Post on 03-Apr-2018
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ERTH 2404
Earth Resources
Davidson et al.
Chapter 16
Au Exploration, Freegold Mountain, YK Asbestos Mining, Cassiar, BC (ca.1975)
Oil Platform, Santa Barbara Channel, USA
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Non-metallic
Metallic Fossil Fuels
Alternative Energy
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EARTH RESOURCES
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LCD
Mercury; glass (sandstone,
limestone); plastic (petroleum)
Circuit Board
Copper, gold, lead, nickel, zinc,
beryllium, tantalum; glass; plastic
Battery
Nickel, zinc, cobalt, cadmium,
copper, lithium, carbon minerals
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RESOURCES IN YOUR DAILY LIFEIf it cant be grown, it has to be mined
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Annual, per capita consumption, USA
(94% of all mineral resources)
NON-METALLIC RESOURCES
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Rock quarries: building stoneLimestone, crushed rock aggregate:
cement
Sand and gravel: road materials
Gypsum: plaster and wallboard
Clay minerals (kaolinite,
montmorillonite): medicine, paint, glassy
paper, ceramics, tennis shoes, chocolate!
NON-METALLIC RESOURCES
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Photo: Burtynsky
Marble
Quarry,
Portugal
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METALLIC RESOURCES
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85% copper, 15% tin
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METALLIC RESOURCES
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Annual, per capita
consumption, USA
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CANADAS MINERALS AND METALS
Canada ranks among the worlds top five producers of14 mineral commodities
World's leader in production of potash and U
Canadian-based companies conduct about 40% of all
mineral exploration undertaken in the world
2012 Non-Ferrous Metals Exploration Spending
Image:SNLMetalsEconomicsG
roup
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All metals present at
some concentration in
Earth - to be economic,must concentrate
metals
-------------------->Ore
ECONOMIC MINERAL DEPOSITS
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Metal prices important higher pricelowers concentration required to be ore
ECONOMIC MINERAL DEPOSITS
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KIMBERLITES--> DIAMONDS
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Highly volatile-rich magma
Transport diamonds to thesurface
Deep mantle origin
Rapid ascent, explosive
eruption
Find using geophysical
surveys or Kimberlite
Indicator Minerals in soil
and glacial till
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KIMBERLITE PIPES IN CANADA
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Photo: A. Snider, Carleton U.
Diavik Mine, NWT
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Diavik Mine, NWT
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Photo: C. Samson
Photo: A. Snider, Carleton U.
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Diavik Mine, NWT
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MAGMATIC AND METAMORPHIC PROCESSES
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Precipitation of
Minerals;
Crystallization
Dense crystals sink to
bottom of magmabody, form layers
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CHROMITE
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Precipitation of Minerals; Crystallization
e.g., chromium as chromite (FeCr2O4)
Magma: 400 ppm Cr; Chromite: 45% Cr
Bushveld Complex, South Africa
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HYDROTHERMAL PROCESSES
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heat & waterPrecipitation
Leaching
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PORPHYRYDEPOSITS
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Central Felsic Pluton
Not always
porphyritic!
Porphyry name
comes from the
late porphyritic
dykes that oftencross these
deposits.
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PORPHYRY COPPER
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Bingham Canyon porphyry copper deposit, Utah
2011 Production:Copper - 195 kt; Gold - 384 koz;Silver - 2.976 koz; Molybdenum - 13.6 kt
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Porphyry Copper in Chile
Artisanal Mine Adit ca.1910
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Volcanogenic
Massive Sulphidedeposits:Cu, Zn, Pb
Form on sea floor,added to continents
via collisions
Seafloor Hydrothermal Vents
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VMS DEPOSITS
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[ ]
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SUDBURY IMPACT[?] STRUCTURE
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Image: Eckstrand and Hulbert, GSC
Probable asteroid
impact crater 2nd largest in world
Also one of the
largest Ni deposits
Catastrophic
heating and
brecciation
Subsequent
metamorphicfolding and
alteration
1.85 Ga
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Precipitation from seawater OR concentrationby grain sorting during transport
SEDEX type: include some of
largest Zn-Pb deposits.Typically occur in drowned
continental rifts that have been
infilled with marine sediments;
heat from below (dykes, sills)
SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES
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SULLIVAN PB-ZN MINE, KIMBERLY, BC
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Sedex deposit with sulphide ore
92 yrs in production (1909-2001) 17 Mt of Pb and Zn
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GODERICH SALT MINE, GODERICH, ON
28Image: CBC
Worlds largest underground salt mine
7 km2, extending under Lake Huron
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Spherical nodules of Fe-Mn oxides;abundant copper, cobalt, nickel
Scavenge metals
from seawater
and from
sediment porewaters
MANGANESE NODULES
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Form worlds most important iron ore
deposits: bands of chert, Fe-oxides;
all deposited
between 2 and 3Ga
Fe precipitated
from seawater as
reacted with O2in shallow water
BANDED IRON FORMATIONS
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Concentration of dense minerals by water:gold, tin, chromium, tungsten
panning
Yukon placer gold operation
PLACER DEPOSITS
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WEATHERING PROCESSES
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Extensive chemicalweathering of a rock in
high rainfall, tropical
environment
Weathering removes all
mobile elements, leaves
behind soil rich in
immobile element
Deposits of Al, Fe
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Bedrock
Soil - all soluble ions
and silicon leached out
Weathered bedrock
Unweathered bedrock
Mafic bedrock -->
laterite (Fe)
Felsic bedrock -->
bauxite (Al)
WEATHERING PROCESSES
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Many deposits commonly form at plate boundaries
ORES AND PLATE TECTONICS
MINING EXPLORATION
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MINING EXPLORATION
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Most early-stage exploration carried out by small
companies juniors
Public companies, listed on stock market Raise money to fund exploration by selling
shares
End game: sell property or company
Most advanced exploration and mining carried out
by large companies majors
MINING EXPLORATION
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MINING EXPLORATION
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Exploration Methods:
Geophysics Ground, Airborne, Satellite,
Downhole
Magnetic, EM, Gravity
Looking for:
EM conductors (Ni, Au,
PGE, Cu)
Gravity highs (U)
Magnetic highs/lows
(metals) Circular stuctures
(diamonds, porphyries)
Anomalous faults, shears,
other structures.Image: Fugro
MINING EXPLORATION
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MINING EXPLORATION
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MINING EXPLORATION
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MINING EXPLORATION
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Exploration Methods:
Ground work
Soil/sediment sampling
Diamonds (Kimberlite
Indicator Minerals)
Metals Mapping
Where outcrops can be
found
Trenching and channelsampling
Where overburden is thin
MINING EXPLORATION
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MINING EXPLORATION
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Exploration Methods:
Drilling! Diamond drilling (core)
RC, RAB (chips, dust)
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Fossil fuels
Geothermal
Nuclear Tidal
Wind
Solar
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ENERGY RESOURCESCook Inlet, Alaska
Photo: M. Scott Moon
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FOSSIL FUELS
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Trapped organic matter, created by living organisms
Most organic matter decays rapidly,
recycled to atmosphere as CO2
Ifburied, remains are preserved from
decomposition and form fossil fuel
FORMATION OF FOSSIL FUELS
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FORMATION OF FOSSIL FUELS
Terrigeneous
organic matter COAL
Marine
organic matter OIL & GAS
Ref:Craigetal.
2001
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Sun + CO2
+ H2O --> organic matter (OM)
OM + O2, bacteria --> CO2
Protected from oxidation, bacteria
THE CARBON CYCLE
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TYPES OF FOSSIL FUELS
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Wood: familiar form of natural fuel
Inefficient: low ratio of carbohydrate to other
materials, e.g., cellulose, water
But if wood buried, heated: water driven off,
carbohydrate structure modified such that more
heat liberated when burned
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Three important types:coal, oil, natural gas
Coalfrom buried trees, branches,
leaves, stems and roots, buried in
swamps
Oil, natural gas from buried
phytoplankton in shallow marine
environmentAlso shale oil, tar sands, peat
TYPES OF FOSSIL FUELS
COAL
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Peat (waterlogged,
dense vegetation)
buried, heated; C
content increases
Lignite: 30% C
Bituminous: 87% CAnthracite: 94% C
COAL
COAL OCCURRENCES
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COAL OCCURRENCES
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Most coalfields deposited ~ 300 Ma ago in regionsclose to equator; wet lowlands in large basins
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COAL OCCURRENCES
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C = coal
Relation to plate tectonics
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COAL OCCURRENCES
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COAL RESERVES
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US Geological Survey estimate:
~8 trillion metric tons in USA
Have only mined 2% of available reserves!
Touted as energy solution?
Problems: commonly high S, N content yields
acid fog; smoky fumes; disposal of coal ash;
environmental problems of coal mining
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PETROLEUM
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Oil, natural gas
From organic matter trapped in shallow marine
sediments; rarely in lake sediments
Temperature dependent: never find petroleum
in magmatically active area; too hot!
FORMATION OF OIL AND GAS
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FORMATION OF OIL AND GAS
Ref:Craigetal.
2001
Oil
window
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PETROLEUM FORMATION
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150oC: waterexpelled from
sediments; organicmaterial altered toliquid petroleum
Plankton die, fall; ifwater anoxic,preserved; bacteriaproduce CH4
Shallow marine
PETROLEUM FORMATION
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PETROLEUM OCCURRENCES
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Peak in petroleum formation 200-65 m.y.a
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Sedimentary rocks < 200 m.y.
old contain 83% of world oil
Older deposits buried too
deeply, became too hot?
Why so much oil in Middle East?
Co-existence of all requirements: abundant
shallow seas, marine life, perfect reservoir
rocks, lots of traps to hold oil
PETROLEUM OCCURRENCES
ACCUMULATION OF OIL AND GAS
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Economic petroleum accumulations occurwhen small dispersed amounts of
petroleum migrate:
Fromsource rocks
Into porous and permeable reservoir rocks
Where they become confined by a trap and
prevented from further movement
Oil can naturally seep to the surface
ACCUMULATION OF OIL AND GAS
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COMMON OIL & GAS TRAPS
Source:PetroleumC
ommun
icationFoundation
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Source: Petroleum Communication Foundation
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COMMON OIL & GAS TRAPS
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Seismic reflection
HOW TO FIND OIL AND GAS DEPOSITS?
TAR SANDS
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Mixture:
Clay and sand
Water
Black, highly viscous tar (bitumen)
Lightweight volatile components lost High sulphur content (3-6%)
Alberta has worlds largest reserves
15% of Canadas oil production
TAR SANDS
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Surface mining (e.g. Fort McMurray)
Hot water & caustic soda (NaOH) added to sand; theresulting slurry is piped to extraction plant where it is
agitated and the oil skimmed from the top
Strip mining form of oil extraction destroys borealforest, the bogs, the rivers as well as the naturallandscape
Energy-intensive process.
TAR SANDS MINING METHODS
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Photo: C. Samson63
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Photo: C. Samson64
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Photo: C. Samson65
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Photo: C. Samson66
TAR SANDS MINING METHODS
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Underground mining (e.g. Cold Lake)
Deposit too deep for open-pit mining
Steam/solvent injection
TAR SANDS MINING METHODS
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Image: Husky Energy
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BITUMEN SEPARATION
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Hot water & caustic soda (NaOH) added to sand; the
resulting slurry is piped to extraction plant where it isagitated and the oil skimmed from the top
Strip mining form of oil extraction destroys boreal forest,
the bogs, the rivers as well as the natural landscape
Energy-intensive process.
Oil Shale
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- moderate estimate of800 billion
barrels of recoverable oil from oil shale
in the Green River Formation (Utah, SouthDakota, Texas) is three times greater than
the proven oil reserves of Saudi Arabia.
Oil Shale
Oil Shale
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Issue: Hydraulic fracturing (fracking), pump water,sand and chemicals into bore holes in shale to
fracture rock and ease separation of oil (and natural
gas)
Problem is that much of the natural gas is notrecovered and is flared off
Waste of resource, environmental issue
Fracking slurry may also contaminate groundwater
systems, uses LOTS of water
http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/03/29/us-usa-fracking-investors-idUSBRE82S03120120329
Oil Shale
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URANIUM
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Chalk River Laboratories, ON
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Uranium is a relatively rare element
Crustal concentration: 2 ppm
238U most abundant isotope of uranium in
nature (99.3%) Most abundant uranium ore: pitchblende
(contains uranium oxides)
Enrichment process to concentrate it and convertit to 235U
Nuclear reactor fuel is 235U, easier to control
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URANIUM
URANIUM MINING IN CANADA
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URANIUM MINING IN CANADA Canada is the worlds largest producer of uranium
Two major mines in Athabasca Basin
(Northern Saskatchewan)
Canadas production is increasing
15% of Canadas electricity produced by nuclear power
plants
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NUNAVUT URANIUM EXPLORATION
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ICELAND PERFECT FOR GEOTHERMAL
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climate.columbia.edu/?id=research_mitigation
B. Cousens
ICELAND PERFECT FOR GEOTHERMAL
WINDMILL FARMS
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WINDMILL FARMS
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San Gorgonio Pass, east of Los AngelesNew turbines
efficient at all
speeds
B.
Cousens
TIDAL ENERGY
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TIDAL ENERGY
Annapolis Royal, NSSeafloor Turbines
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SOLAR POWER
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Utilize energy fromSun to create
electricity of heat
water, buildings
Theoretically, the
most efficient
source of energy, but
difficult to harness
and convert to
electricity
Nellis AFB, USA
SOLAR POWER
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1. Sun heats liquid salt in
receiver2. Salt fills tank3. Hot salt travels through heat
exchanger, makes steam
4. Steam drives
turbine5. Turbine
produces
electricity
SOLAR POWER