Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) De-Mystified

Gregory A. Norris

Chief Scientist, ILFI

Director, Sustainability and Health Initiative for Net Positive Enterprise (SHINE) @ MIT

Introductions and Questions

• Name, organization, role• What you hope to get from this session

• What about LCA (in LEED or otherwise) are you wondering?

Overview

• Introduction: Ideas, Concepts, and Overview• Methodology• Databases and Tools• Application Examples• Break• Applying LCA to Green / Sustainable Construction

including LEED v4• The Life Cycle Benefits of Sustainable Buildings• Whole Building LCA: Building Life Cycle Impact Reduction• Env. Prod. Declarations: BPD&O: EPDs• Raw Material Sourcing: BPD&O: Sourcing of Raw Materials

Objective

• Objective: Provide comprehensive environmental (sustainability) assessments of goods and services

• Need:– Comprehensiveness Environmentally– Comprehensiveness Causally

→ “The Life Cycle”

• Note: With methods of “Social LCA” and “Life Cycle Sustainability Assessment,” the scope of LCA has more recently become even broader than “full environmental comprehensiveness”

Environmental Comprehensiveness

• Which environmental impacts must we address?• What data must we gather,

about activities in the product/service life cycle,in order to address these impacts?

(white board)

Environmental Comprehensiveness

• What about waste?• What about renewable energy?• What about recycled content?• What about recycling?

• Bottom line: these are aspects of the life cycle, which influence impacts of concern.They are not, themselves, impacts per se.

Objective

• Provide comprehensive environmental (sustainability) assessments of goods and services

• Need:– Comprehensiveness Environmentally

– Comprehensiveness Causally→ “The Life Cycle”

What's in the system or the life cycle?

• Which activities?• Let's consider a cup of coffee

(white board)

Causal Comprehensiveness: Interesting Questions

• We're tracing Direct Requirements and the supply chain of Indirect Requirements

– What about downstream? – Life Cycle vs. Supply Chain

– Where (if anywhere) does a supply chain end?– What about impacts of other business expenses?

• What about causally-required inputs which may not be purchased by the activities

– e.g., roads• What about other causal influences of the life cycle,

besides direct/indirect requirements?

• For now, let's appreciate the questions. We'll answer them after we've introduced methodology, and data.

... is dioxin-free, right?

Implications of Life Cycle Scope

... sorry Grandma.

Looking (just a bit) upstream...

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

Output from every sector, $, induced insupply chain of $1000 of Jam

$

sectors

Aluminum $13.48

Quantifying the Upstream...

Overview

• Introduction: Ideas, Concepts, and Overview• Methodology• Databases and Tools• Application Examples• Break• Applying LCA to Green / Sustainable Construction

including LEED v4• The Life Cycle Benefits of Sustainable Buildings• Whole Building LCA: Building Life Cycle Impact Reduction• Env. Prod. Declarations: BPD&O: EPDs• Raw Material Sourcing: BPD&O: Sourcing of Raw Materials

ISO Standards for LCA

14040: Principles and Framework

14044: Requirements and Guidelines

Goal & Scope Definition

Inventory Analysis

Impact Assessment

Life Cycle Assessment Framework

Interpretation

Direct Applications:* Product Development & Improvement

* Strategic planning

* Public policy making

* Marketing

* Other

Goal and Scope Definition

Decision(s) to be supported Functions of alternatives

express in functional unit

Impacts to be considered Intended use of the study

Communication to “Third Parties?” Claim of overall preferability?

Heart of LCA: The Functional Unit

Examples: Paints Light bulbs Diapers

Life Cycle Inventory and Life Cycle Impact Assessment

• Life cycle inventory (LCI) modeling– Life Cycle Inventory Results

• Life cycle Impact Assessment methods– LCIA results

Building Block of Footprint Computation: Unit Process

Inputs from nature

Outputs to nature

Inputsfromotherprocesses

Outputstoother processes

Life Cycle Inventory: Cradle-To-Gate “Footprint”

LCI -- LCIA method -- LCIA ResultsData1.0001.3001.6001.9002.2002.5002.8003.1003.4003.7004.0004.3004.6004.9005.2005.5005.8006.1006.4006.7007.0007.3007.6007.9008.2008.5008.8009.1009.4009.70010.00010.30010.60010.90011.20011.500

Impact Assessment Methods are mult-stage; and multipleData1.0001.3001.6001.9002.2002.5002.8003.1003.4003.7004.0004.3004.6004.9005.2005.5005.8006.1006.4006.7007.0007.3007.6007.9008.2008.5008.8009.1009.4009.70010.00010.30010.60010.90011.20011.500

CO2, N2O, CH4, etc.

LCIA Example: Global Warming Potential

ElectromagneticRadiation

InfraredRadiation

years

Btu /kg /year

Climate Change

Life Cycle Impact Assessment

Characterization

Normalization

Characterization

Damage Assessment

NormalizationValuation

Valuation

Recent LCIA Method: ReCiPe (2009)

Overview

• Introduction: Ideas, Concepts, and Overview• Methodology• Databases and Tools• Application Examples• Break• Applying LCA to Green / Sustainable Construction

including LEED v4• The Life Cycle Benefits of Sustainable Buildings• Whole Building LCA: Building Life Cycle Impact Reduction• Env. Prod. Declarations: BPD&O: EPDs• Raw Material Sourcing: BPD&O: Sourcing of Raw Materials

Life Cycle Inventory: 2 Families of Approach

1. Process modeling» Classical LCA approach» Engineering unit processes» Material and energy flow emphasis» Inter-process flows in physical units» Public databases in NA limited» High resolution (product output) at expense of boundary

(process types & cut-offs)

Life Cycle Inventory: Second Approach

2. Economic Input/Output Approach» National I/O model with sector pollution coefficients (kg

CO2 per $ output)» Sectors as unit processes» Include equipment, services, minor inputs» Inter-process flows in dollars (initially)» US particularly data-rich » Boundary comprehensiveness at expense of product &

process coarseness

Scope of Inputs Included

Material / Energy inputs - major Equipment, capital, infrastructure - major Material / Energy inputs - minor Overhead inputs (building, site, etc.) Service inputs Personnel-related expenses (travel, hotels…)

Most process LCA models capture only the major material and energy inputs to a process;A few ambitious LCA models include major capital, equipment, and infrastructure requirements;IO LCA databases are intended to be economically comprehensive, so they capture minor, overhead, service, and even personnel-related inputs!

Major LCI Databases

• Process LCI Databases– Ecoinvent– GaBi– US LCI, etc.

• Input Output– US

• USEEIO– International

• GTAP (e.g., → Social Hotspot Database)• EXIOBASE• EORA

The LCA Data & Tool Ecosystem

Tools for LCA SimaPro OpenLCA GaBi

Tools for WBLCA

Ind AvgDatabases US LCI

USEEIOEcoinvent

GaBi

Social Hotspot DB

etc...

etc...

Athena Tally etc...

Overview

• Introduction: Ideas, Concepts, and Overview• Methodology• Databases and Tools• Application Examples• Break• Applying LCA to Green / Sustainable Construction

including LEED v4• The Life Cycle Benefits of Sustainable Buildings• Whole Building LCA: Building Life Cycle Impact Reduction• Env. Prod. Declarations: BPD&O: EPDs• Raw Material Sourcing: BPD&O: Sourcing of Raw Materials

Lessons from LCA Application

Supply chains can be huge

Distribution can be huge

Use phase can be huge

End of life can be huge

And more surprises...

Supply chains can be huge: Buyer power, and the 80-80 Rule

Each sector's upstream air pollution burden as a percent of its total (upstream + direct) air pollution burden

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Percent of sectors

Ups

tream

air

pollu

tion

burd

en /

tota

l

Supply chain

Direct + supply chain

53%

4%5%8%

30%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

1

FTM RetailFTM WholesaleFTM AirFTM TruckProduction

Distribution (“factory through mall”) can be huge

GWP Results for average computers; data: late 1990s

Analyzing 1 p assembly 'DELL at Cust (van)'; Method: Eco-indicator 99 (H) V2.1 / Europe EI 99 H/H / characterization

Operation, aircraft, freight, intercontinental/RER U Electric services (utilities)Operation, van < 3,5t/RER U Wholesale tradeRefinery gas, burned in furnace/MJ/RER U Sanitary services, steam supply, and irrigation systemsBlast furnaces and steel mills Crude petroleum and natural gasHeavy fuel oil, burned in refinery furnace/MJ/RER U Air transportationRemaining processes

Carbon Footprint of an On-Demand Laptop

Importance of Distribution Varies by Product Category

Data: 2002. Prioritization analysis for Walmart

Use Phase Can be Huge

Energy use: Buildings Appliances Food: cooking, clean-up Clothes: washing and drying

Material use: Cosmetics, cleaners: Indoor emissions Printers: paper

Service Sector Inputs can be huge

Guess what else can be huge? (Pharma example)

Guess what can be not huge? (Potato example)

More surprises...

Bottom-Line Messages

Learn from actual data Learn from actual application details/context Test sensitivities and uncertainties Iterative refinement Extract lessons and conclusions

Overview

• Introduction: Ideas, Concepts, and Overview• Methodology• Databases and Tools• Application Examples• Break• Applying LCA to Green / Sustainable Construction

including LEED v4• The Life Cycle Benefits of Sustainable Buildings• Whole Building LCA: Building Life Cycle Impact Reduction• Env. Prod. Declarations: BPD&O: EPDs• Raw Material Sourcing: BPD&O: Sourcing of Raw Materials

ILFI IMPACT ASSESSMENTPROJECT

• What impacts are Living Buildings having?• For each kind of environmental impact?• How so? – what is driving these impacts?• What is the potential for beneficial impacts

as Living Building scales?

SCOPE OF ASSESSMENT

96 PROJECTS

LBC versions 1.3 through 3.1

SCOPE OF ASSESSMENT

Five impact categories for each of up to 5 project attributes, plus ecosystem benefits of FSC

Climate Water Energy Health Ecosystem

Embodied

Energy Supply

Water Supply

Sanitation

Special: LES

Special: FSC

Impact Types Assessed

Project

Attributes

Assessed

96 Projects included

LBC versions 1.3 through 3.1

METHOD OF ASSESSMENT

Life cycle assessment (LCA) of conventional vs. LBC

Developed system-specific calculators, for use by future

project teams, ILFI staff, and others

to assess benefits of Living Building

Climate Water Energy Health Ecosystem

Embodied

Energy Supply

Water Supply

Sanitation

Special: LES

Special: FSC (I/O LCA)

Impact Types Assessed

Project

Attributes

Assessed

Embodied Impact Calculator (Input/Output LCA)

Energy System Impact Calculator (Process LCA)

Water Supply Impact Calculator (Process LCA)

Sanitation System Impact Calculator (Process LCA)

Inbound Transport Impact Calculator (Input/Output LCA)

PROJECT COVERAGE BY ATTRIBUTE

We studied energy, water, and sanitation attribute impacts for

all relevant projects

We performed two case studies of embodied impacts

This data is also used to assess benefits of FSC

Climate Water Energy Health Ecosystem

Embodied

Energy Supply

Water Supply

Sanitation

Special: LES

Special: FSC 2 Projects

Impact Types Assessed

Project

Attributes

Assessed

2 Projects

70 Projects

23 Projects

23 Projects

38 Projects

ANNUAL BENEFITS OF LBC: ENERGY SYSTEMS

Climate Water Energy Health Ecosystem

kg CO2e m3 kg oil eq DALYs species-yrs

Net vs. conventional 8,688,804 26,283,978 2,478,486 23.3 0.08

Benefit of excess elect 716,119 2,922,592 191,417 2.13 0.001

Total benefit 9,404,923 29,206,570 2,669,903 25.43 0.08

All 70

Projects

Annual Net benefits v conventional building, Energy System

To put these benefits into context:The annual climate benefits

equal the total annual footprintof 1880 global citizens

EXTENSIONS

We estimated benefits of LBC vs. conventional

per sqft, and per $, for three building types

Commercial

Educational

Single Family Residential

These can be used to estimate benefit potential for

any city or state or the US, or the effects of other

policies or scales of Living Building

SURPRISES AND KEY FINDINGS

Impacts of construction itself have been ignored

They are 20-25% of total embodied impacts!

Even if embodied impacts of LBC were not offset,

climate/water/health payback: 4-11 years

FSC is key for reducing ecosystem impacts

Environmental Product Declarations

• Product Category Rules• Comparability of EPDs: Findings from a BIFMA Study• Building Product Disclosure and Optimization:

The Environmental Product Declaration Credit

Product Category Rules

• Environmental Product Declarations present the LCIA results from an LCA

• They are influenced by modeling choices, including:• Definition of the functional unit• Life cycle scope• Cut-off rules• Data quality requirements• Allocation rules• Impact categories and LCIA method• Etc.

• In order to improve (not to say ensure) comparability of EPDs, they follow Product Category Rules (PCRs), which specify each of the above choices.

BIFMA Study, 2014

BIFMA Study, 2014

BIFMA Study, 2014

BIFMA Study, 2014

BIFMA Study, 2014

BIFMA Study, 2014: Hotspot Identification

• Reasonable level of agreement regardingwhat are the key drivers of GHG impacts.

BIFMA Study, 2014: Drivers of Differences between Most and Least Conservative, for GHG Results

• Little agreement regarding what drives change in GHG results between Most vs. Least conservative models

BIFMA Study, 2014: Drivers of Differences between Most & Least Conservative, for Human Health Impact Category

• Virtually NO agreement regarding what drives change in Health results between Most vs. Least conservative models

BIFMA Study, 2014: Author Summary

BIFMA Study, 2014: Our Take-Aways

• Use of a common PRC is NOT sufficient to make EPDs comparable between manufacturers of a product type

• People should NOT try to compare competing products based on their EPD results. Period.

• Remarkably, we cannot even assume stability yet in the conclusions that manufacturers might draw from their EPD results, at least outside of climate (GHG) results

• This and other studies have shown that the best ways to provide an increased level of comparability include:• Ensuring that the same databases are used for two studies

to be compared• Automating data choices within a database (data selected to

model a given input)

Environmental Product Declarations

• Discussion:

Building Product Disclosure and Optimization: The Environmental Product Declaration Credit

Whole Building LCA

• Tools• Athena• Tally• Input/Output LCA of Cost Data• EC3

• The Building Life Cycle Impact Reduction Credit

Athena

• Athena has developed LCI databases for building assemblies since 2002, and made them available in tools that facilitate LCA evaluation of conceptual designs

• Suite of tools includes

Athena

• Most relevant: Impact Estimator• Free!• Assembly-level building definition:

generates BOMs for each assembly, and links to LCA data for each BOM item

• Assembly approach relevant to early design phases

Athena Impact Estimator

Athena Impact Estimator

Athena Impact Estimator

Tally

• Whole-building LCA tool, integrated with Autodesk Revit• Links to GaBi LCA database, one of the major LCI

databases• Comparisons of baseline and options• Easy to use throughout the design process• Guide is available to facilitate pursuit of LEED v4

Building Life Cycle Impact Reduction credit

Tally

Designed to address questions such as:• Which material decisions matter?• What is the carbon (and other impact category) footprint

of my building?• Can the structural system be optimized to reduce

resource use?• How much of the building can be recycled or reclaimed?• What are the (environmental) trade-offs between

material choices?• Is it environmentally advantageous to use a long-lasting

material or one with lower initial impact?

Source: choosetally.com

EC3: Embodied Carbon Construction Calculator

EC3: Functionality preview includes:

EC3: Also said to be relevant for:

EC3: A potential concern:

• Main source of data is published EPDs• Uncertainty, variability, comparability

• But definitely worth keeping an eye on

Whole Building LCA

• Discussion:

Building Life Cycle Impact Reduction Credit

Sourcing of Raw Materials

• The Importance of Sustainable Sourcing: Findings from ILFI Study

• Environmental Benefits of Sustainable Sourcing:Findings from Recent Research

• Building Product Disclosure and Optimization: The Sourcing of Raw Materials Credit

Land Use Biodiversity

Land Use Biodiversity

Sourcing of Raw Materials

• Discussion:

Building Product Disclosure and Optimization: The Sourcing of Raw Materials Credit