbaAmboneseBuliBiga
reduplication
voiced stops(b,d,j,g)voiceless
stops(p,t,c,k)m,n,ñ,η
oe
Oceanic544
Sorera Bay
MelanesiaMicronesiaPolynesia
26
20
Fijian
Sumoan144.444
Tongan
16.444 Tahitian
Society IslandsNew
Zealand Maori244.444 Hawaiian
TuamotuanCookMagareva
FutunanUvean
TokelauanEllice
kiwikavakakamoa
hula
particlesfunction
words
25
Mariana Islands65.444
Palauan
25.444
Nukuoro344 Kapingamarangi
Truk2344 Ponape
Marshallese
54.444 Gilbertese
36444 Gelbert IslandsTruk
52.444 HallMortlock
0444 6444
KorsaeanKorsae IslandCarolinese
SaipanUlithian
YapeseYapNauruan
velarized consonants
germinate
demonstrative pronouns
134
164.444
Motu204 44
Moresby PortPapuanSuau
Dobu
KiriwinaTrobrianWedau
MorobeMadang
YabemGraged
Kranket
New Britain13
Tolai14 Admiralty64
Solomon04
MotaNguna-
Tongoa
-T.A.SEBOEK. Current Trends in Linguistics, Vol.8, 1971 (The Hague, Mouton
1974).
-ISIDORE DYEN, A Lexicostatistical Classification of the Austronesian
Languages(1963).
-G.W.GRACE, The Position of the Polynesian Languages within the Austronesian
“Malayo- Polynesian Language Family” (1959).
اللغات)اآلسترو آسيوية -) Austro-Asiatic languages Langues austroasiatiques
Austro- Asiatic Languages
04
dialects
KhmerMonVietnamese
Munda
NicobareseMon- Khmer
0444
Nicobar Islands53
21
tone language
2
phonology
a,i,uvocalic nasalm,n
liquidl,r
phoneme
PearicSemelaicaspirated
k. t. pph
th
kh
Bahnaric
glottal
stop
Munda
Korko
Katui
c
Kattu
020222
Kherwaria
n
Kantu
Santali Phuan
g
Mundari Bru
Asuri Pacoh
Bhumij Lor
Hu
Leu
Birhor Tong
Koda
So
Korwa Alak
Turi
Stieng
Kharia
Chrau
0020222
Juang Sre
Sora Mnon
g
Gorum
Loven
Geta
Oi
Gutob Lave
Remo Sok
Nahali Sapua
n
Nicobar
ese
Car
0222
Cheng
Chorwra
Bahna
r
Teressa
Renga
o
Bompaka
Sedan
g
Camorta Talua
Nancowry Cua
Trinkut
Pearic
Pear
0220222
Katchall Samer
Nicobar Coastal
Great
Angra
k
Chong
Nicobar
Khme
r
Khmer
0022022
2
Shompe
Jahaic
Tonga
0222
Mon
Khmer
Khasi
Standard
Khasi
022022
2
Kensi
u
Lyngnagg
am
Jahai
Synteng Menri
q
War
Mon
Khme
r
Jahaic
Mintil
0222
Viet-
Muong
Vietname
se 02
Che
Wong
Moung
Senoi
c
Senoic
220222
May
Temer
Arem Lanoh
Tay Pong Semna
m
Mon
Mon
022
Semai
Niakuol
Jah
Hut
Mon
Khmer
Palaungi
c
Palaung
Semel
ia
Mah
Meri 0220222
Wa
Semel
ai
Riang-
Lang
Temo
q
Danaw
Semaq
Bri
Lawa
Kawa
Khamet
Mang
Bulan
Angku
Kham
uic
Khamu
Mal
Mrabi
Yumbre
Khao
Tayhat
Tin
Kha
Kwang
Lim
voiced
mbm
palatalčň
diphthongs
Dravidian languages
equational
pausebe
Semai
SanskritPali
taboo words
Alexander de
Rhodes
accent marks
2124
Wa
PacohLawaPumanMrabi
- W.W.SKEAT & C.O.BLAGDEN, Pagan Races of the Malay Peninsula (1906).
اللغات)الهندية اإليرانية -) Indo-Iranian languages Langues indo-iraniennes
Indo-Iranian Languages
2 DardicPisacha
KafiriKashmiriKhowarKohistani
Romani
1 IndicIndo-AryanPali
PrakritVedic
AssameseBengali
Bihari
GujaratiRajasthani
PunjabiSindhi
Eastern Indic
AwadhiWestern IndicKhari
BoliHindustaniUrdu
Marathi
Pahari
(Sinhalese Singhalese)
5 IranianAvestan
Old Persian
KhwarezmianOssetic
Pamir DialectsPushtu
BaluchiKurdish
Middle PersianPahlaviParthian
(Farsi) PersianTajiki
:
- S. K. CHATTERJI, Languages and Literatures of Modern India (Calcutta 1963).
- W. B.LOCKWOOD, A Panorama of Indo-European Languages (1977).
اللغات)األوروبية _الهندية -) Indo-European languages Langues indo-européennes
Indo-European
W.Lockwood
Dardic
Indic
BengaliPunjabiSindhiGujarati
Rajastani
AvestaOld Persian
KhwarazmianPamirPushtu
SogdianBaluchiKurdish
Thraco-IllyrianThraco-Phrygian
Tokharian
:
- JOHN P. HUGHES, The Science of Language (1962).
- W.B.LOCKOOD, A Panorama of Indo- European Languages (1977).
في اللغة)اليونان -) Greece Grèce
20
Mycenaean
20 25 Linear B
2 0
Cyrillic
dialects2 Doric1 Aeolic5
IonicAttic0 ArcadoCypriot
Koine:Hellenistic0
0
:Byzantine3 23
23
Koini Neoelliniki
Demotic Greek
Katharevusa
2160 Demotic
2444