GMAT Official Guide Verbal Review 2018

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GMAT®OFFICIALGUIDE2018VERBALREVIEW

PublishedbyJohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,Hoboken,NewJersey.

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Contents1.0WhatIstheGMAT®Exam?

1.0WhatIstheGMAT®Exam?1.1WhyTaketheGMAT®Exam?1.2GMAT®ExamFormat1.3WhatIstheContentoftheExamLike?1.4IntegratedReasoning1.5QuantitativeSection1.6VerbalSection1.7AnalyticalWritingAssessment1.8WhatComputerSkillsWillINeed?1.9WhatAretheTestCentersLike?1.10HowAreScoresCalculated?1.11TestDevelopmentProcess

2.0HowtoPrepare2.0HowtoPrepare2.1HowCanIBestPreparetoTaketheTest?2.2WhatAboutPracticeTests?2.3WhereCanIGetAdditionalPractice?2.4GeneralTest-TakingSuggestions

3.0ReadingComprehension3.0ReadingComprehension3.1WhatIsMeasured3.2Test-TakingStrategies3.3TheDirections3.4SampleQuestions3.5AnswerKey3.6AnswerExplanations

4.0CriticalReasoning4.0CriticalReasoning4.1WhatIsMeasured4.2Test-TakingStrategies4.3TheDirections4.4SampleQuestions4.5AnswerKey4.6AnswerExplanations

5.0SentenceCorrection5.0SentenceCorrection5.1BasicEnglishGrammarRules5.2StudySuggestions5.3WhatIsMeasured5.4Test-TakingStrategies5.5TheDirections5.6SampleQuestions5.7AnswerKey5.8AnswerExplanations

AppendixAAnswerSheetsReadingComprehensionAnswerSheetCriticalReasoningAnswerSheetSentenceCorrectionAnswerSheet

AdvertEULA

DearGMATTest-Taker,

Thankyouforyourinterestingraduatemanagementeducation.TakingtheGMAT®examletsschoolsknowthatyou’reseriousaboutyourgraduatebusinesseducation.ByusingtheOfficialGuidetopreparefortheGMAT,you’retakingaveryimportantsteptowardachievingyourgoalsandpursuingadmissiontoahigh-qualitybusinessschoolormaster’sprogram.

Thisbook,GMAT®OfficialGuide2018VerbalReview,isdesignedtohelpyouprepareforandbuildconfidencetodoyourbestontheGMATexam.It’stheonlyguideofitskindonthemarketthatincludesrealGMATexamquestionspublishedbytheGraduateManagementAdmissionCouncil(GMAC),themakersoftheexam.

GMACwasfoundedbytheworld’sleadingbusinessschoolsin1953.TheGMATexamwasdevelopedtohelppeoplewhoaspiretocareersinmanagementdemonstratetheircommandoftheskillsneededforsuccessintheclassroom.SchoolsuseandtrusttheGMATexamaspartoftheiradmissionsprocessbecauseit’sanexcellentpredictorofclassroomsuccessandyourabilitytoexcelinyourchosenprogram.

Todaymorethan6,500graduateprogramsaroundtheworldusetheGMATexamtoestablishtheirMBA,graduate-levelmanagementdegreesandspecializedprogramsashallmarksofexcellence.Nineoutof10newMBAenrollmentsatTop50USfull-timeMBAprogramsaremadeusingaGMATscore.

ThesefactsmakeusproudanddriveustokeepimprovingtheGMATaswellasplayaroleinhelpingyoufindandgainadmissiontothebestschoolorprogramforyou.We’recommittedtoensuringthatnotalentgoesundiscovered,andthatmorepeoplearoundtheworldcanpursueopportunitiesingraduatemanagementeducation.

Iapplaudyourcommitmenttoeducationalsuccess,andIknowthatthisbookandtheotherOfficialGMATpreparationmaterialsavailableatmba.comwillgiveyoutheconfidencetoachieveyourpersonalbestontheGMATexamandlaunchorreinvigoratearewardingcareer.

Iwishyouthebestsuccessonallyoureducationalandprofessionalendeavorsinthefuture.

Sincerely,

SangeetChowfla

CEOoftheGraduateManagementAdmissionCouncil

1.0WhatIstheGMAT®Exam?

1.0WhatIstheGMAT®Exam?TheGraduateManagementAdmissionTest®(GMAT®)examisastandardizedexamusedinadmissionsdecisionsbymorethan6,500graduatemanagementprogramsworldwide.Ithelpsyougauge,anddemonstratetoschools,youracademicpotentialforsuccessingraduate-levelmanagementstudies.

Thefour-partexammeasuresyourAnalyticalWriting,Verbal,Quantitative,andIntegratedReasoningskills—higher-orderreasoningskillsthatmanagementfacultyworldwidehaveidentifiedasimportantforincomingstudentstohave.“Higher-order”reasoningskillsinvolvecomplexjudgments,andincludecriticalthinking,analysis,andproblemsolving.Unlikeundergraduategradesandcurricula,whichvaryintheirmeaningacrossregionsandinstitutions,yourGMATscoresprovideastandardized,statisticallyvalidandreliablemeasureofhowyouarelikelytoperformacademicallyinthecorecurriculumofagraduatemanagementprogram.TheGMATexam’svalidity,fairness,andvalueinadmissionshavebeenwell-establishedthroughnumerousacademicstudies.

TheGMATexamisdeliveredentirelyinEnglishandsolelyoncomputer.Itisnotatestofbusinessknowledge,subjectmattermastery,Englishvocabulary,oradvancedcomputationalskills.TheGMATexamalsodoesnotmeasureotherfactorsrelatedtosuccessingraduatemanagementstudy,suchasjobexperience,leadershipability,motivation,andinterpersonalskills.YourGMATscoreisintendedtobeusedasoneadmissionscriterionamongother,moresubjective,criteria,suchasadmissionsessaysandinterviews.

1.1WhyTaketheGMAT®Exam?Launchedin1954byagroupofninebusinessschoolstoprovideauniformmeasureoftheacademicskillsneededtosucceedintheirprograms,theGMATexamisnowusedbymorethan6,500graduatemanagementprogramsatapproximately2,100institutionsworldwide.

TakingtheGMATexamhelpsyoustandoutintheadmissionsprocessanddemonstrateyourreadinessandcommitmenttopursuinggraduatemanagementeducation.SchoolsuseGMATscorestohelpthemselectthemostqualified

education.SchoolsuseGMATscorestohelpthemselectthemostqualifiedapplicants—becausetheyknowthatcandidateswhotaketheGMATexamareseriousaboutearningagraduatebusinessdegree,andit’saprovenpredictorofastudent’sabilitytosucceedinhisorherchosenprogram.Whenyouconsiderwhichprogramstoapplyto,youcanlookataschool’suseoftheGMATexamasoneindicatorofquality.SchoolsthatusetheGMATexamtypicallylistscorerangesoraveragescoresintheirclassprofiles,soyoumayalsofindtheseprofileshelpfulingaugingtheacademiccompetitivenessofaprogramyouareconsideringandhowwellyourperformanceontheexamcompareswiththatofthestudentsenrolledintheprogram.

Myth-vs-FACT

M–IfIdon’tachieveahighscoreontheGMAT,Iwon’tgetintomytopchoiceschools.

F–TherearegreatschoolsavailableforcandidatesatanyGMATscorerange.

Fewerthan50ofthemorethan250,000peopletakingtheGMATexameachyeargetaperfectscoreof800;andmanymoregetintotopbusinessschoolprogramsaroundtheworldeachyear.AdmissionsofficersuseGMATscoresasonecomponentintheiradmissionsdecisions,inconjunctionwithundergraduaterecords,applicationessays,interviews,lettersofrecommendation,andotherinformationwhendecidingwhomtoacceptintotheirprograms.VisitSchoolFinderonmba.comtolearnaboutschoolsthatarethebestfitforyou.

NomatterhowyouperformontheGMATexam,youshouldcontacttheschoolsthatinterestyoutolearnmoreandtoaskhowtheyuseGMATscoresandothercriteria(suchasyourundergraduategrades,essays,andlettersofrecommendation)intheiradmissionsprocesses.Schooladmissionsoffices,websites,andmaterialspublishedbyschoolsarethekeysourcesofinformationwhenyouaredoingresearchaboutwhereyoumightwanttogotobusinessschool.

FormoreinformationontheGMAT,testpreparationmaterials,registration,howtouseandsendyourGMATscorestoschools,andapplyingtobusinessschool,pleasevisitmba.com.

1.2GMAT®ExamFormatTheGMATexamconsistsoffourseparatelytimedsections(seethetableonthenextpage).FortheAnalyticalWritingAssessment(AWA)essayprompt,youwillhave30minutestotypeyouressayonacomputerkeyboard.The30-minuteIntegratedReasoningsectionfeatures12questionpromptsinfourdifferentformats.Therearetwo75-minute,multiple-choicesections:theQuantitativesection,with37questions,andtheVerbalsection,with41questions.

TheVerbalandQuantitativesectionsoftheGMATexamarecomputeradaptive,whichmeansthatthetestdrawsfromalargebankofquestionstotailoritselftoyourabilitylevel,andyouwon’tgetmanyquestionsthataretoohardortooeasyforyou.Thefirstquestionwillbeofmediumdifficulty.Asyouanswereachquestion,thecomputerscoresyouranswerandusesit—aswellasyourresponsestoanyprecedingquestions—toselectthenextquestion.

Myth-vs-FACT

M–GettinganeasierquestionmeansIansweredthelastonewrong.

F–Youshouldnotbecomedistractedbythedifficultylevelofaquestion.

Mostpeoplearenotskilledatestimatingquestiondifficulty,sodon’tworrywhentakingthetestorwastevaluabletimetryingtodeterminethedifficultyofthequestionyouareanswering.

Toensurethateveryonereceivesthesamecontent,thetestselectsaspecificnumberofquestionsofeachtype.Thetestmaycallforyournextproblemtobearelativelyharddatasufficiencyquestioninvolvingarithmeticoperations.But,iftherearenomorerelativelydifficultdatasufficiencyquestionsinvolvingarithmetic,youmightbegivenaneasierquestion.

Computer-adaptivetestsbecomemoredifficultthemorequestionsyouanswercorrectly,butifyougetaquestionthatseemseasierthanthelastone,itdoesnotnecessarilymeanyouansweredthelastquestionincorrectly.Thetesthastocoverarangeofcontent,bothinthetypeofquestionaskedandthesubjectmatterpresented.

Becausethecomputerusesyouranswerstoselectyournextquestions,youmaynotskipquestionsorgobackandchangeyouranswertoapreviousquestion.Ifyoudon’tknowtheanswertoaquestion,trytoeliminateasmanychoicesas

youdon’tknowtheanswertoaquestion,trytoeliminateasmanychoicesaspossible,thenselecttheansweryouthinkisbest.

Thoughtheindividualquestionsaredifferent,thecontentmixtureisthesameforeveryGMATexam.Yourscoreisdeterminedbythedifficultyandstatisticalcharacteristicsofthequestionsyouansweraswellasthenumberofquestionsyouanswercorrectly.Byadaptingtoeachtest-taker,theGMATexamisabletoaccuratelyandefficientlygaugeskilllevelsoverafullrangeofabilities,fromveryhightoverylow.

ThetestincludesthetypesofquestionsfoundinthisbookandintheonlineIntegratedReasoningcomponent,buttheformatandpresentationofthequestionsaredifferentonthecomputer.Whenyoutakethetest:

Onlyonequestionorquestionpromptatatimeispresentedonthecomputerscreen.

Theanswerchoicesforthemultiple-choicequestionswillbeprecededbycircles,ratherthanbyletters.

Differentquestiontypesappearinrandomorderinthemultiple-choiceandIntegratedReasoningsections.

Youmustselectyouranswerusingthecomputer.

Youmustchooseananswerandconfirmyourchoicebeforemovingontothenextquestion.

Youmaynotgobacktopreviousscreenstochangeanswerstopreviousquestions.

FormatoftheGMAT®Exam Questions Timing

AnalyticalWriting

AnalysisofanArgument

1 30min.

IntegratedReasoning

Multi-SourceReasoning

TableAnalysis

GraphicsInterpretation

12 30min.

Two-PartAnalysis

Optionalbreak

upto8min.

Quantitative

ProblemSolving

DataSufficiency

37 75min.

Optionalbreak upto8min.

Verbal

ReadingComprehension

CriticalReasoning

SentenceCorrection

41 75min.

TotalTime: 210min.

1.3WhatIstheContentoftheExamLike?TheGMATexammeasureshigher-orderanalyticalskillsencompassingseveraltypesofreasoning.TheAnalyticalWritingAssessmentasksyoutoanalyzethereasoningbehindanargumentandrespondinwriting;theIntegratedReasoningsectionasksyoutointerpretandsynthesizeinformationfrommultiplesourcesandindifferentformatstomakereasonedconclusions;theQuantitativesectionasksyoutoreasonquantitativelyusingbasicarithmetic,algebra,andgeometry;andtheVerbalsectionasksyoutoreadandcomprehendwrittenmaterialandtoreasonandevaluatearguments.

Testquestionsmayaddressavarietyofsubjects,butalloftheinformationyouneedtoanswerthequestionswillbeincludedontheexam,withnooutsideknowledgeofthesubjectmatternecessary.TheGMATexamisnotatestofbusinessknowledge,Englishvocabulary,oradvancedcomputationalskills.YouwillneedtoreadandwriteinEnglishandhavebasicmathandEnglishskillsto

performwellonthetest,butitsdifficultycomesfromtheEnglishanalyticalandcriticalthinkingabilities.

Thequestionsinthisbookareorganizedbyquestiontypeandfromeasiesttomostdifficult,butkeepinmindthatwhenyoutakethetest,youmayseedifferenttypesofquestionsinanyorderwithineachsection.

1.4IntegratedReasoningTheIntegratedReasoningsectionhighlightstherelevantskillsthatbusinessmanagersintoday’sdata-drivenworldneedinordertoanalyzesophisticatedstreamsofdataandsolvecomplexproblems.Itmeasuresyourabilitytounderstandandevaluatemultiplesourcesandtypesofinformation—graphic,numeric,andverbal—astheyrelatetooneanother;usebothquantitativeandverbalreasoningtosolvecomplexproblems;andsolvemultipleproblemsinrelationtooneanother.

FourtypesofquestionsareusedintheIntegratedReasoningsection:

Multi-SourceReasoning

TableAnalysis

Two-PartAnalysis

IntegratedReasoningquestionsmaybequantitative,verbal,oracombinationofboth.Youwillhavetointerpretgraphicsandsorttablestoextractmeaningfromdata,butadvancedstatisticalknowledgeandspreadsheetmanipulationskillsarenotnecessary.YouwillhaveaccesstoanonlinecalculatorwithbasicfunctionsfortheIntegratedReasoningsection,butnotethatthecalculatorisnotavailableontheQuantitativesection.

1.5QuantitativeSectionTheGMATQuantitativesectionmeasuresyourabilitytoreasonquantitatively,solvequantitativeproblems,andinterpretgraphicdata.

Twotypesofmultiple-choicequestionsareusedintheQuantitativesection:

ProblemSolving

DataSufficiency

BothareintermingledthroughouttheQuantitativesection,andrequirebasicknowledgeofarithmetic,elementaryalgebra,andcommonlyknownconceptsofgeometry.

ToreviewthebasicmathematicalconceptsthatwillbetestedintheGMATQuantitativequestionsandfortest-takingtipsspecifictothequestiontypesintheQuantitativesectionoftheGMATexam,samplequestions,andanswerexplanations,seeGMAT®OfficialGuide2018orGMAT®OfficialGuide2018QuantitativeReview;bothareavailableforpurchaseatmba.com.

1.6VerbalSectionTheGMATVerbalsectionmeasuresyourabilitytoreadandcomprehendwrittenmaterial,toreasonandevaluatearguments,andtocorrectwrittenmaterialtoconformtostandardwrittenEnglish.BecausetheVerbalsectionincludesreadingsectionsfromseveraldifferentcontentareas,youmaybegenerallyfamiliarwithsomeofthematerial;however,neitherthereadingpassagesnorthequestionsassumedetailedknowledgeofthetopicsdiscussed.

Threetypesofmultiple-choicequestionsareusedintheVerbalsection:

ReadingComprehension

CriticalReasoning

SentenceCorrection

AllthreerequirebasicknowledgeoftheEnglishlanguage,buttheVerbalsectionisnotatestofadvancedvocabulary.

Fortest-takingtipsspecifictoeachquestiontypeintheVerbalsection,samplequestions,andanswerexplanations,seechapters3through5.

1.7AnalyticalWritingAssessmentTheAnalyticalWritingAssessment(AWA)consistsofone30-minutewritingtask:AnalysisofanArgument.TheAWAmeasuresyourabilitytothinkcritically,communicateyourideas,andformulateanappropriateandconstructivecritique.Youwilltypeyouressayonacomputerkeyboard.

1.8WhatComputerSkillsWillINeed?TheGMATexamrequiresonlycomputerskills.YouwilltypeyourAWAessay

TheGMATexamrequiresonlycomputerskills.YouwilltypeyourAWAessayonthecomputerkeyboardusingstandardword-processingkeystrokes.IntheIntegratedReasoningandmultiple-choicesections,youwillselectyourresponsesusingeitheryourcomputermouseorthekeyboard.TheIntegratedReasoningsectionincludesbasiccomputernavigationandfunctions,suchasclickingontabsandusingdrop-downmenustosorttablesandselectanswers.

1.9WhatAretheTestCentersLike?TheGMATexamisadministeredunderstandardizedconditionsattestcentersworldwide.Eachtestcenterhasaproctoredtestingroomwithindividualcomputerworkstationsthatallowyoutositfortheexamunderquietconditionsandwithsomeprivacy.Youwillbeabletotaketwooptional8-minutebreaksduringthecourseoftheexam.Youmaynottakenotesorscratchpaperwithyouintothetestingroom,butanerasablenotepadandmarkerwillbeprovidedforyoutouseduringthetest.

1.10HowAreScoresCalculated?VerbalandQuantitativesectionsarescoredonascaleof0to60,withscoresbelow6orabove51extremelyrare.TheTotalGMATscorerangesfrom200to800andisbasedonyourperformanceinthesetwosections.Yourscoreisdeterminedby:

Thenumberofquestionsyouanswer

Thenumberofquestionsyouanswercorrectlyorincorrectly

Thelevelofdifficultyandotherstatisticalcharacteristicsofeachquestion

YourVerbal,Quantitative,andTotalGMATscoresaredeterminedbyacomplexmathematicalprocedurethattakesintoaccountthedifficultyofthequestionsthatwerepresentedtoyouandhowyouansweredthem.Whenyouanswertheeasierquestionscorrectly,yougetachancetoanswerharderquestions,makingitpossibletoearnahigherscore.Afteryouhavecompletedallthequestionsonthetest,orwhenyourtimeisexpired,thecomputerwillcalculateyourscores.YourscoresontheVerbalandQuantitativesectionsarecombinedtoproduceyourTotalscorewhichrangesfrom200to800in10pointincrements.

TheAnalyticalWritingAssessmentconsistsofonewritingtask,Analysisofan

Argument,andyouressaywillbescoredtwotimesindependently.Essaysareevaluatedbycollegeanduniversityfacultymembersfromavarietyofdisciplines,includingmanagementeducation,whoratetheoverallqualityofyourcriticalthinkingandwriting.(Fordetailsonhowreadersarequalified,visitmba.com.)Inaddition,yourresponsemaybescoredbyanautomatedscoringprogramdesignedtoreflectthejudgmentofexpertreaders.

Youressayisscoredonascaleof0to6,inhalfpointincrements,with6beingthehighestscoreand0thelowest.Ascoreofzeroisgivenforresponsesthatareofftopic,areinaforeignlanguage,merelyattempttocopythetopic,consistonlyofkeystrokecharacters,orareblank.YourAWAscoreistypicallytheaverageoftwoindependentratings.Iftheindependentscoresvarybymorethanonepoint,athirdreaderadjudicates,butbecauseofongoingtrainingandmonitoring,discrepanciesarerare.

YourIntegratedReasoningscoreiscalculatedonascaleof1to8,inone-pointincrements.Youmustanswerallpartsofasinglequestioncorrectlyinordertoreceivecredit.Nopartialcreditisgiven.LikeyourAWAscore,yourIntegratedReasoningscorewillnotcounttowardyourTotalscore.

YourAnalyticalWritingAssessmentandIntegratedReasoningscoresarecomputedandreportedseparatelyfromtheothersectionsofthetestandhavenoeffectonyourVerbal,Quantitative,orTotalscores.TheschoolsthatyouhavedesignatedtoreceiveyourscoresmayreceiveacopyofyourAnalyticalWritingAssessmentessaywithyourscorereport.Yourowncopyofyourscorereportwillnotincludeyouressay.

YourGMATscoreincludesapercentilerankingthatcomparesyourskilllevelwithothertest-takersfromthepastthreeyears.Thepercentilerankofyourscoreshowsthepercentageofteststakenwithscoreslowerthanyourscore.EveryJuly,percentilerankingtablesareupdated.Visitmba.comtoviewthemostrecentpercentilerankingstables.

1.11TestDevelopmentProcessTheGMATexamisdevelopedbyexpertswhousestandardizedprocedurestoensurehigh-quality,widely-appropriatetestmaterial.Allquestionsaresubjectedtoindependentreviewsandarerevisedordiscardedasnecessary.Multiple-choicequestionsaretestedduringGMATtestadministrations.AnalyticalWritingAssessmenttasksaretestedonmba.comregistrantsandthenassessedfortheirfairnessandreliability.Formoreinformationontestdevelopment,visit

mba.com.

2.0HowtoPrepare

2.1HowCanIBestPreparetoTaketheTest?TheGMAT®examisdesignedspecificallytomeasurereasoningskillsneededformanagementeducation,andthetestcontainsseveralquestionformatsuniquetotheGMATexam.Ataminimum,youshouldbefamiliarwiththetestformatandthequestionformatsbeforeyousitforthetest.BecausetheGMATexamisatimedexam,youshouldpracticeansweringtestquestionsnotonlytobetterunderstandthequestionformatsandtheskillstheyrequire,butalsotohelpyoulearntopaceyourselfsoyoucanfinisheachsectionwhenyousitfortheexam.

Becausetheexammeasuresreasoningratherthansubjectmatterknowledge,youmostlikelywillnotfindithelpfultomemorizefacts.Youdonotneedtostudyadvancedmathematicalconcepts,butyoushouldbesureyourgraspofbasicarithmetic,algebra,andgeometryissoundenoughthatyoucanusetheseskillsinquantitativeproblemsolving.Likewise,youdonotneedtostudyadvancedvocabularywords,butyoushouldhaveafirmunderstandingofbasicEnglishvocabularyandgrammarforreading,writing,andreasoning.

Myth-vs-FACT

M–YouneedveryadvancedmathskillstogetahighGMATscore.

F–TheGMATmeasuresyourreasoningandcriticalthinkingabilities,ratherthanyouradvancedmathskills.

TheGMATexamonlyrequiresbasicquantitativeanalyticskills.Youshouldreviewthemathskills(algebra,geometry,basicarithmetic)presentedintheGMAT®OfficialGuide2018andtheGMAT®OfficialGuideQuantitativeReview2018,buttherequiredskilllevelislow.ThedifficultyofGMATQuantitativequestionsstemsfromthelogicandanalysisusedtosolvetheproblemsandnottheunderlyingmathskills.

ThisbookandotherstudymaterialsreleasedbytheGraduateManagementAdmissionCouncil(GMAC)aretheONLYsourceofquestionsthathavebeen

AdmissionCouncil(GMAC)aretheONLYsourceofquestionsthathavebeenretiredfromtheGMATexam.AllquestionsthatappearorhaveappearedontheGMATexamarecopyrightedandownedbyGMAC,whichdoesnotlicensethemtobereprintedelsewhere.AccessingliveIntegratedReasoning,Quantitative,orVerbaltestquestionsinadvanceorsharingtestcontentduringorafteryoutakethetestisaseriousviolation,whichcouldcauseyourscorestobecanceledandschoolstobenotified.Incasesofaseriousviolation,youmaybebannedfromfuturetestingandotherlegalremediesmaybepursued.

2.2WhatAboutPracticeTests?TheQuantitativeandVerbalsectionsoftheGMATexamarecomputer-adaptive,andtheIntegratedReasoningsectionincludesquestionsthatrequireyoutousethecomputertosorttablesandnavigatetodifferentsourcesofinformation.Ourofficialpracticematerialswillhelpyougetcomfortablewiththeformatofthetestandbetterprepareforexamday.Twofull-lengthGMATpracticeexamsareavailableatnochargeforthosewhohavecreatedanaccountonmba.com.Thepracticeexamsincludecomputer-adaptiveQuantitativeandVerbalsections,plusadditionalpracticequestions,informationaboutthetest,andtutorialstohelpyoubecomefamiliarwithhowtheGMATexamwillappearonthecomputerscreenatthetestcenter.

Tomaximizeyourstudyingeffortswiththefreepracticeexams,youshouldleverageofficialpracticematerialsasyoustarttoprepareforthetest.Takeonepracticetesttofamiliarizeyourselfwiththeexamandtogetabaselinescore.Afteryouhavestudiedusingthisbookandotherstudymaterials,takethesecondpracticetesttodeterminewhetheryouneedtoshiftyourfocustootherareasyouneedtostrengthen.Notethatthefreepracticetestsmayincludequestionsthatarealsopublishedinthisbook.Asyourtestdayapproaches,considertakingmoreofficialpracticeteststohelpmeasureyourprogressandgiveyouabetterideaofhowyoumightscoreonexamday.

2.3WhereCanIGetAdditionalPractice?Ifyoucompleteallthequestionsinthisguideandthinkyouwouldlikeadditionalpractice,youmaywanttopurchasetheGMAT®OfficialGuide2018and/orGMAT®OfficialGuide2018QuantitativeReview.YoucanfindtheseguidesaswellasevenmoreQuantitative,Verbal,andIntegratedReasoningpracticequestions,full-length,computer-adaptivepracticeexams,andother

helpfulstudymaterialsatmba.com.

2.4GeneralTest-TakingSuggestionsSpecifictest-takingstrategiesforindividualquestiontypesarepresentedlaterinthisbook.Thefollowingaregeneralsuggestionstohelpyouperformyourbestonthetest.

1.UseyourtimewiselyAlthoughtheGMATexamstressesaccuracymorethanspeed,itisimportanttouseyourtimewisely.Onaverage,youwillhaveabout1¾minutesforeachVerbalquestion,about2minutesforeachQuantitativequestion,andabout2½minutesforeachIntegratedReasoningquestion,someofwhichhavemultiplequestions.Onceyoustartthetest,anonscreenclockwillcontinuouslycountthetimeyouhaveleft.Youcanhidethisdisplayifyouwant,butitisagoodideatochecktheclockperiodicallytomonitoryourprogress.Theclockwillautomaticallyalertyouwhen5minutesremainintheallottedtimeforthesectionyouareworkingon.

2.AnswerpracticequestionsaheadoftimeAfteryoubecomegenerallyfamiliarwithallquestiontypes,usethesamplequestionsinthisbooktopreparefortheactualtest.ItmaybeusefultotimeyourselfasyouanswerthepracticequestionstogetanideaofhowlongyouwillhaveforeachquestionduringtheactualGMATexamaswellastodeterminewhetheryouareansweringquicklyenoughtocompletethetestinthetimeallotted.

3.ReadalltestdirectionscarefullyThedirectionsexplainexactlywhatisrequiredtoanswereachquestiontype.Ifyoureadhastily,youmaymissimportantinstructionsandimpactyourabilitytoanswercorrectly.Toreviewdirectionsduringthetest,clickontheHelpicon.Butbeawarethatthetimeyouspendreviewingdirectionswillcountagainstthetimeallottedforthatsectionofthetest.

4.ReadeachquestioncarefullyandthoroughlyBeforeyouansweramultiple-choicequestion,determineexactlywhatisbeingasked,theneliminatethewronganswersandselectthebestchoice.Neverskima

asked,theneliminatethewronganswersandselectthebestchoice.Neverskimaquestionorthepossibleanswers;skimmingmaycauseyoutomissimportantinformationornuances.

5.DonotspendtoomuchtimeonanyonequestionIfyoudonotknowthecorrectanswer,orifthequestionistootimeconsuming,trytoeliminatechoicesyouknowarewrong,selectthebestoftheremaininganswerchoices,andmoveontothenextquestion.Notcompletingsectionsandrandomlyguessinganswerstoquestionsattheendofeachtestsectioncansignificantlyloweryourscore.Aslongasyouhaveworkedoneachsection,youwillreceiveascoreevenifyoudonotfinishoneormoresectionsintheallottedtime.Butyouwillnotearnpointsforquestionsyounevergettosee.

6.ConfirmyouranswersONLYwhenyouarereadytomoveonOntheQuantitativeandVerbalsections,onceyouhaveselectedyouranswertoamultiple-choicequestion,youwillbeaskedtoconfirmit.Onceyouconfirmyourresponse,youcannotgobackandchangeit.Youmaynotskipquestions.IntheIntegratedReasoningsection,theremaybeseveralquestionsbasedoninformationprovidedinthesamequestionprompt.Whenthereismorethanoneresponseonasinglescreen,youcanchangeyourresponsetoanyofthequestionsonthescreenbeforemovingontothenextscreen.However,youmaynotnavigatebacktoapreviousscreentochangeanyresponses.

Myth-vs-FACT

M–Itismoreimportanttorespondcorrectlytothetestquestionsthanitistofinishthetest.

F–ThereisasignificantpenaltyfornotcompletingtheGMATexam.

Pacingisimportant.Ifyouarestumpedbyaquestion,giveityourbestguessandmoveon.Ifyouguessincorrectly,thecomputerprogramwilllikelygiveyouaneasierquestion,whichyouarelikelytoanswercorrectly,andthecomputerwillrapidlyreturntogivingyouquestionsmatchedtoyourability.Ifyoudon’tfinishthetest,yourscorewillbereduced.Failingtoanswerfiveverbalquestions,forexample,couldreduceyourscorefromthe91stpercentiletothe77thpercentile.

Myth-vs-FACT

M–Thefirst10questionsarecriticalandyoushouldinvestthemosttimeonthose.

F–Allquestionscount.

Thecomputer-adaptivetestingalgorithmuseseachansweredquestiontoobtainaninitialestimate.However,asyoucontinuetoanswerquestions,thealgorithmself-correctsbycomputinganupdatedestimateonthebasisofallthequestionsyouhaveanswered,andthenadministersitemsthatarecloselymatchedtothisnewestimateofyourability.Yourfinalscoreisbasedonallyourresponsesandconsidersthedifficultyofallthequestionsyouanswered.Takingadditionaltimeonthefirst10questionswillnotgamethesystemandcanhurtyourabilitytofinishthetest.

7.PlanyouressayanswersbeforeyoubegintowriteThebestwaytoapproachtheAnalysisofanArgumentsectionistoreadthedirectionscarefully,takeafewminutestothinkaboutthequestion,andplanaresponsebeforeyoubeginwriting.Taketimetoorganizeyourideasanddevelopthemfully,butleavetimetorereadyourresponseandmakeanyrevisionsthatyouthinkwouldimproveit.

3.0ReadingComprehension

3.0ReadingComprehensionReadingcomprehensionquestionsappearintheVerbalsectionoftheGMAT®exam.TheVerbalsectionusesmultiple-choicequestionstomeasureyourabilitytoreadandcomprehendwrittenmaterial,toreasonandevaluatearguments,andtocorrectwrittenmaterialtoconformtostandardwrittenEnglish.BecausetheVerbalsectionincludescontentfromavarietyoftopics,youmaybegenerallyfamiliarwithsomeofthematerial;however,neitherthepassagesnorthequestionsassumeknowledgeofthetopicsdiscussed.ReadingcomprehensionquestionsareintermingledwithcriticalreasoningandsentencecorrectionquestionsthroughouttheVerbalsectionofthetest.

Youwillhave75minutestocompletetheVerbalsection,oranaverageofabout1¾minutestoanswereachquestion.Keepinmindyouwillneedtimetoreadthewrittenpassages—andthattimeisnotfactoredintothe1¾minuteaverage.Therefore,youshouldplantoproceedmorequicklythroughthereadingcomprehensionquestionsinordertogiveyourselfenoughtimetoreadthepassagesthoroughly.

Readingcomprehensionquestionsbeginwithwrittenpassagesupto350wordslong.Thepassagesdiscusstopicsfromthesocialsciences,humanities,thephysicalorbiologicalsciences,andsuchbusiness-relatedfieldsasmarketing,economics,andhumanresourcemanagement.Thepassagesareaccompaniedbyquestionsthatwillaskyoutointerpretthepassage,applytheinformationyougatherfromthereading,andmakeinferences(orinformedassumptions)basedonthereading.Forthesequestions,youwillseeasplitcomputerscreen.Thewrittenpassagewillremainvisibleontheleftsideaseachquestionassociatedwiththatpassageappears,inturn,ontherightside.Youwillseeonlyonequestionatatime.However,thenumberofquestionsassociatedwitheachpassagemayvary.

Asyoumovethroughthereadingcomprehensionsamplequestions,trytodetermineaprocessthatworksbestforyou.Youmightbeginbyreadingapassagecarefullyandthoroughly.Sometest-takersprefertoskimthepassagesthefirsttimethrough,oreventoreadthefirstquestionbeforereadingthepassage.Youmaywanttorereadanysentencesthatpresentcomplicatedideasorintroducetermsthatarenewtoyou.Readeachquestionandseriesofanswerscarefully.Makesureyouunderstandexactlywhatthequestionisaskingand

carefully.Makesureyouunderstandexactlywhatthequestionisaskingandwhattheanswerchoicesare.

Ifyouneedto,youmaygobacktothepassageandreadanypartsthatarerelevanttoansweringthequestion.Specificportionsofthepassagesmaybeindicatedintherelatedquestions.

Thefollowingpagesdescribewhatreadingcomprehensionquestionsaredesignedtomeasure,presentthedirectionsthatwillprecedequestionsofthistype,anddescribethevariousquestiontypes.Thischapteralsoprovidestest-takingstrategies,samplequestions,anddetailedexplanationsofallthequestions.Theexplanationsfurtherillustratethewaysinwhichreadingcomprehensionquestionsevaluatebasicreadingskills.

3.1WhatIsMeasuredReadingcomprehensionquestionsmeasureyourabilitytounderstand,analyze,andapplyinformationandconceptspresentedinwrittenform.Allquestionsaretobeansweredonthebasisofwhatisstatedorimpliedinthereadingmaterial,andnospecificpriorknowledgeofthematerialisrequired.

TheGMATreadingcomprehensionquestionsevaluateyourabilitytodothefollowing:

Understandwordsandstatements.

Althoughthequestionsdonottestyourvocabulary(theywillnotaskyoutodefineterms),theydotestyourabilitytointerpretspecialmeaningsoftermsastheyareusedinthereadingpassages.ThequestionswillalsotestyourunderstandingoftheEnglishlanguage.Thesequestionsmayaskabouttheoverallmeaningofapassage.

Understandlogicalrelationshipsbetweenpointsandconcepts.

Thistypeofquestionmayaskyoutodeterminethestrongandweakpointsofanargumentorevaluatetherelativeimportanceofargumentsandideasinapassage.

Drawinferencesfromfactsandstatements.

Theinferencequestionswillaskyoutoconsiderfactualstatementsorinformationpresentedinareadingpassageandreachconclusionsonthebasisofthatinformation.

Understandandfollowthedevelopmentofquantitativeconceptsastheyarepresentedinwrittenmaterial.

Thismayinvolvetheinterpretationofnumericaldataortheuseofsimplearithmetictoreachconclusionsaboutmaterialinapassage.

Therearesixkindsofreadingcomprehensionquestions,eachofwhichtestsadifferentskill.Thereadingcomprehensionquestionsaskaboutthefollowingareas:

MainideaEachpassageisaunifiedwhole—thatis,theindividualsentencesandparagraphssupportanddeveloponemainideaorcentralpoint.Sometimesyouwillbetoldthecentralpointinthepassageitself,andsometimesitwillbenecessaryforyoutodeterminethecentralpointfromtheoverallorganizationordevelopmentofthepassage.Youmaybeaskedinthiskindofquestionto

recognizeacorrectrestatement,orparaphrasing,ofthemainideaofapassage

identifytheauthor’sprimarypurposeorobjectiveinwritingthepassage

assignatitlethatsummarizes,brieflyandpointedly,themainideadevelopedinthepassage

SupportingideasThesequestionsmeasureyourabilitytocomprehendthesupportingideasinapassageanddifferentiatethemfromthemainidea.Thequestionsalsomeasureyourabilitytodifferentiateideasthatareexplicitlystatedinapassagefromideasthatareimpliedbytheauthorbutarenotexplicitlystated.Youmaybeaskedabout

factscitedinapassage

thespecificcontentofargumentspresentedbytheauthorinsupportofhisorherviews

descriptivedetailsusedtosupportorelaborateonthemainidea

Whereasquestionsaboutthemainideaaskyoutodeterminethemeaningofapassageasawhole,questionsaboutsupportingideasaskyoutodeterminethemeaningsofindividualsentencesandparagraphsthatcontributetothemeaningofthepassageasawhole.Inotherwords,thesequestionsaskforthemainpoint

ofonesmallpartofthepassage.

InferencesThesequestionsaskaboutideasthatarenotexplicitlystatedinapassagebutareimpliedbytheauthor.Unlikequestionsaboutsupportingdetails,whichaskaboutinformationthatisdirectlystatedinapassage,inferencequestionsaskaboutideasormeaningsthatmustbeinferredfrominformationthatisdirectlystated.Authorscanmaketheirpointsinindirectways,suggestingideaswithoutactuallystatingthem.Inferencequestionsmeasureyourabilitytounderstandanauthor’sintendedmeaninginpartsofapassagewherethemeaningisonlysuggested.Thesequestionsdonotaskaboutmeaningsorimplicationsthatareremotefromthepassage;rather,theyaskaboutmeaningsthataredevelopedindirectlyorimplicationsthatarespecificallysuggestedbytheauthor.

Toanswerthesequestions,youmayhaveto

logicallytakestatementsmadebytheauthoronestepbeyondtheirliteralmeanings

recognizeanalternativeinterpretationofastatementmadebytheauthor

identifytheintendedmeaningofawordusedfigurativelyinapassage

Ifapassageexplicitlystatesaneffect,forexample,youmaybeaskedtoinferitscause.Iftheauthorcomparestwophenomena,youmaybeaskedtoinferthebasisforthecomparison.Youmaybeaskedtoinferthecharacteristicsofanoldpolicyfromanexplicitdescriptionofanewone.Whenyoureadapassage,youshouldconcentratenotonlyontheexplicitmeaningoftheauthor’swords,butalsoonthemoresubtlemeaningimpliedbythosewords.

ApplyinginformationtoacontextoutsidethepassageitselfThesequestionsmeasureyourabilitytodiscerntherelationshipsbetweensituationsorideaspresentedbytheauthorandothersituationsorideasthatmightparallelthoseinthepassage.Inthiskindofquestion,youmaybeaskedto

identifyahypotheticalsituationthatiscomparabletoasituationpresentedinthepassage

selectanexamplethatissimilartoanexampleprovidedinthepassage

applyideasgiveninthepassagetoasituationnotmentionedbytheauthor

recognizeideasthattheauthorwouldprobablyagreeordisagreewithonthebasisofstatementsmadeinthepassage

Unlikeinferencequestions,applicationquestionsuseideasorsituationsnottakenfromthepassage.Ideasandsituationsgiveninaquestionarelikethosegiveninthepassage,andtheyparallelideasandsituationsinthepassage;therefore,toanswerthequestion,youmustdomorethanrecallwhatyouread.Youmustrecognizetheessentialattributesofideasandsituationspresentedinthepassagewhentheyappearindifferentwordsandinanentirelynewcontext.

LogicalstructureThesequestionsrequireyoutoanalyzeandevaluatetheorganizationandlogicofapassage.Theymayaskyou

howapassageisconstructed—forinstance,doesitdefine,compareorcontrast,presentanewidea,orrefuteanidea?

howtheauthorpersuadesreaderstoaccepthisorherassertions

thereasonbehindtheauthor’suseofanyparticularsupportingdetail

toidentifyassumptionsthattheauthorismaking

toassessthestrengthsandweaknessesoftheauthor’sarguments

torecognizeappropriatecounterarguments

Thesequestionsmeasureyourabilitynotonlytocomprehendapassagebutalsotoevaluateitcritically.However,itisimportantforyoutorealizethatlogicalstructurequestionsdonotrelyonanykindofformallogic,nordotheyrequireyoutobefamiliarwithspecifictermsoflogicorargumentation.Youcananswerthesequestionsusingonlytheinformationinthepassageandcarefulreasoning.

AboutthestyleandtoneStyleandtonequestionsaskabouttheexpressionofapassageandabouttheideasinapassagethatmaybeexpressedthroughitsdiction—theauthor’schoiceofwords.Youmaybeaskedtodeducetheauthor’sattitudetoanidea,afact,orasituationfromthewordsthatheorsheusestodescribeit.Youmayalsobeaskedtoselectawordthataccuratelydescribesthetoneofapassage—forinstance,“critical,”“questioning,”“objective,”or“enthusiastic.”

Toanswerthistypeofquestion,youwillhavetoconsiderthelanguageofthepassageasawhole.Ittakesmorethanonepointed,criticalwordtomakethetoneofanentirepassage“critical.”Sometimes,styleandtonequestionsask

toneofanentirepassage“critical.”Sometimes,styleandtonequestionsaskwhataudiencethepassagewasprobablyintendedfororwhattypeofpublicationitprobablyappearedin.Styleandtonequestionsmayapplytoonesmallpartofthepassageortothepassageasawhole.Toanswerthem,youmustaskyourselfwhatmeaningsarecontainedinthewordsofapassagebeyondtheliteralmeanings.Didtheauthorusecertainwordsbecauseoftheiremotionalcontent,orbecauseaparticularaudiencewouldexpecttohearthem?Remember,thesequestionsmeasureyourabilitytodiscernmeaningexpressedbytheauthorthroughhisorherchoiceofwords.

3.2Test-TakingStrategies1. Donotexpecttobecompletelyfamiliarwithanyofthematerial

presentedinreadingcomprehensionpassages.

Youmayfindsomepassageseasiertounderstandthanothers,butallpassagesaredesignedtopresentachallenge.Ifyouhavesomefamiliaritywiththematerialpresentedinapassage,donotletthisknowledgeinfluenceyourchoiceofanswerstothequestions.Answerallquestionsonthebasisofwhatisstatedorimpliedinthepassageitself.

2. Analyzeeachpassagecarefully,becausethequestionsrequireyoutohaveaspecificanddetailedunderstandingofthematerial.

Youmayfinditeasiertodotheanalysisfirstbeforemovingtothequestions.Youmayfindthatyouprefertoskimthepassagethefirsttimeandreadmorecarefullyonceyouunderstandwhataquestionasks.Youmayevenwanttoreadthequestionbeforereadingthepassage.Youshouldchoosethemethodmostsuitableforyou.

3. Focusonkeywordsandphrases,andmakeeveryefforttoavoidlosingthesenseofwhatisdiscussedinthepassage.

Keepthefollowinginmind:

Notehoweachfactrelatestoanideaoranargument.

Notewherethepassagemovesfromoneideatothenext.

Separatemainideasfromsupportingideas.

Determinewhatconclusionsarereachedandwhy.

4. Readthequestionscarefully,makingcertainthatyouunderstandwhat

isasked.

Ananswerchoicethataccuratelyrestatesinformationinthepassagemaybeincorrectifitdoesnotanswerthequestion.Ifyouneedto,referbacktothepassageforclarification.

5. Readallthechoicescarefully.

Neverassumethatyouhaveselectedthebestanswerwithoutfirstreadingallthechoices.

6. Selectthechoicethatanswersthequestionbestintermsoftheinformationgiveninthepassage.

Donotrelyonoutsideknowledgeofthematerialtohelpyouanswerthequestions.

7. Rememberthatcomprehension—notspeed—isthecriticalsuccessfactorwhenitcomestoreadingcomprehensionquestions.

3.3TheDirectionsThesearethedirectionsthatyouwillseeforreadingcomprehensionquestionswhenyoutaketheGMATexam.Ifyoureadthemcarefullyandunderstandthemclearlybeforegoingtositforthetest,youwillnotneedtospendtoomuchtimereviewingthemonceyouareatthetestcenterandthetestisunderway.

Thequestionsinthisgrouparebasedonthecontentofapassage.Afterreadingthepassage,choosethebestanswertoeachquestion.Answerallquestionsfollowingthepassageonthebasisofwhatisstatedorimpliedinthepassage.

3.4SampleQuestionsEachofthereadingcomprehensionquestionsisbasedonthecontentofapassage.Afterreadingthepassage,answerallquestionspertainingtoitonthebasisofwhatisstatedorimpliedinthepassage.Foreachquestion,selectthebestanswerofthechoicesgiven.

Humanbeings,bornwithadrivetoexploreandexperiment,thriveonlearning.Unfortunately,corporationsareorientedpredominantlytoward

controllingemployees,notfosteringtheirlearning.Ironically,thisorientationcreatestheveryconditionsthatpredestineemployeestomediocreperformances.Overtime,superiorperformancerequiressuperiorlearning,becauselong-termcorporatesurvivaldependsoncontinuallyexploringnewbusinessandorganizationalopportunitiesthatcancreatenewsourcesofgrowth. Tosurviveinthefuture,corporationsmustbecome“learningorganizations,”enterprisesthatareconstantlyabletoadaptandexpandtheircapabilities.Toaccomplishthis,corporationsmustchangehowtheyviewemployees.Thetraditionalviewthatasinglecharismaticleadershouldsetthecorporation’sdirectionandmakekeydecisionsisrootedinanindividualisticworldview.Inanincreasinglyinterdependentworld,suchaviewisnolongerviable.Inlearningorganizations,thinkingandactingareintegratedatalljoblevels.Corporateleadershipisshared,andleadersbecomedesigners,teachers,andstewards,rolesrequiringnewskills:theabilitytobuildsharedvision,torevealandchallengeprevailingmentalmodels,andtofosterbroader,moreintegratedpatternsofthinking.Inshort,leadersinlearningorganizationsareresponsibleforbuildingorganizationsinwhichemployeesarecontinuallylearningnewskillsandexpandingtheircapabilitiestoshapetheirfuture.

Questions1–4refertothepassage.

1. Accordingtothepassage,traditionalcorporateleadersdifferfromleadersinlearningorganizationsinthattheformer

A. encourageemployeestoconcentrateondevelopingawiderangeofskills

B. enableemployeestorecognizeandconfrontdominantcorporatemodelsandtodevelopalternativemodels

C. makeimportantpolicydecisionsaloneandthenrequireemployeesin

thecorporationtoabidebythosedecisions

D. instillconfidenceinemployeesbecauseoftheirwillingnesstomakeriskydecisionsandaccepttheirconsequences

E. areconcernedwithofferingemployeesfrequentadviceandcareerguidance

2. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesemployeebehaviorencouragedwithinlearningorganizations,assuchorganizationsaredescribedinthepassage?

A. Carefullydefiningone’sjobdescriptionandtakingcaretoavoiddeviationsfromit

B. Designingmentoringprogramsthattrainnewemployeestofollowproceduresthathavebeenusedformanyyears

C. Concentratingone’seffortsonmasteringoneaspectofacomplicatedtask

D. Studyinganorganizationalproblem,preparingareport,andsubmittingittoacorporateleaderforapproval

E. Analyzingaproblemrelatedtoproductivity,makingadecisionaboutasolution,andimplementingthatsolution

3. Accordingtotheauthorofthepassage,corporateleadersofthefutureshoulddowhichofthefollowing?

A. Theyshouldencourageemployeestoputlong-termgoalsaheadofshort-termprofits.

B. Theyshouldexercisemorecontroloveremployeesinordertoconstrainproductioncosts.

C. Theyshouldredefineincentivesforemployees’performanceimprovement.

D. Theyshouldprovideemployeeswithopportunitiestogainnewskillsandexpandtheircapabilities.

E. Theyshouldpromoteindividualmanagerswhoarecommittedtoestablishedcompanypolicies.

4. Theprimarypurposeofthepassageisto

A. endorseatraditionalcorporatestructure

B. introduceanewapproachtocorporateleadershipandevaluatecriticismsofit

C. explaincompetingtheoriesaboutmanagementpracticesandreconcilethem

D. contrasttwotypicalcorporateorganizationalstructures

E. proposeanalternativetoacommoncorporateapproach

Structuralunemployment—theunemploymentthatremainsevenatthepeakoftheeconomy’supswings—iscausedbyanimbalancebetweenthetypesandlocationsofavailableemploymentontheonehandandthequalificationsandlocationsofworkersontheotherhand.Whensuchanimbalanceexists,bothlaborshortagesandunemploymentmayoccur,despiteabalancebetweensupplyanddemandforlaborintheeconomyasawhole. Becausetechnologicalchangeislikelytodisplacesomeworkers,itisamajorfactorinproducingstructuralunemployment.Whiletechnologicaladvancealmostinvariablyresultsinshiftsindemandsfordifferenttypesofworkers,itdoesnotnecessarilyresultinunemployment.Relativelysmallorgradualchangesindemandarelikelytocauselittleunemployment.Intheindividualfirmoreveninthelabormarketasawhole,normalattritionmaybesufficienttoreducethesizeoftheworkforceintheaffectedoccupations.Relativelylargeorrapidchanges,however,cancauseseriousproblems.Workersmaylosetheirjobsandfindthemselveswithouttheskillsnecessarytoobtainnewjobs.Whetherthisdisplacementleadstostructuralunemploymentdependsontheamountofpublicandprivatesectorresourcesdevotedtoretrainingandplacingthoseworkers.Workerscanbeencouragedtomovewheretherearejobs,toreeducateorretrainthemselves,ortoretire.Inaddition,otherfactorsaffectingstructuralunemployment,suchascapitalmovement,canbecontrolled.

Increasedstructuralunemployment,shoulditoccur,makesitdifficultfortheeconomytoachievedesiredlowratesofunemploymentalongwithlowratesofinflation.Ifthereisagrowingpoolofworkerswholackthenecessaryskillsfortheavailablejobs,increasesintotallabordemandwillrapidlygenerateshortagesofqualifiedworkers.Asthewagesofthoseworkersarebidup,laborcosts,andthusprices,rise.Thisphenomenonmaybeanimportantfactorintherisingtrend,observedforthepasttwodecades,ofunemploymentcombinedwithinflation.Governmentpolicyhasplacedapriorityonreducinginflation,buttheseeffortshaveneverthelesscausedunemploymenttoincrease.

5. AllofthefollowingarementionedaswaysofcontrollingthemagnitudeofstructuralunemploymentEXCEPT

A. usingpublicfundstocreatejobs

B. teachingnewskillstodisplacedworkers

C. allowingdisplacedworkerstoretire

D. controllingthemovementofcapital

E. encouragingworkerstomovetowherejobsareavailable

6. Thepassagesuggeststhatapotentialoutcomeofhigherstructuralunemploymentis

A. increasedpublicspendingforsocialservices

B. placementofworkersinjobsforwhichtheyarenotqualified

C. higherwagesforthoseworkerswhohaveskillsthatareindemand

D. anincreaseinthelengthoftimejobsremainunfilled

E. ashiftinthegovernment’seconomicpolicypriorities

7. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatevenwhenthereareunemployedworkers,laborshortagesarestilllikelytooccurif

A. theinflationrateisunusuallyhigh

B. thereisinsufficienttechnologicalinnovation

C. thelevelofstructuralunemploymentisexceptionallylow

D. thejobsavailableincertainplacesrequireskillsthatthelaborforceinthoseareaslacks

E. theworkersinsomeindustriesaredissatisfiedwiththepayofferedinthoseindustries

8. Thepassagesuggeststhatthephenomenonofcombinedunemploymentandinflationis

A. asocioeconomicproblemthatcanonlybeaddressedbygovernmentintervention

B. asocioeconomicproblemthatcanbecharacteristicofperiodsofstructuralunemployment

C. aneconomicproblemthatresultsfromgovernmentinterventioninmanagement-laborrelations

D. aneconomicproblemthatresultsfromimperfectapplicationsoftechnology

E. aneconomicproblemthatcanbeeliminatedbyrelativelysmallchangesinthelaborforce

9. Thepassageisprimarilyconcernedwith

A. clarifyingthedefinitionofaconcept

B. proposingawaytoeliminateanundesirablecondition

C. discussingthesourcesandconsequencesofaproblem

D. suggestingwaystoalleviatetheeffectsofaparticularsocialpolicy

E. evaluatingthestepsthathavebeentakentocorrectanimbalance

10. Accordingtothepassage,smalldownwardshiftsinthedemandforlaborwillnotusuallycauseunemploymentbecause

A. suchshiftsarefrequentlyaccompaniedbyupswingsintheeconomy

B. suchshiftsusuallyoccurslowly

C. workerscanbeencouragedtomovetowheretherearejobs

D. normalattritionisoftensufficienttoreducethesizeoftheworkforce

E. workersareusuallyflexibleenoughtolearnnewskillsandswitchtonewjobs

TheGrossDomesticProduct(GDP),whichmeasuresthedollarvalueoffinishedgoodsandservicesproducedbyaneconomyduringagivenperiod,servesasthechiefindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates.TheGDPassumesthattheeconomicsignificanceofgoodsandservicesliessolelyintheirprice,andthatthesegoodsandservicesaddtothenationalwell-being,notbecauseofanyintrinsicvaluetheymaypossess,butsimplybecausetheywereproducedandbought.Additionally,onlythosegoodsandservicesinvolvedinmonetarytransactionsareincludedintheGDP.Thus,theGDPignorestheeconomicutilityofsuchthingsasacleanenvironmentandcohesivefamiliesandcommunities.Itisthereforenotmerelycoincidental,sincenationalpoliciesincapitalistandnoncapitalistcountriesalikearedependentonindicatorssuchastheGDP,thatboththeenvironmentandthesocialstructurehavebeenerodedinrecentdecades.NotonlydoestheGDPmaskthiserosion,itcanactuallyportrayitasaneconomicgain:anoilspilloffacoastalregion“adds”totheGDPbecauseitgeneratescommercialactivity.Inshort,thenation’scentralmeasureofeconomicwell-beingworkslikeacalculatingmachinethataddsbutcannotsubtract.

A. identifywaysinwhichtheGDPcouldbemodifiedsothatitwouldserveasamoreaccurateindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates

B. suggestthattheGDP,inspiteofcertainshortcomings,isstillthemostreliableindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates

C. examinecrucialshortcomingsoftheGDPasanindicatorofthe

economicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates

D. arguethatthegrowthoftheUnitedStateseconomyinrecentdecadeshasdiminishedtheeffectivenessoftheGDPasanindicatorofthenation’seconomicwell-being

E. discusshowtheGDPcametobeusedastheprimaryindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates

12. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesthefunctionofthesecondsentenceofthepassageinthecontextofthepassageasawhole?

A. ItdescribesanassumptionabouttheGDPthatisdefendedinthecourseofthepassage.

B. ItcontributestoadiscussionoftheoriginsoftheGDP.

C. ItclarifiesacommonmisconceptionabouttheuseoftheGDP.

D. ItidentifiesamajorflawintheGDP.

E. ItsuggestsarevisiontothemethodofcalculatingtheGDP.

13. Itcanbeinferredthattheauthorofthepassagewouldagreewithwhichofthefollowingaboutthe“economicsignificance”ofthosegoodsandservicesthatareincludedintheGDP?

A. Itisacomprehensiveindicatorofanation’seconomicwell-being.

B. Itisnotaccuratelycapturedbythepriceofthosegoodsandservices.

C. Itisusuallylessthantheintrinsicvalueofthosegoodsandservices.

D. ItismoredifficulttocalculatethantheeconomicsignificanceofthosegoodsandservicesthatarenotincludedintheGDP.

E. Itiscalculateddifferentlyincapitalistcountriesthaninnoncapitalistcountries.

14. ThecomparisonoftheGDPtoacalculatingmachineservestodowhichofthefollowing?

A. RefuteanassertionthatthecalculationsinvolvedintheGDParerelativelycomplexinnature

B. IndicatethattheGDPisbettersuitedtorecordcertaintypesofmonetarytransactionsthanothers

C. SuggestthatitislikelythattheGDPwillbesupplantedbyother,more

sophisticatedeconomicindicators

D. IllustratethepointthattheGDPhasnowayofmeasuringthedestructiveimpactofsuchthingsasoilspillsonthenation’seconomicwell-being

E. ExemplifyanassertionthattheGDPtendstoexaggeratetheamountofcommercialactivitygeneratedbysuchthingsasoilspills

15. ThepassageimpliesthatnationalpoliciesthatrelyheavilyoneconomicindicatorssuchastheGDPtendto

A. becomeincreasinglycapitalisticinnature

B. disregardtheeconomicimportanceofenvironmentalandsocialfactorsthatdonotinvolvemonetarytransactions

C. overestimatetheamountofcommercialactivitygeneratedbyenvironmentaldisasters

D. overestimatetheeconomicsignificanceofcohesivefamiliesandcommunities

E. assumethattheeconomicsignificanceofgoodsandservicesdoesnotliesolelyinthepriceofthosegoodsandservices

16. ItcanbeinferredthattheauthorofthepassagewouldagreewithwhichofthefollowingassessmentsoftheGDPasanindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates?

A. Itmaskssocialandenvironmentalerosionmorefullythanthechiefeconomicindicatorsofothernations.

B. Itisbasedoninaccurateestimationsofthepricesofmanygoodsandservices.

C. ItoverestimatestheamountofcommercialactivitythatisgeneratedintheUnitedStates.

D. Itisconducivetoerrorbecauseitconflatesdistincttypesofeconomicactivity.

E. Itdoesnottakeintoaccounttheeconomicutilityofcertainenvironmentalandsocialconditions.

In1971researchershopingtopredictearthquakesintheshorttermbyidentifyingprecursoryphenomena

(thosethatoccurafewdaysbeforelargequakesbutnototherwise)turnedtheirattentiontochangesinseismicwavesthathadbeendetectedpriortoearthquakes.Anexplanationforsuchchangeswasofferedby“dilatancytheory,”basedonawell-knownphenomenonobservedinrocksinthelaboratory:asstressbuilds,microfracturesinrockclose,decreasingtherock’svolume.Butasstresscontinuestoincrease,therockbeginstocrackandexpandinvolume,allowinggroundwatertoseepin,weakeningtherock.Accordingtothistheory,sucheffectscouldleadtoseveralprecursoryphenomenainthefield,includingachangeinthevelocityofseismicwaves,andanincreaseinsmall,nearbytremors. Researchersinitiallyreportedsuccessinidentifyingthesepossibleprecursors,butsubsequentanalysesoftheirdataproveddisheartening.Seismicwaveswithunusualvelocitieswererecordedbeforesomeearthquakes,butwhilethehistoricalrecordconfirmsthatmostlargeearthquakesareprecededbyminortremors,theseforeshocksindicatenothingaboutthemagnitudeofanimpendingquakeandareindistinguishablefromotherminortremorsthatoccurwithoutlargeearthquakes. Inthe1980s,someresearchersturnedtheireffortsfromshort-termtolong-termprediction.Notingthatearthquakestendtooccurrepeatedlyincertainregions,LindhandBakerattemptedtoidentifypatternsofrecurrence,orearthquakecycles,onwhichtobasepredictions.Inastudyofearthquake-pronesitesalongtheSanAndreasFault,theydeterminedthatquakesoccurredatintervalsofapproximately22yearsnearonesiteandconcludedthattherewasa95percentprobabilityofanearthquakeinthatareaby1992.Theearthquakedidnotoccurwithinthetimeframepredicted,however.EvidenceagainstthekindofregularearthquakecyclesthatLindhandBakertriedtoestablishhascomefromarelativelynew

field,paleoseismology.Paleoseismologistshaveunearthedanddatedgeologicalfeaturessuchasfaultscarpsthatwerecausedbyearthquakesthousandsofyearsago.TheyhavedeterminedthattheaverageintervalbetweentenearthquakesthattookplaceatonesitealongtheSanAndreasFaultinthepasttwomillenniawas132years,butindividualintervalsrangedgreatly,from44to332years.

A. explainingwhyonemethodofearthquakepredictionhasprovenmorepracticablethananalternativemethod

B. suggestingthataccurateearthquakeforecastingmustcombineelementsoflong-termandshort-termprediction

C. challengingtheusefulnessofdilatancytheoryforexplainingtheoccurrenceofprecursoryphenomena

D. discussingthedeficiencyoftwomethodsbywhichresearchershaveattemptedtopredicttheoccurrenceofearthquakes

E. describingthedevelopmentofmethodsforestablishingpatternsintheoccurrenceofpastearthquakes

18. Accordingtothepassage,laboratoryevidenceconcerningtheeffectsofstressonrocksmighthelpaccountfor

A. differencesinmagnitudeamongearthquakes

B. certainphenomenathatoccurpriortoearthquakes

C. variationsintheintervalsbetweenearthquakesinaparticulararea

D. differencesinthefrequencywithwhichearthquakesoccurinvariousareas

E. theunreliabilityofshort-termearthquakepredictions

19. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatoneproblemwithusingprecursoryphenomenatopredictearthquakesisthatminortremors

A. typicallyoccursomedistancefromthesitesofthelargeearthquakes

thatfollowthem

B. aredirectlylinkedtothemechanismsthatcauseearthquakes

C. aredifficulttodistinguishfrommajortremors

D. haveprovendifficulttomeasureaccurately

E. arenotalwaysfollowedbylargeearthquakes

20. Accordingtothepassage,someresearchersbasedtheirresearchaboutlong-termearthquakepredictiononwhichofthefollowingfacts?

A. Thehistoricalrecordconfirmsthatmostearthquakeshavebeenprecededbyminortremors.

B. TheaverageintervalbetweenearthquakesinoneregionoftheSanAndreasFaultis132years.

C. Someregionstendtobethesiteofnumerousearthquakesoverthecourseofmanyyears.

D. Changesinthevolumeofrockcanoccurasaresultofbuildingstressandcanleadtotheweakeningofrock.

E. Paleoseismologistshavebeenabletounearthanddategeologicalfeaturescausedbypastearthquakes.

21. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutthepaleoseismologists’findingsdescribedinlines42–50?

A. Theysuggestthatthefrequencywithwhichearthquakesoccurredataparticularsitedecreasedsignificantlyoverthepasttwomillennia.

B. Theysuggestthatpaleoseismologistsmaysomedaybeabletomakereasonablyaccuratelong-termearthquakepredictions.

C. Theysuggestthatresearchersmaysomedaybeabletodeterminewhichpastoccurrencesofminortremorswereactuallyfollowedbylargeearthquakes.

D. Theysuggestthattherecurrenceofearthquakesinearthquake-pronesitesistooirregulartoserveasabasisforearthquakeprediction.

E. Theyindicatethatresearchersattemptingtodeveloplong-termmethodsofearthquakepredictionhaveoverlookedimportantevidenceconcerningthecausesofearthquakes.

22. Theauthorimplieswhichofthefollowingabouttheabilityoftheresearchersmentionedinline18topredictearthquakes?

A. Theycanidentifywhenanearthquakeislikelytooccurbutnothowlargeitwillbe.

B. Theycanidentifytheregionswhereearthquakesarelikelytooccurbutnotwhentheywilloccur.

C. Theyareunabletodetermineeitherthetimeortheplacethatearthquakesarelikelytooccur.

D. Theyarelikelytobemoreaccurateatshort-termearthquakepredictionthanatlong-termearthquakeprediction.

E. Theycandeterminetheregionswhereearthquakeshaveoccurredinthepastbutnottheregionswheretheyarelikelytooccurinthefuture.

Akeydecisionrequiredofadvertisingmanagersiswhethera“hard-sell”or“soft-sell”strategyisappropriateforaspecifictargetmarket.Thehard-sellapproachinvolvestheuseofdirect,forcefulclaimsregardingthebenefitsoftheadvertisedbrandovercompetitors’offerings.Incontrast,thesoft-sellapproachinvolvestheuseofadvertisingclaimsthatimplysuperioritymoresubtly. Onepositiveaspectofthehard-sellapproachisitsuseofverysimpleandstraightforwardproductclaimspresentedasexplicitconclusions,withlittleroomforconfusionregardingtheadvertiser’smessage.However,someconsumersmayresentbeingtoldwhattobelieveandsomemaydistrustthemessage.Resentmentanddistrustoftenleadtocounterargumentationandtoboomerangeffectswhereconsumerscometobelieveconclusionsdiametricallyopposedtoconclusionsendorsedinadvertisingclaims.Bycontrast,theriskofboomerangeffectsisgreatlyreducedwithsoft-sellapproaches.Onewaytoimplementthesoft-sellapproachistoprovideinformationthatimpliesthemainconclusionstheadvertiserwantstheconsumertodraw,butleavetheconclusions

themselvesunstated.Becauseconsumersareinvitedtomakeuptheirownminds,implicitconclusionsreducetheriskofresentment,distrust,andcounterargumentation. Recentresearchonconsumermemoryandjudgmentsuggestsanotheradvantageofimplicitconclusions.Beliefsorconclusionsthatareself-generatedaremoreaccessiblefrommemorythanbeliefsfromconclusionsprovidedexplicitlybyotherindividuals,andthushaveagreaterimpactonjudgmentanddecisionmaking.Moreover,self-generatedbeliefsareoftenperceivedasmoreaccurateandvalidthanthebeliefsofothers,becauseotherindividualsmaybeperceivedaslessknowledgeable,ormaybeperceivedasmanipulativeordeliberatelymisleading. Despitetheseadvantages,implicitconclusionsmaynotalwaysbemoreeffectivethanexplicitconclusions.Oneriskisthatsomeconsumersmayfailtodrawtheirownconclusionsandthusmissthepointofthemessage.Inferentialactivityislikelyonlywhenconsumersaremotivatedandabletoengageineffortfulcognitiveprocesses.Anotherriskisthatsomeconsumersmaydrawconclusionsotherthantheoneintended.Evenifinferentialactivityislikelythereisnoguaranteethatconsumerswillfollowthepathprovidedbytheadvertiser.Finally,athirdriskisthatconsumersmayinfertheintendedconclusionbutquestionthevalidityoftheirinference.

23. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatonereasonanadvertisermightpreferahard-sellapproachtoasoft-sellapproachisthat

A. therisksofboomerangeffectsareminimizedwhentheconclusionsanadvertiserwantstheconsumertodrawarethemselvesleftunstated

B. counterargumentationislikelyfromconsumerswhofailtodrawtheir

ownconclusionsregardinganadvertisingclaim

C. inferentialactivityislikelytooccurevenifconsumersperceivethemselvestobemoreknowledgeablethantheindividualspresentingproductclaims

D. researchonconsumermemorysuggeststhattheexplicitconclusionsprovidedbyanadvertiserusingthehard-sellapproachhaveasignificantimpactondecisionmaking

E. theinformationpresentedbyanadvertiserusingthesoft-sellapproachmayimplydifferentconclusionstodifferentconsumers

24. Eachofthefollowingismentionedinthepassageasacharacteristicofthehard-sellapproachEXCEPT:

A. Itsoverallmessageisreadilygrasped.

B. Itappealstoconsumers’knowledgeabouttheproduct.

C. Itmakesexplicitclaimsthattheadvertisedbrandissuperiortootherbrands.

D. Itusesstatementsthatareexpressedveryclearly.

E. Itmakesclaimsintheformofdirectconclusions.

25. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatadvertiserscouldreduceoneoftherisksdiscussedinthelastparagraphiftheywereabletoprovide

A. motivationforconsumerstothinkabouttheadvertisement’smessage

B. informationthatimpliestheadvertiser’sintendedconclusionbutleavesthatconclusionunstated

C. subtleevidencethattheadvertisedproductissuperiortothatofcompetitors

D. informationcomparingtheadvertisedproductwithitscompetitors

E. opportunityforconsumerstogeneratetheirownbeliefsorconclusions

A. pointouttherisksinvolvedintheuseofaparticularadvertisingstrategy

B. makeacaseforthesuperiorityofoneadvertisingstrategyoveranother

C. illustratethewaysinwhichtwoadvertisingstrategiesmaybeimplemented

D. presenttheadvantagesanddisadvantagesoftwoadvertisingstrategies

E. contrastthetypesoftargetmarketsforwhichtwoadvertisingstrategiesareappropriate

27. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesthefunctionofthesentenceinlines25–28inthecontextofthepassageasawhole?

A. Itreiteratesadistinctionbetweentwoadvertisingstrategiesthatismadeinthefirstparagraph.

B. Itexplainshowaparticularstrategyavoidsadrawbackdescribedearlierintheparagraph.

C. Itsuggeststhatariskdescribedearlierintheparagraphislessseriousthansomeresearchersbelieveittobe.

D. Itoutlineswhythestrategydescribedintheprevioussentenceinvolvescertainrisksforanadvertiser.

E. Itintroducesanargumentthatwillberefutedinthefollowingparagraph.

28. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatonesituationinwhichtheboomerangeffectoftenoccursiswhenconsumers

A. havebeenexposedtoforcefulclaimsthatarediametricallyopposedtothoseinanadvertiser’smessage

B. havepreviousself-generatedbeliefsorconclusionsthatarereadilyaccessiblefrommemory

C. aresubjectedtoadvertisingmessagesthataretargetedatspecificmarketstowhichthoseconsumersdonotbelong

D. areconfusedregardingthepointoftheadvertiser’smessage

E. cometoviewtheadvertiser’smessagewithsuspicion

29. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheresearchmentionedinline29supportswhichofthefollowingstatements?

A. Implicitconclusionsaremorelikelytocaptureaccuratelythepointoftheadvertiser’smessagethanareexplicitconclusions.

B. Counterargumentationislesslikelytooccurifanindividual’sbeliefsorconclusionsarereadilyaccessiblefrommemory.

C. Thehard-sellapproachresultsinconclusionsthataremoredifficultfortheconsumertorecallthanareconclusionsresultingfromthesoft-sellapproach.

D. Whenthebeliefsofothersarepresentedasdefiniteandforcefulclaims,theyareperceivedtobeasaccurateasself-generatedbeliefs.

E. Despitetheadvantagesofimplicitconclusions,thehard-sellapproachinvolvesfewerrisksfortheadvertiserthandoesthesoft-sellapproach.

Coralreefsareoneofthemostfragile,biologicallycomplex,anddiversemarineecosystemsonEarth.Thisecosystemisoneofthefascinatingparadoxesofthebiosphere:howdoclear,andthusnutrient-poor,waterssupportsuchprolificandproductivecommunities?Partoftheanswerlieswithinthetissuesofthecoralsthemselves.Symbioticcellsofalgaeknownaszooxanthellaecarryoutphotosynthesisusingthemetabolicwastesofthecorals,therebyproducingfoodforthemselves,fortheircoralhosts,andevenforothermembersofthereefcommunity.Thissymbioticprocessallowsorganismsinthereefcommunitytousesparsenutrientresourcesefficiently. Unfortunatelyforcoralreefs,however,avarietyofhumanactivitiesarecausingworldwidedegradationofshallowmarinehabitatsbyaddingnutrientstothewater.Agriculture,slash-and-burnlandclearing,sewagedisposal,andmanufacturingthatcreateswasteby-productsallincreasenutrientloadsinthesewaters.Typicalsymptomsofreefdeclinearedestabilizedherbivorepopulationsandanincreasingabundanceofalgaeandfilter-feedinganimals.Declinesinreefcommunitiesareconsistentwithobservationsthatnutrientinputisincreasingindirectproportiontogrowinghumanpopulations,therebythreateningreefcommunitiessensitivetosubtlechangesinnutrientinputtotheir

waters.

A. describingtheeffectsofhumanactivitiesonalgaeincoralreefs

B. explaininghowhumanactivitiesareposingathreattocoralreefcommunities

C. discussingtheprocessbywhichcoralreefsdeteriorateinnutrient-poorwaters

D. explaininghowcoralreefsproducefoodforthemselves

E. describingtheabundanceofalgaeandfilter-feedinganimalsincoralreefareas

31. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutcoralreefcommunities?

A. Coralreefcommunitiesmayactuallybemorelikelytothriveinwatersthatarerelativelylowinnutrients.

B. Thenutrientsonwhichcoralreefcommunitiesthriveareonlyfoundinshallowwaters.

C. Humanpopulationgrowthhasledtochangingoceantemperatures,whichthreatenscoralreefcommunities.

D. Thegrowthofcoralreefcommunitiestendstodestabilizeunderwaterherbivorepopulations.

E. Coralreefcommunitiesaremorecomplexanddiversethanmostecosystemslocatedondryland.

32. Theauthorrefersto“filter-feedinganimals”(lines23–24)inorderto

A. provideanexampleofacharacteristicsignofreefdeterioration

B. explainhowreefcommunitiesacquiresustenanceforsurvival

C. identifyafactorthathelpsherbivorepopulationsthrive

D. indicateacauseofdecreasingnutrientinputinwatersthatreefsinhabit

E. identifymembersofcoralreefcommunitiesthatrelyoncoralreefsfornutrients

33. Accordingtothepassage,whichofthefollowingisafactorthatisthreateningthesurvivalofcoralreefcommunities?

A. Thewaterstheyinhabitcontainfewnutrientresources.

B. Adeclineinnutrientinputisdisruptingtheirsymbioticrelationshipwithzooxanthellae.

C. Thedegradedwatersoftheirmarinehabitatshavereducedtheirabilitytocarryoutphotosynthesis.

D. Theyaretoobiologicallycomplextosurviveinhabitatswithminimalnutrientinput.

E. Wasteby-productsresultinanincreaseinnutrientinputtoreefcommunities.

34. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheauthordescribescoralreefcommunitiesasparadoxicalmostlikelyforwhichofthefollowingreasons?

A. Theyarethrivingeventhoughhumanactivitieshavedepletedthenutrientsintheirenvironment.

B. Theyareabletosurviveinspiteofanoverabundanceofalgaeinhabitingtheirwaters.

C. Theyareabletosurviveinanenvironmentwithlimitedfoodresources.

D. Theirmetabolicwastescontributetothedegradationofthewatersthattheyinhabit.

E. Theyaredecliningevenwhenthewatersurroundingthemremainsclear.

Supposewewereinaspaceshipinfreefall,whereobjectsareweightless,andwantedtoknowasmallsolidobject’smass.Wecouldnotsimplybalancethatobjectagainstanotherofknownweight,aswewouldonEarth.Theunknownmasscouldbedetermined,however,byplacingtheobjectonaspringscaleandswingingthescaleinacircleattheendofastring.Thescalewouldmeasurethetensioninthestring,whichwoulddependonboth

thespeedofrevolutionandthemassoftheobject.Thetensionwouldbegreater,thegreaterthemassorthegreaterthespeedofrevolution.Fromthemeasuredtensionandspeedofwhirling,wecoulddeterminetheobject’smass. Astronomersuseananalogousprocedureto“weigh”double-starsystems.Thespeedwithwhichthetwostarsinadouble-starsystemcircleoneanotherdependsonthegravitationalforcebetweenthem,whichholdsthesystemtogether.Thisattractiveforce,analogoustothetensioninthestring,isproportionaltothestars’combinedmass,accordingtoNewton’slawofgravitation.Byobservingthetimerequiredforthestarstocircleeachother(theperiod)andmeasuringthedistancebetweenthem,wecandeducetherestrainingforce,andhencethemasses.

35. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatthetwoproceduresdescribedinthepassagehavewhichofthefollowingincommon?

A. Theyhavebeenappliedinpractice.

B. Theyrelyontheuseofadevicethatmeasurestension.

C. Theirpurposeistodetermineanunknownmass.

D. Theycanonlybeappliedtosmallsolidobjects.

E. Theyinvolveattractionbetweenobjectsofsimilarmass.

36. Accordingtothepassage,thetensioninthestringmentionedinlines8–9isanalogoustowhichofthefollowingaspectsofadouble-starsystem?

A. Thespeedwithwhichonestarorbitstheother

B. Thegravitationalattractionbetweenthestars

C. Theamountoftimeittakesforthestarstocircleoneanother

D. Thedistancebetweenthetwostars

E. Thecombinedmassofthetwostars

37. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribestherelationshipbetweenthefirstandthesecondparagraphofthepassage?

A. Thefirstparagraphprovidesanillustrationusefulforunderstandingaproceduredescribedinthesecondparagraph.

B. Thefirstparagraphdescribesahypotheticalsituationwhoseplausibilityistestedinthesecondparagraph.

C. Thefirstparagraphevaluatestheusefulnessofaprocedurewhoseapplicationisdescribedfurtherinthesecondparagraph.

D. Thesecondparagraphprovidesevidencetosupportaclaimmadeinthefirstparagraph.

E. Thesecondparagraphanalyzesthepracticalimplicationsofamethodologyproposedinthefirstparagraph.

38. Theauthorofthepassagementionsobservationsregardingtheperiodofadouble-starsystemasbeingusefulfordetermining

A. thedistancebetweenthetwostarsinthesystem

B. thetimeittakesforeachstartorotateonitsaxis

C. thesizeoftheorbitthesystem’stwostarsoccupy

D. thedegreeofgravitationalattractionbetweenthesystem’sstars

E. thespeedatwhichthestarsystemmovesthroughspace

In1994,ateamofscientistsledbyDavidMcKaybeganstudyingthemeteoriteALH84001,whichhadbeendiscoveredinAntarcticain1984.Twoyearslater,theMcKayteamannouncedthatALH84001,whichscientistsgenerallyagreeoriginatedonMars,containedcompellingevidencethatlifeonceexistedonMars.ThisevidenceincludesthediscoveryoforganicmoleculesinALH84001,thefirsteverfoundinMartianrock.Organicmolecules—complex,carbon-basedcompounds—formthebasisforterrestriallife.TheorganicmoleculesfoundinALH84001arepolycyclicaromatichydrocarbons,orPAHs.Whenmicrobesdie,theirorganicmaterialoftendecaysintoPAHs.

SkepticismabouttheMcKayteam’sclaimremains,however.Forexample,ALH84001hasbeenonEarthfor13,000years,suggestingtosomescientiststhatitsPAHsmighthaveresultedfromterrestrialcontamination.However,McKay’steamhasdemonstratedthattheconcentrationofPAHsincreasesasonelooksdeeperintoALH84001,contrarytowhatonewouldexpectfromterrestrialcontamination.Theskeptics’strongestargument,however,isthatprocessesunrelatedtoorganiclifecaneasilyproducealltheevidencefoundbyMcKay’steam,includingPAHs.Forexample,starformationproducesPAHs.Moreover,PAHsfrequentlyappearinothermeteorites,andnooneattributestheirpresencetolifeprocesses.YetMcKay’steamnotesthattheparticularcombinationofPAHsinALH84001ismoresimilartothecombinationsproducedbydecayingorganismsthantothoseoriginatingfromnonbiologicalprocesses.

A. describenewwaysofstudyingthepossibilitythatlifeonceexistedonMars

B. reviseatheoryregardingtheexistenceoflifeonMarsinlightofnewevidence

C. reconcileconflictingviewpointsregardingthepossibilitythatlifeonceexistedonMars

D. evaluatearecentlyproposedargumentconcerningtheoriginofALH84001

E. describeacontroversyconcerningthesignificanceofevidencefromALH84001

40. ThepassageassertswhichofthefollowingabouttheclaimthatALH84001originatedonMars?

A. ItwasinitiallyproposedbytheMcKayteamofscientists.

B. Itisnotamatterofwidespreadscientificdispute.

C. IthasbeenquestionedbysomeskepticsoftheMcKayteam’swork.

D. IthasbeenunderminedbyrecentworkonPAHs.

E. ItisincompatiblewiththefactthatALH84001hasbeenonEarthfor13,000years.

41. ThepassagesuggeststhatthefactthatALH84001hasbeenonEarthfor13,000yearshasbeenusedbysomescientiststosupportwhichofthefollowingclaimsaboutALH84001?

A. ALH84001maynothaveoriginatedonMars.

B. ALH84001containsPAHsthataretheresultofnonbiologicalprocesses.

C. ALH84001maynothavecontainedPAHswhenitlandedonEarth.

D. TheorganicmoleculesfoundinALH84001arenotPAHs.

E. TheorganicmoleculesfoundinALH84001couldnotbetheresultofterrestrialcontamination.

42. ThepassagesuggeststhatifameteoritecontainedPAHsthatweretheresultofterrestrialcontamination,thenonewouldexpectwhichofthefollowingtobetrue?

A. ThemeteoritewouldhavebeenonEarthformorethan13,000years.

B. ThemeteoritewouldhaveoriginatedfromasourceotherthanMars.

C. ThePAHscontainedinthemeteoritewouldhaveoriginatedfromnonbiologicalprocesses.

D. ThemeteoritewouldcontainfewerPAHsthanmostothermeteoritescontain.

E. ThePAHscontainedinthemeteoritewouldbeconcentratedtowardthemeteorite’ssurface.

43. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesthefunctionofthelastsentenceofthefirstparagraph?

A. ItidentifiesapossibleorganicsourceforthePAHsfoundinALH84001.

B. ItdescribesafeatureofPAHsthatisnotsharedbyothertypesof

organicmolecules.

C. Itexplainshowacharacteristiccommontomostmeteoritesoriginates.

D. ItsuggestshowtheterrestrialcontaminationofALH84001mighthavetakenplace.

E. ItpresentsevidencethatunderminestheclaimthatlifeonceexistedonMars.

44. ThepassagesuggeststhatMcKay’steamwouldagreewithwhichofthefollowingregardingthePAHsproducedbynonorganicprocesses?

A. ThesePAHsarenotlikelytobefoundinanymeteoritethathasbeenonEarthfor13,000yearsormore.

B. ThesePAHsarenotlikelytobefoundinanymeteoritethatoriginatedfromMars.

C. ThesePAHsarenotlikelytobeproducedbystarformation.

D. ThesePAHsarelikelytobefoundincombinationsthatdistinguishthemfromthePAHsproducedbyorganicprocesses.

E. ThesePAHsarelikelytobefoundinfewermeteoritesthanthePAHsproducedbyorganicprocesses.

ExactlywhenintheearlymoderneraNativeAmericansbeganexchanginganimalfurswithEuropeansforEuropean-madegoodsisuncertain.Whatisfairlycertain,eventhoughtheyleftnowrittenevidenceofhavingdoneso,isthatthefirstEuropeanstoconductsuchtradeduringthemodernperiodwerefishingcrewsworkingthewatersaroundNewfoundland.Archaeologistshadnoticedthatsixteenth-centuryNativeAmericansiteswerestrewnwithironboltsandmetalpins.Onlylater,uponreadingNicolasDenys’s1672accountofseventeenth-centuryEuropeansettlementsinNorthAmerica,didarchaeologistsrealizethatsixteenth-centuryEuropeanfishingcrewshaddismantledandexchangedpartsoftheirshipsforfurs. BythetimeEuropeanssailingtheAtlanticcoast

ofNorthAmericafirstdocumentedthefurtrade,itwasapparentlywellunderway.Thefirsttorecordsuchtrade—thecaptainofaPortuguesevesselsailingfromNewfoundlandin1501—observedthataNativeAmericanaboardtheshipworeVenetiansilverearrings.Anotherearlychroniclernotedin1524thatNativeAmericanslivingalongthecoastofwhatisnowNewEnglandhadbecomeselectiveaboutEuropeantradegoods:theyacceptedonlyknives,fishhooks,andsharpmetal.BythetimeCartiersailedtheSaintLawrenceRivertenyearslater,NativeAmericanshadtradedwithEuropeansformorethanthirtyyears,perhapshalfacentury.

45. TheauthorofthepassagedrawsconclusionsaboutthefurtradeinNorthAmericafromallofthefollowingsourcesEXCEPT

A. Cartier’saccountsoftradingwithNativeAmericans

B. aseventeenth-centuryaccountofEuropeansettlements

C. asixteenth-centuryaccountwrittenbyasailingvesselcaptain

D. archaeologicalobservationsofsixteenth-centuryNativeAmericansites

E. asixteenth-centuryaccountofNativeAmericansinwhatisnowNewEngland

46. ThepassagesuggeststhatwhichofthefollowingispartiallyresponsibleforthedifficultyinestablishingtheprecisedatewhenthefurtradeinNorthAmericabegan?

A. AlackofwrittenaccountsbeforethatofNicolasDenysin1672

B. Alackofwrittendocumentationbefore1501

C. AmbiguitiesintheevidencefromNativeAmericansources

D. UncertaintyaboutNativeAmericantradenetworks

E. UncertaintyabouttheoriginofartifactssupposedlytradedbyEuropeanfishingcrewsforfurs

47. Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,moststrengthenstheauthor’sassertioninthefirstsentenceofthesecondparagraph?

A. WhenEuropeansretracedCartier’svoyageinthefirstyearsoftheseventeenthcentury,theyfrequentlytradedwithNativeAmericans.

B. Fursfrombeavers,whichwereplentifulinNorthAmericabutnearlyextinctinEurope,becameextremelyfashionableinEuropeinthefinaldecadesofthesixteenthcentury.

C. Firingarmswererarelyfoundonsixteenth-centuryNativeAmericansitesoronEuropeanlistsoftradinggoodssincesucharmsrequiredfrequentmaintenanceandrepair.

D. EuropeansandNativeAmericanshadestablishedtradeprotocols,suchasbodylanguageassuringoneanotheroftheirpeacefulintentions,thatantedatetheearliestrecordsoftrade.

E. Duringthefirstquarterofthesixteenthcentury,anItalianexplorerrecordedseeingmanyNativeAmericanswithwhatappearedtobecopperbeads,thoughtheymayhavebeenmadeofindigenouscopper.

48. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribestheprimaryfunctionoflines11–16?

A. Itoffersareconsiderationofaclaimmadeintheprecedingsentence.

B. Itrevealshowarchaeologistsarrivedataninterpretationoftheevidencementionedintheprecedingsentence.

C. Itshowshowscholarsmisinterpretedthesignificanceofcertainevidencementionedintheprecedingsentence.

D. Itidentifiesoneofthefirstsignificantaccountsofseventeenth-centuryEuropeansettlementsinNorthAmerica.

E. ItexplainswhyDenys’saccountofseventeenth-centuryEuropeansettlementsisthoughttobesignificant.

49. ItcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheauthorwouldagreewithwhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutthefurtradebetweenNativeAmericansandEuropeansintheearlymodernera?

A. Thistrademayhavebegunasearlyasthe1480s.

B. Thistradeprobablydidnotcontinuemuchbeyondthe1530s.

C. Thistradewasmostlikelyatitspeakinthemid-1520s.

D. Thistradeprobablydidnotbeginpriorto1500.

E. Thereisnowrittenevidenceofthistradepriortotheseventeenthcentury.

50. WhichofthefollowingcanbeinferredfromthepassageabouttheNativeAmericansmentionedinline24?

A. Theyhadlittleusefordecorativeobjectssuchasearrings.

B. Theybecameincreasinglydependentonfishingbetween1501and1524.

C. By1524,onlycertaingroupsofEuropeanswerewillingtotradewiththem.

D. TheselectivityoftheirtradingchoicesmadeitdifficultforthemtoengageinwidespreadtradewithEuropeans.

E. TheselectivityoftheirtradingchoicesindicatesthattheyhadbeentradingwithEuropeansforasignificantperiodoftimepriorto1524.

51. Thepassagesupportswhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutsixteenth-centuryEuropeanfishingcrewsworkingthewatersoffNewfoundland?

A. Theywrotenoaccountsoftheirfishingvoyages.

B. TheyprimarilysailedundertheflagofPortugal.

C. TheyexchangedshippartswithNativeAmericansforfurs.

D. TheycommonlytradedjewelrywithNativeAmericansforfurs.

E. TheycarriedsurplusmetalimplementstotradewithNativeAmericansforfurs.

52. WhichofthefollowingcanbeinferredfromthepassageaboutevidencepertainingtothefurtradebetweenNativeAmericansandEuropeansintheearlymodernera?

A. AlackofwrittenevidencehasmadeitdifficulttoestablishwhichEuropeansfirstparticipatedinthistrade.

B. Ingeneral,thephysicalevidencepertainingtothistradehasbeenmoreusefulthanthewrittenevidencehasbeen.

C. Thereismorewrittenevidencepertainingtothistradefromtheearly

partofthesixteenthcenturythanfromlaterinthatcentury.

D. Theearliestwrittenevidencepertainingtothistradedatesfromatimewhenthetradewasalreadywellestablished.

E. Someimportantpiecesofevidencepertainingtothistrade,suchasDenys’s1672account,werelongoverlookedbyarchaeologists.

53. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutthesixteenth-centuryNativeAmericanswhotradedwithEuropeansonthecoastofwhatisnowcalledNewEngland?

A. By1524theyhadbecomeaccustomedtoexchanginggoodswithEuropeans.

B. TheywereunfamiliarwithmetalsbeforeencounteringEuropeans.

C. TheyhadnopracticalusesforEuropeangoodsotherthanmetalsandmetalimplements.

D. By1524theyhadbecomedisdainfulofEuropeantradersbecausesuchtradershadtreatedthemunfairlyinthepast.

E. By1524theydemandedonlythemostprizedEuropeangoodsbecausetheyhadcometorealizehowvaluablefurswereonEuropeanmarkets.

Determiningwhetheragivenpopulationofanimalsconstitutesadistinctspeciescanbedifficultbecausenosingleaccepteddefinitionofthetermexists.Oneapproach,calledthebiologicalspeciesconcept,basesthedefinitiononreproductivecompatibility.Accordingtothisview,aspeciesisagroupofanimalsthatcanmatewithoneanothertoproducefertileoffspringbutcannotmatesuccessfullywithmembersofadifferentgroup.Yetthisideacanbetoorestrictive.First,matingbetweengroupslabeledasdifferentspecies(hybridization),asoftenoccursinthecaninefamily,isquitecommoninnature.Second,sometimesthedifferencesbetweentwopopulationsmightnotpreventthemfrominterbreeding,eventhoughtheyaredissimilarintraitsunrelatedtoreproduction;somebiologistsquestionwhethersuchdisparategroupsshouldbeconsideredasinglespecies.A

thirdproblemwiththebiologicalspeciesconceptisthatinvestigatorscannotalwaysdeterminewhethertwogroupsthatliveindifferentplacesarecapableofinterbreeding. Whenthebiologicalspeciesconceptisdifficulttoapply,someinvestigatorsusephenotype,anorganism’sobservablecharacteristics,instead.Twogroupsthathaveevolvedseparatelyarelikelytodisplaymeasurabledifferencesinmanyoftheirtraits,suchasskullsizeorwidthofteeth.Ifthedistributionofmeasurementsfromonegroupdoesnotoverlapwiththoseofanother,thetwogroupsmightreasonablybeconsidereddistinctspecies.

A. describingthedevelopmentofthebiologicalspeciesconcept

B. respondingtoacritiqueofreproductivecompatibilityasacriterionfordefiningaspecies

C. consideringtwodifferentapproachestoidentifyingbiologicalspecies

D. pointingouttheadvantageofonemethodofdistinguishingrelatedspecies

E. identifyinganobstacletotheclassificationofbiologicalspecies

55. Theauthorofthepassagementions“groupsthatliveindifferentplaces”(line21)mostprobablyinorderto

A. pointoutatheoreticalinconsistencyinthebiologicalspeciesconcept

B. offerevidenceinsupportofthebiologicalspeciesconcept

C. identifyanobstacletotheapplicationofthebiologicalspeciesconcept

D. noteaninstanceinwhichphenotypeclassificationiscustomarilyused

E. describeanalternativetothebiologicalspeciesconcept

56. Withwhichofthefollowingstatementsregardingtheclassificationofindividualspecieswouldtheauthormostlikelyagree?

A. Phenotypecomparisonmayhelptoclassifyspecieswhenapplication

ofthebiologicalspeciesconceptprovesinconclusive.

B. Becausenostandarddefinitionexistsforwhatconstitutesaspecies,theclassificationofanimalpopulationsisinevitablyanarbitraryprocess.

C. Thecriteriausedbybiologiststoclassifyspecieshavenotbeenbasedonadequateresearch.

D. Theexistenceofhybridsinwildanimalspeciesisthechieffactorcastingdoubtontheusefulnessofresearchintoreproductivecompatibilityasawayofclassifyingspecies.

E. Phenotypeoverlapshouldbeusedasthebasiccriterionforstandardizingspeciesclassification.

57. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesthefunctionoflines10–13?

A. Itelaboratesthedefinitionofthebiologicalspeciesconceptgiveninaprevioussentence.

B. Itdevelopsapointaboutthebiologicalspeciesconceptmadeintheprevioussentence.

C. Itstatestheauthor’scentralpointaboutthebiologicalspeciesconcept.

D. Itidentifiesacentralassumptionunderlyingthebiologicalspeciesconcept.

E. Itdemonstrateswhythebiologicalspeciesconceptisinvalid.

Thenewschoolofpoliticalhistorythatemergedinthe1960’sand1970’ssoughttogobeyondthetraditionalfocusofpoliticalhistoriansonleadersandgovernmentinstitutionsbyexaminingdirectlythepoliticalpracticesofordinarycitizens.Liketheoldapproach,however,thisnewapproachexcludedwomen.TheverytechniquesthesehistoriansusedtouncovermasspoliticalbehaviorinthenineteenthcenturyUnitedStates—quantitativeanalysesofelectionreturns,forexample—wereuselessinanalyzingthepoliticalactivitiesofwomen,whoweredeniedthevoteuntil1920. Byredefining“politicalactivity,”historianPaulaBakerhasdevelopedapoliticalhistorythatincludes

women.Sheconcludesthatamongordinarycitizens,politicalactivismbywomeninthenineteenthcenturyprefiguredtrendsintwentiethcenturypolitics.Defining“politics”as“anyactiontakentoaffectthecourseofbehaviorofgovernmentorofthecommunity,”Bakerconcludesthat,whilevotingandholdingofficewererestrictedtomen,womeninthenineteenthcenturyorganizedthemselvesintosocietiescommittedtosocialissuessuchastemperanceandpoverty.Inotherwords,Bakercontends,womenactivistswereearlypractitionersofnonpartisan,issue-orientedpoliticsandthusweremoreinterestedinenlistinglawmakers,regardlessoftheirpartyaffiliation,onbehalfofcertainissuesthaninensuringthatonepartyoranotherwonanelection.Inthetwentiethcentury,moremendrewclosertowomen’sideasaboutpoliticsandtookupmodesofissue-orientedpoliticsthatBakerseeswomenashavingpioneered.

Questions58–63refertothepassage

A. enumeratereasonswhybothtraditionalscholarlymethodsandnewerscholarlymethodshavelimitations

B. identifyashortcominginascholarlyapproachanddescribeanalternativeapproach

C. provideempiricaldatatosupportalong-heldscholarlyassumption

D. comparetwoscholarlypublicationsonthebasisoftheirauthors’backgrounds

E. attempttoprovideapartialanswertoalong-standingscholarlydilemma

59. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingconcerningthetechniquesusedbythenewpoliticalhistoriansdescribedinthefirstparagraphofthepassage?

A. Theyinvolvedtheextensiveuseofthebiographiesofpoliticalpartyleadersandpoliticaltheoreticians.

B. Theywereconceivedbypoliticalhistorianswhowerereactingagainstthepoliticalclimatesofthe1960’sand1970’s.

C. TheywereofmoreuseinanalyzingthepositionsofUnitedStatespoliticalpartiesinthenineteenthcenturythaninanalyzingthepositionsofthoseinthetwentiethcentury.

D. Theywereofmoreuseinanalyzingthepoliticalbehaviorofnineteenth-centuryvotersthaninanalyzingthepoliticalactivitiesofthosewhocouldnotvoteduringthatperiod.

E. Theyweredevisedasameansoftracingtheinfluenceofnineteenth-centurypoliticaltrendsontwentieth-centurypoliticaltrends.

60. ItcanbeinferredthattheauthorofthepassagequotesBakerdirectlyinthesecondparagraphprimarilyinorderto

A. clarifyapositionbeforeprovidinganalternativetothatposition

B. differentiatebetweenanoveldefinitionandtraditionaldefinitions

C. provideanexampleofapointagreedonbydifferentgenerationsofscholars

D. provideanexampleoftheprosestyleofanimportanthistorian

E. amplifyadefinitiongiveninthefirstparagraph

61. Accordingtothepassage,PaulaBakerandthenewpoliticalhistoriansofthe1960’sand1970’ssharedwhichofthefollowing?

A. Acommitmenttointerestgrouppolitics

B. Adisregardforpoliticaltheoryandideology

C. Aninterestinthewaysinwhichnineteenth-centurypoliticsprefiguredcontemporarypolitics

D. Arelianceonsuchquantitativetechniquesastheanalysisofelectionreturns

E. Anemphasisonthepoliticalinvolvementofordinarycitizens

62. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesthestructureofthefirstparagraphofthepassage?

A. Twoscholarlyapproachesarecompared,andashortcomingcommontobothisidentified.

B. Tworivalschoolsofthoughtarecontrasted,andathirdisalludedto.

C. Anoutmodedscholarlyapproachisdescribed,andacorrectiveapproachiscalledfor.

D. Anargumentisoutlined,andcounterargumentsarementioned.

E. Ahistoricaleraisdescribedintermsofitspoliticaltrends.

63. Theinformationinthepassagesuggeststhatapre-1960spoliticalhistorianwouldhavebeenmostlikelytoundertakewhichofthefollowingstudies?

A. Ananalysisofvotingtrendsamongwomenvotersofthe1920’s

B. Astudyofmalevoters’gradualideologicalshiftfrompartypoliticstoissue-orientedpolitics

C. Abiographyofaninfluentialnineteenth-centuryministerofforeignaffairs

D. Ananalysisofnarrativeswrittenbypreviouslyunrecognizedwomenactivists

E. Astudyofvotingtrendsamongnaturalizedimmigrantlaborersinanineteenth-centuryloggingcamp

Ina1918editorial,W.E.B.DuBoisadvisedAfricanAmericanstostopagitatingforequalityandtoproclaimtheirsolidaritywithWhiteAmericansforthedurationoftheFirstWorldWar.TheeditorialsurprisedmanyAfricanAmericanswhoviewedDuBoisasanuncompromisingAfricanAmericanleaderandachiefopponentoftheaccommodationisttacticsurgedbyBookerT.Washington.Infact,however,DuBoisoftenshiftedpositionsalongthecontinuumbetweenWashingtonandconfrontationistssuchasWilliamTrotter.In1895,whenWashingtoncalledonAfricanAmericanstoconcentrateonimprovingtheircommunitiesinsteadofopposingdiscriminationandagitatingforpoliticalrights,DuBoispraisedWashington’sspeech.In1903,however,DuBoisalignedhimselfwithTrotter,

Washington’smilitantopponent,lessforideologicalreasonsthanbecauseTrotterhaddescribedtohimWashington’seffortstosilencethoseintheAfricanAmericanpresswhoopposedWashington’spositions. DuBois’swartimepositionthusreflectednotachangeinhislong-termgoalsbutratherapragmaticresponseinthefaceofsocialpressures:governmentofficialshadthreatenedAfricanAmericanjournalistswithcensorshipiftheycontinuedtovoicegrievances.Furthermore,DuBoisbelievedthatAfricanAmericans’contributionstopastwareffortshadbroughtthemsomelegalandpoliticaladvances.DuBois’saccommodationismdidnotlast,however.UponlearningofsystematicdiscriminationexperiencedbyAfricanAmericansinthemilitary,hecalledonthemto“returnfighting”fromthewar.

Questions64–68refertothepassage

A. identifyinghistoricalcircumstancesthatledDuBoistoalterhislong-termgoals

B. defining“accommodationism”andshowinghowDuBoisusedthisstrategytoachievecertaingoals

C. accountingforaparticularpositionadoptedbyDuBoisduringtheFirstWorldWar

D. contestingtheviewthatDuBoiswassignificantlyinfluencedbyeitherWashingtonorTrotter

E. assessingtheeffectivenessofastrategythatDuBoisurgedAfricanAmericanstoadopt

65. ThepassageindicateswhichofthefollowingaboutDuBois’sattitudetowardWashington?

A. ItunderwentashiftduringtheFirstWorldWarasDuBoisbecamemoresympatheticwithTrotter’sviews.

B. Itunderwentashiftin1903forreasonsotherthanDuBois’sdisagreementwithWashington’saccommodationistviews.

C. ItunderwentashiftasDuBoismadealong-termcommitmenttothestrategyofaccommodation.

D. ItremainedconsistentlypositiveeventhoughDuBoisdisagreedwithWashington’seffortstocontroltheAfricanAmericanpress.

E. ItwasshapedprimarilybyDuBois’sappreciationofWashington’spragmaticapproachtotheadvancementoftheinterestsofAfricanAmericans.

66. ThepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutthecontributionsofAfricanAmericanstotheUnitedStateswareffortduringtheFirstWorldWar?

A. ThecontributionsweremadelargelyinresponsetoDuBois’s1918editorial.

B. ThecontributionshadmuchthesameeffectasAfricanAmericans’contributionstopreviouswars.

C. ThecontributionsdidnotenddiscriminationagainstAfricanAmericansinthemilitary.

D. ThecontributionsweremadeinprotestagainstTrotter’sconfrontationisttactics.

E. Thecontributionsweremadeprimarilybycivilrightsactivistswhoreturnedtoactivismafterthewar.

67. TheauthorofthepassagereferstoWashington’scalltoAfricanAmericansin1895primarilyinorderto

A. identifyDuBois’scharacteristicpositiononthecontinuumbetweenaccommodationismandconfrontationism

B. explainwhyDuBoiswassympatheticwithWashington’sviewsin1895

C. clarifyhowTrotter’sviewsdifferedfromthoseofWashingtonin1895

D. supportanassertionaboutDuBois’stendencytoshifthispoliticalpositions

E. dismisstheclaimthatDuBois’spositioninhis1918editorialwas

consistentwithhispreviousviews

68. Accordingtothepassage,whichofthefollowingistrueofthestrategythatDuBois’s1918editorialurgedAfricanAmericanstoadoptduringtheFirstWorldWar?

A. ItwasastrategythatDuBoishadconsistentlyrejectedinthepast.

B. ItrepresentedacompromisebetweenDuBois’sownviewsandthoseofTrotter.

C. Itrepresentedasignificantredefinitionofthelong-termgoalsDuBoisheldpriortothewar.

D. ItwasadvocatedbyDuBoisinresponsetohisrecognitionofthediscriminationfacedbyAfricanAmericansduringthewar.

E. ItwasadvocatedbyDuBoisinpartbecauseofhishistoricalknowledgeofgainsAfricanAmericanshadmadeduringpastwars.

Thefactthatsuperiorservicecangenerateacompetitiveadvantageforacompanydoesnotmeanthateveryattemptatimprovingservicewillcreatesuchanadvantage.Investmentsinservice,likethoseinproductionanddistribution,mustbebalancedagainstothertypesofinvestmentsonthebasisofdirect,tangiblebenefitssuchascostreductionandincreasedrevenues.Ifacompanyisalreadyeffectivelyonaparwithitscompetitorsbecauseitprovidesservicethatavoidsadamagingreputationandkeepscustomersfromleavingatanunacceptablerate,theninvestmentinhigherservicelevelsmaybewasted,sinceserviceisadecidingfactorforcustomersonlyinextremesituations. Thistruthwasnotapparenttomanagersofoneregionalbank,whichfailedtoimproveitscompetitivepositiondespiteitsinvestmentinreducingthetimeacustomerhadtowaitforateller.Thebankmanagersdidnotrecognizethelevelofcustomerinertiaintheconsumerbankingindustrythatarisesfromtheinconvenienceofswitchingbanks.Nordidtheyanalyzetheirservice

(25) improvementtodeterminewhetheritwouldattractnewcustomersbyproducinganewstandardofservicethatwouldexcitecustomersorbyprovingdifficultforcompetitorstocopy.Theonlymeritoftheimprovementwasthatitcouldeasilybedescribedtocustomers.

A. contrastpossibleoutcomesofatypeofbusinessinvestment

B. suggestmorecarefulevaluationofatypeofbusinessinvestment

C. illustratevariouswaysinwhichatypeofbusinessinvestmentcouldfailtoenhancerevenues

D. tracethegeneralproblemsofacompanytoacertaintypeofbusinessinvestment

E. criticizethewayinwhichmanagerstendtoanalyzethecostsandbenefitsofbusinessinvestments

70. Accordingtothepassage,investmentsinservicearecomparabletoinvestmentsinproductionanddistributionintermsofthe

A. tangibilityofthebenefitsthattheytendtoconfer

B. increasedrevenuesthattheyultimatelyproduce

C. basisonwhichtheyneedtobeweighed

D. insufficientanalysisthatmanagersdevotetothem

E. degreeofcompetitiveadvantagethattheyarelikelytoprovide

71. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutserviceprovidedbytheregionalbankpriortoitsinvestmentinenhancingthatservice?

A. Itenabledthebanktoretaincustomersatanacceptablerate.

B. Itthreatenedtoweakenthebank’scompetitivepositionwithrespecttootherregionalbanks.

C. Ithadalreadybeenimprovedafterhavingcauseddamagetothebank’sreputationinthepast.

D. Itwasslightlysuperiortothatofthebank’sregionalcompetitors.

E. Itneededtobeimprovedtoattainparitywiththeserviceprovidedbycompetingbanks.

72. Thepassagesuggeststhatbankmanagersfailedtoconsiderwhetherornottheserviceimprovementmentionedinlines18–20

A. wastoocomplicatedtobeeasilydescribedtoprospectivecustomers

B. madeameasurablechangeintheexperiencesofcustomersinthebank’soffices

C. couldbesustainedifthenumberofcustomersincreasedsignificantly

D. wasaninnovationthatcompetingbankscouldhaveimitated

E. wasadequatetobringthebank’sgenerallevelofservicetoalevelthatwascomparablewiththatofitscompetitors

73. Thediscussionoftheregionalbankinthesecondparagraphserveswhichofthefollowingfunctionswithinthepassageasawhole?

A. Itdescribesanexceptionalcaseinwhichinvestmentinserviceactuallyfailedtoproduceacompetitiveadvantage.

B. Itillustratesthepitfallsofchoosingtoinvestinserviceatatimewheninvestmentisneededmoreurgentlyinanotherarea.

C. Itdemonstratesthekindofanalysisthatmanagersapplywhentheychooseonekindofserviceinvestmentoveranother.

D. Itsupportstheargumentthatinvestmentsincertainaspectsofservicearemoreadvantageousthaninvestmentsinotheraspectsofservice.

E. Itprovidesanexampleofthepointaboutinvestmentinservicemadeinthefirstparagraph.

74. Theauthorusestheword“only”inline27mostlikelyinorderto

A. highlighttheoddityoftheserviceimprovement

B. emphasizetherelativelylowvalueoftheinvestmentinserviceimprovement

C. distinguishtheprimaryattributeoftheserviceimprovementfromsecondaryattributes

D. singleoutacertainmeritoftheserviceimprovementfromothermerits

E. pointoutthelimiteddurationoftheactualserviceimprovement

Findingsfromseveralstudiesoncorporatemergersandacquisitionsduringthe1970’sand1980’sraisequestionsaboutwhyfirmsinitiateandconsummatesuchtransactions.Onestudyshowed,forexample,thatacquiringfirmswereonaverageunabletomaintainacquiredfirms’pre-mergerlevelsofprofitability.Asecondstudyconcludedthatpost-acquisitiongainstomostacquiringfirmswerenotadequatetocoverthepremiumspaidtoobtainacquiredfirms.Athirddemonstratedthat,followingtheannouncementofaprospectivemerger,thestockoftheprospectiveacquiringfirmtendstoincreaseinvaluemuchlessthandoesthatofthefirmforwhichitbids.Yetmergersandacquisitionsremaincommon,andbidderscontinuetoassertthattheirobjectivesareeconomicones.Acquisitionsmaywellhavethedesirableeffectofchannelinganation’sresourcesefficientlyfromlesstomoreefficientsectorsofitseconomy,buttheindividualacquisitionsexecutivesarrangingthesedealsmustseethemasadvancingeithertheirownortheircompanies’privateeconomicinterests.Itseemsthatfactorshavinglittletodowithcorporateeconomicinterestsexplainacquisitions.Thesefactorsmayincludetheincentivecompensationofexecutives,lackofmonitoringbyboardsofdirectors,andmanagerialerrorinestimatingthevalueoffirmstargetedforacquisition.Alternatively,theacquisitionactsofbiddersmayderivefrommodeling:amanagerdoeswhatothermanagersdo.

A. reviewresearchdemonstratingthebenefitsofcorporatemergersandacquisitionsandexaminesomeofthedrawbacksthatacquisitionbehaviorentails

B. contrasttheeffectsofcorporatemergersandacquisitionsonacquiringfirmsandonfirmsthatareacquired

C. reportfindingsthatraisequestionsaboutareasonforcorporatemergersandacquisitionsandsuggestpossiblealternativereasons

D. explainchangesinattitudeonthepartofacquiringfirmstowardcorporatemergersandacquisitions

E. accountforarecentdeclineintherateofcorporatemergersandacquisitions

76. Thefindingscitedinthepassagesuggestwhichofthefollowingabouttheoutcomesofcorporatemergersandacquisitionswithrespecttoacquiringfirms?

A. Theyincludeadecreaseinvalueofmanyacquiringfirms’stocks.

B. Theytendtobemorebeneficialforsmallfirmsthanforlargefirms.

C. Theydonotfulfilltheprofessedgoalsofmostacquiringfirms.

D. Theytendtobebeneficialtosuchfirmsinthelongtermeventhoughapparentlydetrimentalintheshortterm.

E. Theydiscouragemanysuchfirmsfromattemptingtomakesubsequentbidsandacquisitions.

77. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheauthorwouldbemostlikelytoagreewithwhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutcorporateacquisitions?

A. Theirknownbenefitstonationaleconomiesexplaintheirappealtoindividualfirmsduringthe1970’sand1980’s.

B. Despitetheiradverseimpactonsomefirms,theyarethebestwaytochannelresourcesfromlesstomoreproductivesectorsofanation’seconomy.

C. Theyareaslikelytooccurbecauseofpoormonitoringbyboardsofdirectorsastobecausedbyincentivecompensationformanagers.

D. Theywillbelessprevalentinthefuture,sincetheiractualeffectswillgainwiderrecognition.

E. Factorsotherthaneconomicbenefittotheacquiringfirmhelptoexplainthefrequencywithwhichtheyoccur.

78. Theauthorofthepassagementionstheeffectofacquisitionsonnationaleconomiesmostprobablyinorderto

A. provideanexplanationforthemergersandacquisitionsofthe1970’sand1980’soverlookedbythefindingsdiscussedinthepassage

B. suggestthatnationaleconomicinterestsplayedanimportantroleinthemergersandacquisitionsofthe1970’sand1980’s

C. supportanoneconomicexplanationforthemergersandacquisitionsofthe1970’sand1980’sthatwascitedearlierinthepassage

D. citeandpointouttheinadequacyofonepossibleexplanationfortheprevalenceofmergersandacquisitionsduringthe1970’sand1980’s

E. explainhowmodelingaffectedthedecisionsmadebymanagersinvolvedinmergersandacquisitionsduringthe1970’sand1980’s

79. Accordingtothepassage,duringthe1970’sand1980’sbiddingfirmsdifferedfromthefirmsforwhichtheybidinthatbiddingfirms

A. tendedtobemoreprofitablebeforeamergerthanafteramerger

B. weremoreoftenconcernedabouttheimpactofacquisitionsonnationaleconomies

C. wererunbymanagerswhoseactionsweremodeledonthoseofothermanagers

D. anticipatedgreatereconomicadvantagesfromprospectivemergers

E. experiencedlessofanincreaseinstockvaluewhenaprospectivemergerwasannounced

80. Accordingtothepassage,whichofthefollowingwastrueofcorporateacquisitionsthatoccurredduringthe1970’sand1980’s?

A. Fewoftheacquisitionsthatfirmsmadeweresubsequentlydivested.

B. Mostsuchacquisitionsproducedonlysmallincreasesinacquiredfirms’levelsofprofitability.

C. Mostsuchacquisitionswerebasedonanoverestimationofthevalueoftargetfirms.

D. Thegainsrealizedbymostacquiringfirmsdidnotequaltheamountsexpendedinacquiringtargetfirms.

E. Abouthalfofsuchacquisitionsledtolong-termincreasesinthevalueofacquiringfirms’stocks.

81. Theauthorofthepassageimpliesthatwhichofthefollowingisapossiblepartialexplanationforacquisitionbehaviorduringthe1970’sand1980’s?

A. Managerswishedtoimitateothermanagersprimarilybecausetheysawhowfinanciallybeneficialotherfirms’acquisitionswere.

B. Managersmiscalculatedthevalueoffirmsthatweretobeacquired.

C. Lackofconsensuswithinboardsofdirectorsresultedintheirimposingconflictinggoalsonmanagers.

D. Totalcompensationpackagesformanagersincreasedduringthatperiod.

E. Thevalueofbiddingfirms’stockincreasedsignificantlywhenprospectivemergerswereannounced.

Inadditiontoconventionalgalaxies,theuniversecontainsverydimgalaxiesthatuntilrecentlywentunnoticedbyastronomers.Possiblyasnumerousasconventionalgalaxies,thesegalaxieshavethesamegeneralshapeandeventhesameapproximatenumberofstarsasacommontypeofconventionalgalaxy,thespiral,buttendtobemuchlarger.Becausethesegalaxies’massisspreadoutoverlargerareas,theyhavefarfewerstarsperunitvolumethandoconventionalgalaxies.Apparentlytheselow-surface-brightnessgalaxies,astheyarecalled,takemuchlongerthanconventionalgalaxiestocondensetheirprimordialgasandconvertittostars—thatis,theyevolvemuchmoreslowly. Thesegalaxiesmayconstituteananswertothelong-standingpuzzleofthemissingbaryonicmassintheuniverse.Baryons—subatomicparticlesthataregenerallyprotonsorneutrons—arethesourceofstellar,andthereforegalactic,luminosity,andsotheirnumberscanbeestimatedbasedonhowluminousgalaxiesare.However,theamountofheliumintheuniverse,asmeasuredbyspectroscopy,suggeststhattherearefarmore

(25) baryonsintheuniversethanestimatesbasedongalacticluminosityindicate.Astronomershavelongspeculatedthatthemissingbaryonicmassmighteventuallybediscoveredinintergalacticspaceorassomelargepopulationofgalaxiesthataredifficulttodetect.

82. Accordingtothepassage,conventionalspiralgalaxiesdifferfromlow-surface-brightnessgalaxiesinwhichofthefollowingways?

A. Theyhavefewerstarsthandolow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

B. Theyevolvemorequicklythanlow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

C. Theyaremorediffusethanlow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

D. Theycontainlessheliumthandolow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

E. Theyarelargerthanlow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

83. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatwhichofthefollowingisanaccuratephysicaldescriptionoftypicallow-surface-brightnessgalaxies?

A. Theyarelargespiralgalaxiescontainingfewerstarsthanconventionalgalaxies.

B. Theyarecompactbutverydimspiralgalaxies.

C. Theyarediffusespiralgalaxiesthatoccupyalargevolumeofspace.

D. Theyaresmall,youngspiralgalaxiesthatcontainahighproportionofprimordialgas.

E. Theyarelarge,densespiralswithlowluminosity.

84. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatthe“long-standingpuzzle”referstowhichofthefollowing?

A. Thedifferencebetweentherateatwhichconventionalgalaxiesevolveandtherateatwhichlow-surface-brightnessgalaxiesevolve

B. Thediscrepancybetweenestimatesoftotalbaryonicmassderivedfrommeasuringheliumandestimatesbasedonmeasuringgalacticluminosity

C. Theinconsistencybetweentheobservedamountofheliuminthe

universeandthenumberofstarsintypicallow-surface-brightnessgalaxies

D. Uncertaintiesregardingwhatproportionofbaryonicmassiscontainedinintergalacticspaceandwhatproportioninconventionalgalaxies

E. Difficultiesinvolvedindetectingverydistantgalaxiesandininvestigatingtheirluminosity

85. Theauthorimpliesthatlow-surface-brightnessgalaxiescouldconstituteananswertothepuzzlediscussedinthesecondparagraphprimarilybecause

A. theycontainbaryonicmassthatwasnottakenintoaccountbyresearchersusinggalacticluminositytoestimatethenumberofbaryonsintheuniverse

B. they,likeconventionalgalaxiesthatcontainmanybaryons,haveevolvedfrommassive,primordialgasclouds

C. theymaycontainrelativelymorehelium,andhencemorebaryons,thandogalaxieswhoseheliumcontenthasbeenstudiedusingspectroscopy

D. theyhaverecentlybeendiscoveredtocontainmorebaryonicmassthanscientistshadthoughtwhenlow-surface-brightnessgalaxieswerefirstobserved

E. theycontainstarsthataresignificantlymoreluminousthanwouldhavebeenpredictedonthebasisofinitialstudiesofluminosityinlow-surface-brightnessgalaxies

86. Theauthormentionsthefactthatbaryonsarethesourceofstars’luminosityprimarilyinordertoexplain

A. howastronomersdeterminethatsomegalaxiescontainfewerstarsperunitvolumethandoothers

B. howastronomersareabletocalculatethetotalluminosityofagalaxy

C. whyastronomerscanusegalacticluminositytoestimatebaryonicmass

D. whyastronomers’estimatesofbaryonicmassbasedongalacticluminosityaremorereliablethanthosebasedonspectroscopicstudiesofhelium

E. howastronomersknowbrightgalaxiescontainmorebaryonsthandodimgalaxies

87. Theauthorofthepassagewouldbemostlikelytodisagreewithwhichofthefollowingstatements?

A. Low-surface-brightnessgalaxiesaremoredifficulttodetectthanareconventionalgalaxies.

B. Low-surface-brightnessgalaxiesareoftenspiralinshape.

C. Astronomershaveadvancedplausibleideasaboutwheremissingbaryonicmassmightbefound.

D. Astronomershavedevisedausefulwayofestimatingthetotalbaryonicmassintheuniverse.

E. Astronomershavediscoveredasubstantialamountofbaryonicmassinintergalacticspace.

A. describeaphenomenonandconsideritsscientificsignificance

B. contrasttwophenomenaanddiscussapuzzlingdifferencebetweenthem

C. identifyanewlydiscoveredphenomenonandexplainitsorigins

D. comparetwoclassesofobjectsanddiscussthephysicalpropertiesofeach

E. discussadiscoveryandpointoutitsinconsistencywithexistingtheory

AntoniaCastañedahasutilizedscholarshipfromwomen’sstudiesandMexican-Americanhistorytoexaminenineteenth-centuryliteraryportrayalsofMexicanwomen.AsCastañedanotes,scholarsofwomen’shistoryobservethatintheUnitedStates,malenovelistsoftheperiod—duringwhich,accordingtothesescholars,women’straditionaleconomicroleinhome-basedagriculturewasthreatenedbythetransitiontoafactory-basedindustrialeconomy—definewomensolelyintheirdomesticrolesofwifeandmother.Castañedafindsthatduringthesameperiodthatsawnon-Hispanicwomenbeingeconomically

displacedbyindustrialization,HispaniclawinterritorialCaliforniaprotectedtheeconomicpositionof“Californianas”(theMexicanwomenoftheterritory)byensuringthempropertyrightsandinheritancerightsequaltothoseofmales. ForCastañeda,thelawsexplainastereotypicalplotcreatedprimarilybymale,non-Hispanicnovelists:thestoryofanambitiousnon-HispanicmerchantortraderdesirousofmarryinganeliteCaliforniana.Thesenovels’favorableportrayalofsuchwomenisnoteworthy,sinceMexican-AmericanhistorianshaveconcludedthatunflatteringliterarydepictionsofMexicanswerevitalinrallyingtheUnitedStatespublic’ssupportfortheMexican-AmericanWar(1846–1848).TheimportanceofeconomicalliancesforgedthroughmarriageswithCalifornianasexplainsthisapparentcontradiction.Becauseoftheirreal-lifeeconomicsignificance,theCalifornianaswereportrayedmorefavorablythanwereothersofthesamenationality.

89. The“apparentcontradiction”mentionedinline29referstothediscrepancybetweenthe

A. legalstatusofMexicanwomeninterritorialCaliforniaandtheirstatusintheUnitedStates

B. unflatteringdepictionofMexicansinnovelsandtheactualpublicsentimentabouttheMexican-AmericanWar

C. existenceofmanymarriagesbetweenCalifornianasandnon-Hispanicmerchantsandthestricturesagainstthemexpressedinnovels

D. literarydepictionofeliteCalifornianasandtheliterarydepictionofotherMexicanindividuals

E. novelisticportrayalsofeliteCalifornianas’privilegedlivesandtheactualcircumstancesofthoselives

90. WhichofthefollowingcouldbestserveasanexampleofthekindoffictionalplotdiscussedbyAntoniaCastañeda?

A. AlandspeculatorofEnglishancestrywedsthedaughterofaMexicanvineyardownerafterthespeculatorhasmigratedtoCaliforniatoseekhisfortune.

B. ACalifornianwomanofHispanicancestryfindsthatheragriculturallivelihoodisthreatenedwhenherhusbandisforcedtoseekworkinatextilemill.

C. AMexicanrancherwholoseshislandasaresultoftheMexican-AmericanWarmigratestothenorthernUnitedStatesandmarriesanimmigrantschoolteacher.

D. AwealthyCalifornianawhosefatherhasbequeathedherallhispropertycontendswithavariciousrelativesforherinheritance.

E. ApoormarriedcoupleemigratefromFrenchCanadaandgraduallybecomewealthyasmerchantsinterritorialCalifornia.

91. Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldprovidethemostsupportforCastañeda’sexplanationofthe“stereotypicalplot”mentionedinthelines18–19?

A. Non-HispanictradersfoundbusinessmoreprofitableinCaliforniawhileitwasaterritorythanwhenitbecameastate.

B. VeryfewmarriagesbetweenHispanicwomenandnon-Hispanicmeninnineteenth-centuryterritorialCaliforniahaveactuallybeendocumented.

C. RecordsfromthenineteenthcenturyindicatethatsomelargeandvaluablepropertieswereownedbyeliteCalifornianasintheirownright.

D. Unmarriednon-Hispanicwomeninthenineteenth-centuryUnitedStatesweresometimesabletocontrolpropertyintheirownright.

E. Mostofthepropertyinnineteenth-centuryterritorialCaliforniawascontrolledbyHispanicmen.

Thispassageisexcerptedfrommaterialpublishedin1997. Scientistshavebeenpuzzledbytheseemingdisparitybetweenmodelsofglobalwarmingbasedongreenhousegasemissionsandactualclimatologicaldata.Inshort,theworldisnotwarmingupasmuchas

thesemodelshavepredicted.Intheearly1990s,PatMichaelssoughttoexplainthisdisparity,suggestingthatsulfateemissionsinindustrialareashadacoolingeffect,thustemporarilyretardingglobalwarming.Michaelslatercametodoubtthisidea,however,pointingoutthatsincemostsulfateisemittedintheNorthernHemisphere,itscoolinginfluenceshouldbelargelylimitedtothathemisphere.Yet,since1987,warmingintheSouthernHemisphere,whichhadbeenrelativelyintense,hasvirtuallyceased,whilewarminginthenorthhasaccelerated.Thus,Michaelsnotonlydoubtedtheideaofsulfatecooling,butcametofeelthatglobalwarmingmodelsthemselvesmaybeflawed. BenSanterdisagrees.Santercontendsthat,ingeneral,globalwarmingoccursmoreslowlyinthesouthbecausethishemisphereisdominatedbyoceans,whichwarmmoreslowlythanthelandmassesthatdominatetheNorthernHemisphere.But,accordingtoSanter,thesituationremainscomplicatedbysulfatecooling,whichpeakedinthenorthinthemid-twentiethcentury.ItdrasticallyslowedwarmingintheNorthernHemisphere,andwarmingintheSouthernHemisphereracedahead.Since1987,Santerargues,thegreenhouseeffecthasreasserteditself,andthenorthhastakenthelead.Thus,SanterdisputesMichaels’sclaimthatmodelpredictionsandobserveddatadifferfundamentally.

92. Thepassagesuggeststhat,intheearly1990s,Michaelswouldhavebeenmostlikelytoagreewithwhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutthedisparitymentionedinthelines3–4?

A. ThisdisparityisrelativelylessextremeintheNorthernHemispherebecauseofsulfatecooling.

B. Thisdisparityisonlyashort-termphenomenonbroughtaboutbysulfatecooling.

C. Thisdisparityismostsignificantinthosepartsoftheworlddominatedbyoceans.

D. Theextentofthisdisparityisbeingmaskedbythetemporaryeffectofsulfatecooling.

E. Thedisparityconfirmsthatcurrentmodelsofglobalwarmingarecorrect.

93. Accordingtothepassage,Santerassertswhichofthefollowingaboutglobalwarming?

A. ItwillbecomeamoreseriousproblemintheSouthernHemispherethanintheNorthernHemisphereinspiteofthecoolinginfluenceofoceansinthesouth.

B. Itisunlikelytobeaseriousprobleminthefuturebecauseofthepervasiveeffectofsulfatecooling.

C. ItwillproceedatthesamegeneralrateintheNorthernandSouthernHemispheresoncethetemporaryinfluenceofsulfatecoolingcomestoanend.

D. Untilthelate1980s,itwasmoderatedintheNorthernHemispherebytheeffectofsulfatecooling.

E. Largelybecauseofthecoolinginfluenceofoceans,ithashadnodiscernibleimpactontheSouthernHemisphere.

94. ThepassagesuggeststhatSanterandMichaelswouldbemostlikelytoDISAGREEoverwhichofthefollowingissues?

A. Whetherclimatologicaldatainvalidatesglobalwarmingmodels

B. WhetherwarmingintheNorthernHemispherehasintensifiedsince1987

C. Whetherdisparitiesbetweenglobalwarmingmodelsandclimatologicaldatacanbedetected

D. Whetherlandmasseswarmmorerapidlythanoceans

E. Whetheroceanshaveasignificanteffectonglobalclimatepatterns

Micro-wearpatternsfoundontheteethoflong-extinctspecimensoftheprimatespeciesaustralopithecinemayprovideevidenceabouttheir

diets.Forexample,onthebasisoftoothmicro-wearpatterns,WalkerdismissesJolly’shypothesisthataustralopithecinesatehardseeds.HealsodisputesSzalay’ssuggestionthattheheavyenamelofaustralopithecineteethisanadaptationtobonecrunching,sincebothseedcrackingandbonecrunchingproducedistinctivemicro-wearcharacteristicsonteeth.Hisconclusionthataustralopithecineswerefrugivores(fruiteaters)isbaseduponhisobservationthatthetoothmicro-wearcharacteristicsofeastAfricanaustralopithecinespecimensareindistinguishablefromthoseofchimpanzeesandorangutans,whicharecommonlyassumedtobefrugivorousprimates. However,researchonthedietsofcontemporaryprimatessuggeststhatmicro-wearstudiesmayhavelimitedutilityindeterminingthefoodsthatareactuallyeaten.Forexample,insecteating,whichcancausedistinctmicro-wearpatterns,wouldnotcausemuchtoothabrasioninmodernbaboons,whoeatonlysoft-bodiedinsectsratherthanhard-bodiedinsects.Inaddition,thedietsofcurrentomnivorousprimatesvaryconsiderablydependingontheenvironmentsthatdifferentgroupswithinaprimatespeciesinhabit;ifaustralopithecineswereomnivorestoo,wemightexpecttofindconsiderablepopulationvariationintheirtoothmicro-wearpatterns.Thus,Walker’sdescriptionofpossibleaustralopithecinedietsmayneedtobeexpandedtoincludeamuchmorediversediet.

95. Accordingtothepassage,WalkerandSzalaydisagreeonwhichofthefollowingpoints?

A. Thestructureandcompositionofaustralopithecineteeth

B. Thekindsofconclusionsthatcanbedrawnfromthemicro-wear

patternsonaustralopithecineteeth

C. Theideathatfruitwasapartoftheaustralopithecinediet

D. Theextenttowhichseedcrackingandbonecrunchingproducesimilarmicro-wearpatternsonteeth

E. Thefunctionoftheheavyenamelonaustralopithecineteeth

96. ThepassagesuggeststhatWalker’sresearchindicatedwhichofthefollowingaboutaustralopithecineteeth?

A. Theyhadmicro-wearcharacteristicsindicatingthatfruitconstitutedonlyasmallpartoftheirdiet.

B. Theylackedmicro-wearcharacteristicsassociatedwithseedeatingandbonecrunching.

C. Theyhadmicro-wearcharacteristicsthatdifferedincertainwaysfromthemicro-wearpatternsofchimpanzeesandorangutans.

D. Theyhadmicro-wearcharacteristicssuggestingthatthedietofaustralopithecinesvariedfromoneregiontoanother.

E. Theylackedthemicro-wearcharacteristicsdistinctiveofmodernfrugivores.

97. Thepassagesuggeststhatwhichofthefollowingwouldbetrueofstudiesoftoothmicro-wearpatternsconductedonmodernbaboons?

A. Theywouldinaccuratelysuggestthatsomebaboonseatmoresoft-bodiedthanhard-bodiedinsects.

B. Theywouldsuggestthatinsectsconstitutethelargestpartofsomebaboons’diets.

C. Theywouldrevealthattherearenosignificantdifferencesintoothmicro-wearpatternsamongbaboonpopulations.

D. Theywouldinadequatelyreflecttheextenttowhichsomebaboonsconsumecertaintypesofinsects.

E. Theywouldindicatethatbaboonsincertainregionseatonlysoft-bodiedinsects,whereasbaboonsinotherregionseathard-bodiedinsects.

98. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutthemicro-wearpatternsfoundontheteethofomnivorousprimates?

A. Thepatternsprovideinformationaboutwhatkindsoffoodsarenoteatenbytheparticularspeciesofprimate,butnotaboutthefoodsactuallyeaten.

B. Thepatternsofvariousprimatespecieslivinginthesameenvironmentresembleoneanother.

C. Thepatternsmaynotprovideinformationabouttheextenttowhichaparticularspecies’dietincludesseeds.

D. Thepatternsprovidemoreinformationabouttheseprimates’dietthandothetoothmicro-wearpatternsofprimateswhoarefrugivores.

E. Thepatternsmaydifferamonggroupswithinaspeciesdependingontheenvironmentwithinwhichaparticulargrouplives.

99. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatifstudiesoftoothmicro-wearpatternswereconductedonmodernbaboons,whichofthefollowingwouldmostlikelybetrueoftheresultsobtained?

A. Therewouldbeenoughabrasiontoallowadeterminationofwhetherbaboonsarefrugivorousorinsectivorous.

B. Theresultswouldsuggestthatinsectsconstitutethelargestpartofthebaboons’diet.

C. Theresultswouldrevealthattherearenosignificantdifferencesintoothmicro-wearpatternsfromoneregionalbaboonpopulationtoanother.

D. Theresultswouldprovideanaccurateindicationoftheabsenceofsomekindsofinsectsfromthebaboons’diet.

E. Theresultswouldbeunlikelytoprovideanyindicationofwhatinferencesabouttheaustralopithecinedietcanorcannotbedrawnfrommicro-wearstudies.

100. ItcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatWalker’sconclusionabouttheaustralopithecinedietwouldbecalledintoquestionunderwhichofthefollowingcircumstances?

A. Thetoothenamelofaustralopithecinesisfoundtobemuchheavierthanthatofmodernfrugivorousprimates.

B. Themicro-wearpatternsofaustralopithecineteethfromregionsotherthaneastAfricaareanalyzed.

C. Orangutansarefoundtohaveamuchbroaderdietthaniscurrentlyrecognized.

D. TheenvironmentofeastAfricaatthetimeaustralopithecineslivedthereisfoundtohavebeenfarmorevariedthaniscurrentlythought.

E. Theareainwhichtheaustralopithecinespecimenswerefoundisdiscoveredtohavebeenveryrichinsoft-bodiedinsectsduringtheperiodwhenaustralopithecineslivedthere.

101. Theauthorofthepassagementionsthedietsofbaboonsandotherlivingprimatesmostlikelyinorderto

A. provideevidencethatrefutesWalker’sconclusionsaboutthefoodsmakingupthedietsofaustralopithecines

B. suggestthatstudiesoftoothmicro-wearpatternsareprimarilyusefulfordeterminingthedietsoflivingprimates

C. suggestthataustralopithecineswereprobablyomnivoresratherthanfrugivores

D. illustratesomeofthelimitationsofusingtoothmicro-wearpatternstodrawdefinitiveconclusionsaboutagroup’sdiet

E. suggestthattoothmicro-wearpatternsarecausedbypersistent,asopposedtooccasional,consumptionofparticularfoods

Incurrenthistoriography,thepictureofaconsistent,unequivocaldeclineinwomen’sstatuswiththeadventofcapitalismandindustrializationisgivingwaytoananalysisthatnotonlyemphasizesbothchange(whetherimprovementordecline)andcontinuitybutalsoaccountsforgeographicalandoccupationalvariation.Thehistoryofwomen’sworkinEnglishfarmhousecheesemakingbetween1800and1930isacaseinpoint.InherinfluentialWomenWorkersandtheIndustrialRevolution(1930),Pinchbeckarguedthattheagriculturalrevolutionoftheeighteenthandearlynineteenthcenturies,withitsattendantspecializationandenlargedscaleofoperation,curtailedwomen’sparticipationinthebusinessofcheeseproduction.Earlier,shemaintained,womenhadconcernedthemselveswithfeedingcows,rearingcalves,andevensellingthe

cheeseinlocalmarketsandfairs.Pinchbeckthoughtthattheadventofspecializationmeantthatwomen’sworkincheesedairyingwasreducedsimplytoprocessingthemilk.“Dairymen”(anewsocialcategory)raisedandfedcowsandsoldthecheesethroughfactors,whowerealsomen.Withthisnarrowingofthescopeofwork,Pinchbeckbelieved,womenlostbusinessability,independence,andinitiative. ThoughPinchbeckportrayedprecapitalist,preindustrialconditionsassuperiortowhatfollowed,recentscholarshiphasseriouslyquestionedthenotionofagoldenageforwomeninprecapitalistsociety.Forexample,scholarsnotethatwomen’scontrolseldomextendedtothedisposaloftheproceedsoftheirwork.Inthecaseofcheese,theriseoffactorsmayhavecompromisedwomen’sabilitytomarketcheeseatfairs.Butmerelysellingthecheesedidnotnecessarilyimplyaccesstothemoney:DavidoffcitesthecaseofanEssexmanwhoappropriatedallbutafractionofthemoneyfromhiswife’scheesesales. Byfocusingonsomewhatperipheraloperations,moreover,Pinchbeckmissedasubstantialelementofcontinuityinwomen’sparticipation:throughouttheperiodwomendidthecentralworkofactuallymakingcheese.TheirpersistenceinEnglishcheesedairyingcontrastswithwomen’searlydisappearancefromarableagricultureinsoutheastEnglandandfromAmericancheesedairying.Comparingthesethreedivergentdevelopmentsyieldssomereasonsforthedifferencesamongthem.Englishcheese-makingwomenworkedinasettinginwhichculturalvalues,agriculturalconditions,andthenatureoftheirworkcombinedtosupporttheircontinuedparticipation.Intheothercases,oneormoreoftheseelementswaslacking.

A. presentrecentlydiscoveredevidencethatsupportsaconventionalinterpretationofahistoricalperiod

B. describehowreinterpretationsofavailableevidencehavereinvigoratedaonce-discreditedscholarlyposition

C. explainwhysomehistorianshavetendedtoemphasizechangeratherthancontinuityindiscussingaparticularperiod

D. explorehowchangesinaparticularoccupationservetocountertheprevailingviewofahistoricalperiod

E. examineaparticularareaofhistoricalresearchinordertoexemplifyageneralscholarlytrend

103. RegardingEnglishlocalmarketsandfairs,whichofthefollowingcanbeinferredfromthepassage?

A. Bothbeforeandaftertheagriculturalrevolution,thesellersofagriculturalproductsatthesevenuesweremen.

B. Knowingwhotheactivesellerswereatthesevenuesmaynotgiveareliableindicationofwhocontrolledtherevenuefromthesales.

C. TherewerenoparallelinstitutionsatwhichAmericancheesemakerscouldselltheirownproducts.

D. Priortotheagriculturalrevolution,thesellersofagriculturalproductsatthesevenuesweregenerallytheproducersthemselves.

E. Priortotheagriculturalrevolution,womensoldnotonlycheesebutalsoproductsofarableagricultureatthesevenues.

104. ThepassagedescribestheworkofPinchbeckprimarilyinorderto

A. demonstratethatsomeoftheconclusionsreachedbyrecenthistorianswereanticipatedinearlierscholarship

B. provideaninstanceoftheviewpointthat,accordingtothepassage’sauthor,isbeingsuperseded

C. illustratethewaysinwhichrecenthistorianshavebuiltontheworkoftheirpredecessors

D. provideapointofreferenceforsubsequentscholarshiponwomen’sworkduringtheagriculturalrevolution

E. showtheeffectthatthespecializationintroducedintheagricultural

andindustrialrevolutionshadonwomen’swork

105. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatwomendidworkin

A. Americancheesemakingatsomepointpriortoindustrialization

B. arableagricultureinnorthernEnglandbothbeforeandaftertheagriculturalrevolution

C. arableagricultureinsoutheastEnglandaftertheagriculturalrevolution,inthoselocalesinwhichculturalvaluessupportedtheirparticipation

D. thesaleofcheeseatlocalmarketsinEnglandevenaftertheagriculturalrevolution

E. someareasofAmericancheesedairyingafterindustrialization

3.5AnswerKey1. C

100. C

101. D

102. E

103. B

104. B

105. A

3.6AnswerExplanationsThefollowingdiscussionofreadingcomprehensionisintendedtofamiliarizeyouwiththemostefficientandeffectiveapproachestothekindsofproblemscommontoreadingcomprehension.TheparticularquestionsinthischapteraregenerallyrepresentativeofthekindsofreadingcomprehensionquestionsyouwillencounterontheGMAT.Rememberthatitistheproblemsolvingstrategythatisimportant,notthespecificdetailsofaparticularquestion.

Questions1–4refertothepassageonpage20.

1. Accordingtothepassage,traditionalcorporateleadersdifferfromleadersinlearningorganizationsinthattheformer

A. encourageemployeestoconcentrateondevelopingawiderangeofskills

B. enableemployeestorecognizeandconfrontdominantcorporatemodelsandtodevelopalternativemodels

C. makeimportantpolicydecisionsaloneandthenrequireemployeesinthecorporationtoabidebythosedecisions

D. instillconfidenceinemployeesbecauseoftheirwillingnesstomakeriskydecisionsandaccepttheirconsequences

E. areconcernedwithofferingemployeesfrequentadviceandcareerguidance

Supportingidea

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandingofthecontrastthepassagedrawsbetweenleadersoftraditionalcorporationsandleadersoflearningorganizations.Accordingtothesecondparagraph,theformeraretraditionallycharismaticleaderswhosetpolicyandmakedecisions,whilethelatterfosterintegratedthinkingatalllevelsoftheorganization.

A. Accordingtothepassage,itisleadersinlearningorganizations,nottraditionalcorporateleaders,whoencouragethedevelopmentofawiderangeofskills.

B. Leadersinlearningorganizationsarethosewhowanttheiremployeestochallengedominantmodels.

C. Correct.Thesecondparagraphstatesthattraditionalcorporateleadersareindividualistic;theyalonesetthecorporation’sdirectionandmakekeydecisions.

D. Thepassagedoesnotaddressthequestionofwhethertraditionalcorporateleadersinstillconfidenceinemployees.Infact,thefirstparagraphsuggeststhattheymaynot;rather,theymightcomeacrossasobjectionablycontrolling.

E. Thepassagesuggeststhatadviceandguidancearemorelikelytobeofferedbyleadersoflearningorganizationsthanbyleadersoftraditionalcorporations.

ThecorrectanswerisC.

2. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesemployeebehaviorencouragedwithinlearningorganizations,assuchorganizationsaredescribedinthepassage?

A. Carefullydefiningone’sjobdescriptionandtakingcaretoavoiddeviationsfromit

B. Designingmentoringprogramsthattrainnewemployeestofollowproceduresthathavebeenusedformanyyears

C. Concentratingone’seffortsonmasteringoneaspectofacomplicatedtask

D. Studyinganorganizationalproblem,preparingareport,andsubmittingittoacorporateleaderforapproval

E. Analyzingaproblemrelatedtoproductivity,makingadecisionaboutasolution,andimplementingthatsolution

Application

Thesecondparagraphofthepassageindicatesthatemployeesoflearningorganizationsareencouragedtothinkandactforthemselves;theylearnnewskillsandexpandtheircapabilities.

A. Avoidingdeviationsfromone’scarefullydefinedjobdescriptionwouldmorelikelybeencouragedinatraditionalcorporation,asdescribedinthefirstparagraph,thaninalearningorganization.

B. Anyemployeetrainingthatinvolvesfollowinglong-standingprocedureswouldmorelikelybeencouragedinatraditionalcorporationthanalearningorganization.

C. Accordingtothepassage,masteringonlyoneaspectofatask,nomatterhowcomplicated,wouldbeinsufficientinalearningorganization,inwhichbroadpatternsofthinkingareencouraged.

D. Asdescribedinthepassage,theroleofcorporateleadersinlearningorganizationsisnot,characteristically,toapproveemployees’solutionstoproblems,butrathertoenableandempoweremployeestoimplementsolutionsontheirown.

E. Correct.Employeesinlearningorganizationsareexpectedtoactontheirowninitiative;thus,theywouldbeencouragedtoanalyzeandsolveproblemsontheirown,implementingwhateversolutionstheydevised.

ThecorrectanswerisE.

3. Accordingtotheauthorofthepassage,corporateleadersofthefutureshoulddowhichofthefollowing?

A. Theyshouldencourageemployeestoputlong-termgoalsaheadofshort-termprofits.

B. Theyshouldexercisemorecontroloveremployeesinordertoconstrainproductioncosts.

C. Theyshouldredefineincentivesforemployees’performanceimprovement.

D. Theyshouldprovideemployeeswithopportunitiestogainnewskills

andexpandtheircapabilities.

E. Theyshouldpromoteindividualmanagerswhoarecommittedtoestablishedcompanypolicies.

Supportingidea

Thisquestionfocusesonwhattheauthorrecommendsinthepassageforfuturecorporateleaders.Inthesecondparagraph,theauthorstatesthat,amongotherthings,corporateleadersneedtobeteacherstoprovidechallengestotheiremployeesandcreateanatmospherewhereemployeesarecontinuallylearningnewskillsandexpandingtheircapabilitiestoshapetheirfuture.

A. Thepassagedoesnotdirectlydiscusstheissueofcorporategoalsandprofitabilityinthelongorshortterm.

B. Thepassagedoesnotaddressthetopicofproductioncosts,anditsuggeststhatitsauthorwouldfavorreducing,ratherthanincreasing,corporateleaders’controloveremployees.Thefirstparagraphstatesthatleaderswhoattempttocontrolemployeesleadthoseemployeestoperforminmediocrefashion.

C. Thepassagedoesnotdiscussincentivizingemployees’performance;rather,employees’performancewillimprove,thepassagesuggests,underdifferentcorporateleadership.

D. Correct.Thefinalsentenceofthepassagestatesdirectlythatleadersmustbuildorganizationsinwhichemployeescanlearnnewskillsandexpandtheircapabilities.

E. Thefirstparagraphindicatesthatclingingtoestablishedcompanypoliciesisastrategyforthefuturethatislikelytobeunproductive.

ThecorrectanswerisD.

A. endorseatraditionalcorporatestructure

B. introduceanewapproachtocorporateleadershipandevaluatecriticismsofit

C. explaincompetingtheoriesaboutmanagementpracticesandreconcilethem

D. contrasttwotypicalcorporateorganizationalstructures

E. proposeanalternativetoacommoncorporateapproach

Mainidea

Thisquestiondependsonunderstandingthepassageasawhole.Thefirstparagraphexplainsthewayinwhichcorporationsfailtofacilitatehowhumanslearn.Thesecondparagraphsuggeststhatcorporationsshouldchangethewaytheyviewemployeesinordertopromotelearning,anditexplainsthepositiveoutcomesthatwouldresultfromthatshiftinthinking.

A. Thefirstparagraphexplainsthatthetraditionalcorporatestructureleadstomediocreperformance;itdoesnotendorsethatstructure.

B. Thesecondparagraphintroducestheconceptofalearningorganizationanditsattendantapproachtocorporateleadership.Ratherthanidentifyinganycriticismsofthatapproach,thepassageendorsesitwholeheartedly.

C. Thepassagediscussesthedifferencebetweentheideaofasinglecharismaticleaderandthatofasharedcorporateleadership,butitdoesnotattempttoreconcilethesetwoideas.

D. Thepassage’smainfocusisonadvocatingaparticularapproach,notonmerelycontrastingitwithanother.Furthermore,itportraysonlyoneoftheapproachesastypical.Itsuggeststhattheorganizationalstructurethatreliesonasinglecharismaticleaderistypicalbutthatanotherapproach,thatinwhichleadershipisshared,shouldinsteadbecometypical.

E. Correct.Thepassageidentifiesacommoncorporateapproach,onebasedoncontrollingemployees,andproposesthatcorporationsshouldinsteadbecomelearningorganizations.

5. AllofthefollowingarementionedaswaysofcontrollingthemagnitudeofstructuralunemploymentEXCEPT

A. usingpublicfundstocreatejobs

B. teachingnewskillstodisplacedworkers

C. allowingdisplacedworkerstoretire

D. controllingthemovementofcapital

E. encouragingworkerstomovetowherejobsareavailable

Supportingidea

Thisquestionaddresseswhatthepassagestatesdirectlyabouthowthemagnitudeofstructuralunemploymentcanbecontrolled.Thelastfewsentencesofthesecondparagraphstateseveralwaysinwhichthiscontrolmaybeexerted.

A. Correct.Thepassagementionsusingpublicsectorresources,butitdoesnotsaythatthoseresourcescouldbeusedtocreatejobs.

B. Thepassagestatesthatworkerscanbereeducatedorretrainedasawayofaddressingstructuralunemployment.

C. Encouragingworkerstoretireisoneoftheoptionsmentionedinthepassageforcontrollingstructuralunemployment.

D. Capitalmovementisoneofthefactorsaffectingstructuralunemployment,andthepassagestatesthatcontrollingthismovementcanbeusedasawayofcontrollingstructuralunemployment.

E. Thepassageindicatesthatencouragingdisplacedworkerstomovewheretherearejobsisawaytohelpcontrolstructuralunemployment.

ThecorrectanswerisA.

6. Thepassagesuggeststhatapotentialoutcomeofhigherstructuralunemploymentis

A. increasedpublicspendingforsocialservices

B. placementofworkersinjobsforwhichtheyarenotqualified

C. higherwagesforthoseworkerswhohaveskillsthatareindemand

D. anincreaseinthelengthoftimejobsremainunfilled

E. ashiftinthegovernment’seconomicpolicypriorities

Supportingidea

Thethirdparagraphdiscussesapotentialresultofhigherstructuralunemployment:ifmoreworkerslackskillsthatareindemand,therewillbeshortagesofqualifiedworkers.Thewagesofworkerswhodohavethedesiredskillswillthusrise.

A. Whilehigherstructuralunemploymentmightresultinanincreaseddemandforsocialservices,suchasjobtrainingandthelike,thepassagedoesnotsuggestthatthegovernmentwouldinfactrespondbyspendingmoreonsuchservices.

B. Nothinginthepassageindicatesthatemployerswouldhireworkerswholacknecessaryskills—indeed,thelackofqualifiedworkersisitselfacauseofincreasedstructuralunemployment.

C. Correct.Thepassageindicatesthatwhengrowthindemandforworkerswithcertainskillsoutpacesthegrowthinthenumberofworkerswhopossessthoseskills,thewagesofthoseworkersarebidup,resultinginincreasedpayfortheskilledworkers.

D. Thepassagedoesnotdiscussthelengthoftimethatjobsarelikelytoremainunfilledasstructuralunemploymentincreases.Theamountoftimejobsremainunfilledcouldremainthesame,butthenumberortypeofjobsthatgounfilledmaychange.

E. Thepassagesuggeststhatcertaintypesofpublicsectorspending(presumablyspendingasaresultofgovernmentpolicy)canhelpcontrolthemagnitudeofstructuralunemployment,butthepassagedoesnotindicatewhetherthegovernmentisinfactlikelytochangepolicysoastotrytocontrolthismagnitude.Furthermore,thepassagestatesthatgovernmentpolicyhasplacedapriorityonreducinginflation.Yetthereisnosuggestionthatthegovernmentislikelytoshiftawayfromthispriorityinthefaceofhigherstructuralunemployment.

7. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatevenwhenthereareunemployedworkers,laborshortagesarestilllikelytooccurif

A. theinflationrateisunusuallyhigh

B. thereisinsufficienttechnologicalinnovation

C. thelevelofstructuralunemploymentisexceptionallylow

D. thejobsavailableincertainplacesrequireskillsthatthelaborforceinthoseareaslacks

E. theworkersinsomeindustriesaredissatisfiedwiththepayofferedinthoseindustries

Inference

Thisquestionreliesonthepassage’scharacterizationofstructuralunemployment—thatthereisamismatchbetweenthenumberofjobsavailableinacertainlocationandthenumberofworkersinthatlocationwhopossesstheskillsrequiredforthosejobs.Evenifthereisasufficientnumberofworkersintheareatofillthepositions,ifthoseworkershadtherequisiteskills,laborshortageswilloccurifaninsufficientnumberofthoseworkerslacktherequiredskills.

A. Thepassageinthethirdparagraphexplainsthatstructuralunemploymentandinflationcancoexist,butitdoesnotsuggestthatahighrateofinflationwillmakelaborshortageslikely;rather,thepassageindicatesthatstructuralunemploymentmayleadtoinflationbypushingwages,andthusprices,higher.

B. Thepassageindicatesthatgreatertechnologicalinnovationcanproducestructuralunemployment,notthatinsufficienttechnologicalinnovationcan.

C. Whenthereareunemployedworkers,laborshortageswouldbeunlikelytooccurifthelevelofstructuralunemploymentislow,becauselowstructuralunemploymentwouldmeanthatnoimbalanceexistsbetweenavailableemploymentandworkerswithrequisiteskills.Thus,unemployedworkerswouldlikelybeabletofindjobs.

D. Correct.Thelaborshortagesassociatedwithstructuralunemploymentcan,accordingtothepassage,becausedbyamismatchinacertainlocationbetweenavailablejobsrequiringparticularskillsandthenumberofworkerspossessingthoseskills.

E. Thepassagedoesnotdiscusswhatwouldhappenifsomeindustries’workersaredissatisfiedwiththeirpay.Presumably,though,evenifthoseworkersweretoquittheirjobsduetothatdissatisfaction,unemployedworkersmayverywellbehappytotakethosejobs(assumingtheyarenotlackingtherequisiteskills).Sothepassagegivesusnoreasontothinkthatlaborshortageswouldbelikelytooccur—atleastwithoutasituationlikethatdescribedinanswerchoiceD.

8. Thepassagesuggeststhatthephenomenonofcombinedunemployment

andinflationis

A. asocioeconomicproblemthatcanonlybeaddressedbygovernmentintervention

B. asocioeconomicproblemthatcanbecharacteristicofperiodsofstructuralunemployment

C. aneconomicproblemthatresultsfromgovernmentinterventioninmanagement-laborrelations

D. aneconomicproblemthatresultsfromimperfectapplicationsoftechnology

E. aneconomicproblemthatcanbeeliminatedbyrelativelysmallchangesinthelaborforce

Supportingidea

Thisquestiondependsonunderstandingthephenomenonofcombinedunemploymentandinflation,whichisaddressedinthethirdparagraph.Thatparagraphstatesthatatrendassociatedwithstructuralunemployment—thatofrisinglaborcostsandprices—isresponsibleforthephenomenon.

A. Thethirdparagraphindicatesthatgovernmentpolicyhasbeenunable,thusfar,toremedytheproblemofcombinedunemploymentandinflation,anditgivesnoindicationwhetheranongovernmentalsolutionisavailable.

B. Correct.Periodsofstructuralunemploymenthave,accordingtothepassage,featuredbothinflationandunemployment.

C. Thepassagedoesnotdiscussgovernmentinterventionintomanagement-laborrelations.

D. Certainapplicationsoftechnologymayberesponsibleforincreasingstructuralunemployment,butthepassageprovidesnowaytodistinguishbetweenimperfectandothersuchapplications.

E. Thepassagediscussesthephenomenonofcombinedunemploymentandinflationonlyinrelationtostructuralunemployment,whichthepassagesuggestsislikelytoariseonlyinrelationtolargeorrapidchangesindemandforlabor.Therefore,itseemsunlikelythatrelativelysmallchangesinthelaborforcecaneliminatethe

phenomenonofcombinedunemploymentandinflation.

ThecorrectanswerisB.

A. clarifyingthedefinitionofaconcept

B. proposingawaytoeliminateanundesirablecondition

C. discussingthesourcesandconsequencesofaproblem

D. suggestingwaystoalleviatetheeffectsofaparticularsocialpolicy

E. evaluatingthestepsthathavebeentakentocorrectanimbalance

Mainidea

Thisquestiondependsonunderstandingthepassageasawholeinordertoidentifyitsprimaryconcern.Thefirstparagraphdefinesstructuralunemployment(whichthepassage,initssecondparagraph,indicatesisaseriousproblem).Thesecondparagraphdescribesamajorfactorthatcancausestructuralunemployment,aswellassomestepsthatmightbetakentoalleviateit.Finally,thethirdparagraphidentifiespossibleeffectsofstructuralunemployment,includingwageandpriceinflation.

A. Thefirstparagraphclarifiesthedefinitionofstructuralunemployment,butthisdefinitionisnotthepassage’sprimaryconcern.

B. Thepassage’ssecondparagraphindicatessomewaysthatanincreaseinstructuralunemploymentcanbemitigated,butnowheredoesthepassagesuggestthattheconditioncanbeeliminatedentirely.

C. Correct.Thepassagediscussestheproblemofstructuralunemployment,explaininghowitcanariseandwhatsomeofitsconsequencesmaybe.

D. Thepassagedoessuggestsomewaysinwhichstructuralunemploymentmightbealleviated,butthiskindofunemploymentisnotcharacterizedasaneffectofasocialpolicy.Rather,itisastateofeconomicaffairs.

E. Thesecondparagraphidentifiessomestepsthatcouldbetakentocorrectaparticularsituationofworkerdisplacement.Itdoesnot,however,evaluatethosesteps.

10. Accordingtothepassage,smalldownwardshiftsinthedemandforlaborwillnotusuallycauseunemploymentbecause

A. suchshiftsarefrequentlyaccompaniedbyupswingsintheeconomy

B. suchshiftsusuallyoccurslowly

C. workerscanbeencouragedtomovetowheretherearejobs

D. normalattritionisoftensufficienttoreducethesizeoftheworkforce

E. workersareusuallyflexibleenoughtolearnnewskillsandswitchtonewjobs

Supportingidea

Thisquestionrequiresnotingthatthesecondparagraphofthepassagediscussessmallchangesindemandforlabor:theireffectonunemploymentislikelytobesmallbecausenormalattritioncanreducethesizeoftheworkforceaccordingly.

A. Thepassagedoesnotmentionupswingsintheeconomyinrelationtosmallshiftsindemandforlabor.Furthermore,thepassageindicatesthatstructuralunemploymentcanoccurevenatpeaksofeconomicupswings,sopresumablyevenifsmalldownwardshiftsinthedemandforlaborarefrequentlyaccompaniedbyeconomicupswings,structuralunemploymentcouldstillresult.

B. Thepassagesuggeststhatshiftsindemandforworkersthatdonotresultinunemploymentmaybesmallorgradual.Nothingindicatesthatsmallchangesarealsonecessarilygradual.

C. Thesecondparagraphindicatesthatworkersbeingencouragedtomovetowheretherearejobswouldbeareasonableresponsetolargeorrapidchangesindemandforworkers;itdoesnotdiscusssuchencouragementinrelationtosmallshiftsindemand.

D. Correct.Thepassageidentifiesnormalattritionasafactorthatcanreducetheworkforcesufficientlytoaccommodatesmallreductionsinthedemandforlaborinparticularoccupations.

E. Workers’abilitytolearnnewskillsisidentifiedinthepassageasafactoraffectingwhetherstructuralunemploymentwillgrowinresponsetolargeorrapidchanges,notsmallchanges,inthedemandforworkersinparticularoccupations.

A. identifywaysinwhichtheGDPcouldbemodifiedsothatitwouldserveasamoreaccurateindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates

B. suggestthattheGDP,inspiteofcertainshortcomings,isstillthemostreliableindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates

C. examinecrucialshortcomingsoftheGDPasanindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates

D. arguethatthegrowthoftheUnitedStateseconomyinrecentdecadeshasdiminishedtheeffectivenessoftheGDPasanindicatorofthenation’seconomicwell-being

E. discusshowtheGDPcametobeusedastheprimaryindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates

Mainidea

Thisquestionrequiresdeterminingthemainpurposeofthepassageasawhole.ThepassagebeginsbybroadlydefiningGDPanddescribinghowitisusedasanindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates.ThepassagethendescribesinmoredetailwhatisandisnottakenintoaccountbytheGDPandthendrawsacausalconnectionbetweenthelimitationsofwhattheGDPmeasuresanddisturbingtrendswithintheU.S.inrecentdecades.

A. ThereisnodiscussioninthepassageaboutmodifyinghowtheGDPiscalculated.

B. ThepassagemakesnojudgmentaboutthemeritsofusingtheGDPinrelationtoothereconomicindicators.

C. Correct.ThepassageportraystheGDPashavinglimitationsthatmakeitaproblematicindicatorofrealeconomicwell-being.

D. ThepassagedoesnotportraytheGDPasbeinganylessusefulasaneconomicindicatorthaniteverwas.

E. ThereisnodiscussioninthepassageofthehistoryofhowtheGDPcametobeusedasaneconomicindicator.

12. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesthefunctionofthesecondsentenceofthepassageinthecontextofthepassageasawhole?

A. ItdescribesanassumptionabouttheGDPthatisdefendedinthecourseofthepassage.

B. ItcontributestoadiscussionoftheoriginsoftheGDP.

C. ItclarifiesacommonmisconceptionabouttheuseoftheGDP.

D. ItidentifiesamajorflawintheGDP.

E. ItsuggestsarevisiontothemethodofcalculatingtheGDP.

Evaluation

Answeringthisquestionrequiresunderstandinghowaparticularpartofthepassagefunctionsinthepassageasawhole.ThesecondsentencedescribestheGDPasbeingsolelyconcernedwiththepricesofgoodsandservicesproducedintheUnitedStates,asidefromanyotherkindofvalue.Thepassagethengoesontoimplythatbyignoringvalueotherthanprice,theGDPmayactuallymaskproblemspresentinthenation’soveralleconomy.

A. ThepassageisconcernedwithcallingintoquestiontheuseoftheGDP,notdefendingit.

B. ThepassagedoesnotmentionhowtheGDPcametobeusedasaprimaryeconomicindicator.

C. ThepassagedoesnotdescribethefunctionoftheGDPasbeingcommonlymisunderstood.

D. Correct.ThelimitationsoftheGDPasdescribedinthesecondsentencearethen,intherestofthepassage,tiedtoproblemsintheUnitedStates.

E. ThepassagemakesnoexplicitrecommendationsaboutrevisinghowtheGDPismeasured.

13. Itcanbeinferredthattheauthorofthepassagewouldagreewithwhichofthefollowingaboutthe“economicsignificance”ofthosegoodsandservicesthatareincludedintheGDP?

A. Itisacomprehensiveindicatorofanation’seconomicwell-being.

B. Itisnotaccuratelycapturedbythepriceofthosegoodsandservices.

C. Itisusuallylessthantheintrinsicvalueofthosegoodsandservices.

D. ItismoredifficulttocalculatethantheeconomicsignificanceofthosegoodsandservicesthatarenotincludedintheGDP.

E. Itiscalculateddifferentlyincapitalistcountriesthaninnoncapitalistcountries.

Inference

Thisquestionaskswhattheauthorimpliesaboutapieceofinformationgiveninthepassage.ThepassagestatesthattheGDPassumesthattheeconomicsignificanceofgoodsandservicesliessolelyintheirprice(lines5–7)andthattheGDPignorestheeconomicutility(lines13–14)ofthingssuchasahealthyenvironmentandacohesivesocialstructure.ThepassagethenimpliesthattheworseningproblemswiththeenvironmentandsocialstructureinrecentdecadesareduetothewaytheGDPiscalculated.

A. IndescribingtheGDPaslimitedinwhatitmeasures,theauthorwouldnotagreethattheGDPisacomprehensiveindicator.

B. Correct.TheauthorimpliesthatbecausetheGDPignorestheeconomicutilityofcertainthings,itisaninaccurateindicatorofeconomicwell-being.

C. Theauthormakesnocomparisonbetweentheeconomicvalueandtheintrinsicvalueofgoodsandservices.

D. TheauthormakesnojudgmentaboutthedifficultyofmeasuringthevalueofgoodsandservicesnotmeasuredbytheGDP.

E. TheauthordoesnotindicatehownoncapitalistcountriescalculateGDP.

14. ThecomparisonoftheGDPtoacalculatingmachineservestodowhichofthefollowing?

A. RefuteanassertionthatthecalculationsinvolvedintheGDParerelativelycomplexinnature

B. IndicatethattheGDPisbettersuitedtorecordcertaintypesof

monetarytransactionsthanothers

C. SuggestthatitislikelythattheGDPwillbesupplantedbyother,moresophisticatedeconomicindicators

D. IllustratethepointthattheGDPhasnowayofmeasuringthedestructiveimpactofsuchthingsasoilspillsonthenation’seconomicwell-being

E. ExemplifyanassertionthattheGDPtendstoexaggeratetheamountofcommercialactivitygeneratedbysuchthingsasoilspills

Evaluation

Thisquestionaskshowacertainstatementinthepassagefunctionsinthepassageasawhole.Inlines13–16and20–24,respectively,thepassageindicatesthattheGDPnotonlyignoresproblemsaffectinganation’seconomybutthatitactuallycanportraytheseproblemsaseconomicgains,anditsubsequentlyusestheexampleofanoilspilladdingtotheGDPtoillustratethis.ThepassagethenclosesbydescribingtheGDPasacalculatingmachinethatcanaddbutnotsubtract.

A. ThepassagedoesnotdiscussthecomplexitiesofcalculatingtheGDP.

B. ThepassagemakesnojudgmentabouttherelativesuccessesoftheGDPinrecordingdifferenttypesofmonetarytransactions.

C. ThepassagemakesnomentionofothereconomicindicatorsasidefromtheGDP.

D. Correct.BycharacterizingtheGDPasacalculatingmachinethatcannotsubtract,thepassagehelpsillustratewhysomethinglikeanoilspillismisrepresentedbytheGDP.

E. WhilethepassagedoesmentionthattheGDPmeasurescommercialactivitygeneratedbyanoilspill,itdoesnotsuggestthattheGDPexaggeratestheamountofthatactivity.

15. ThepassageimpliesthatnationalpoliciesthatrelyheavilyoneconomicindicatorssuchastheGDPtendto

A. becomeincreasinglycapitalisticinnature

B. disregardtheeconomicimportanceofenvironmentalandsocialfactorsthatdonotinvolvemonetarytransactions

C. overestimatetheamountofcommercialactivitygeneratedbyenvironmentaldisasters

D. overestimatetheeconomicsignificanceofcohesivefamiliesandcommunities

E. assumethattheeconomicsignificanceofgoodsandservicesdoesnotliesolelyinthepriceofthosegoodsandservices

Inference

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandingwhatthepassageimpliesaboutthemainissueitdiscusses.Inlines13–14,thepassagestatesthattheGDPignorestheeconomicutilityofthingssuchasacleanenvironmentandsocialcohesiveness.ItthenindicatesthatincountriesthataredependentoneconomicindicatorssuchastheGDP,theenvironmentandthesocialstructurehavebeenerodedinrecentdecades(lines19–20).

A. ThepassagedoesnotmentionhoworiftheGDPaffectsthecapitalistnatureofnationalpolicies.

B. Correct.InindicatingthattheGDPignoresenvironmentalandsocialfactors,thepassageimpliesthatpoliciesdependentontheGDPwillalsoignoretheseissues.

C. ThepassageindicatesthattheGDPtakesintoaccountthecommercialactivitygeneratedbyenvironmentaldisastersbutdoesnotsuggestthattheamountofthatactivityisoverestimated.

D. ThepassageindicatesthattheGDPignoresthevalueofsocialcohesion.

E. ThepassageindicatesthattheGDPassumesthattheeconomicsignificanceofgoodsandservicesliessolelyintheirprice(lines5–7).

16. ItcanbeinferredthattheauthorofthepassagewouldagreewithwhichofthefollowingassessmentsoftheGDPasanindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates?

A. Itmaskssocialandenvironmentalerosionmorefullythanthechiefeconomicindicatorsofothernations.

B. Itisbasedoninaccurateestimationsofthepricesofmanygoodsandservices.

C. ItoverestimatestheamountofcommercialactivitythatisgeneratedintheUnitedStates.

D. Itisconducivetoerrorbecauseitconflatesdistincttypesofeconomicactivity.

E. Itdoesnottakeintoaccounttheeconomicutilityofcertainenvironmentalandsocialconditions.

Inference

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandingwhattheauthorimpliesaboutinformationinthepassage.ThepassagestatesthattheGDPisthechiefindicatoroftheeconomicwell-beingoftheUnitedStates(lines4–5).ItalsostatesthattheGDPignorestheeconomicutility(lines13–16)ofthingssuchasacleanenvironmentandsocialcohesiveness.Therefore,theGDPdoesnottakeintoaccounttheeconomicutilityofcertainenvironmentalandsocialconditions.

A. Thepassagemakesnocomparisonsamongdifferentnations’economicindicators.

B. ThepassagedoesnotdescribetheGDPasbeinginaccurateinitsestimatesofthepricesofgoodsandservices.

C. ThepassagedoesnotdescribetheGDPasoverestimatingamountsofcommercialactivity.

D. ThepassagedoesnotdescribetheGDPasconfusingdifferenttypesofeconomicactivity.

E. Correct.ThepassagestatesthattheGDPignorestheeconomicutilityofacleanenvironmentandsocialcohesiveness.

A. explainingwhyonemethodofearthquakepredictionhasprovenmorepracticablethananalternativemethod

B. suggestingthataccurateearthquakeforecastingmustcombineelementsoflong-termandshort-termprediction

C. challengingtheusefulnessofdilatancytheoryforexplainingthe

occurrenceofprecursoryphenomena

D. discussingthedeficiencyoftwomethodsbywhichresearchershaveattemptedtopredicttheoccurrenceofearthquakes

E. describingthedevelopmentofmethodsforestablishingpatternsintheoccurrenceofpastearthquakes

Mainidea

Toanswerthisquestion,focusonwhatthepassageasawholeistryingtodo.Thefirstparagraphdescribesamethodforpredictingtheoccurrenceofearthquakes,andthesecondparagraphexplainsproblemswiththatmethod.Thethirdparagraphdescribesasecondmethodforpredictingtheoccurrenceofearthquakes,andthefourthparagraphexplainsproblemswiththatmethod.Thus,thepassageasawholeisprimarilyconcernedwithexplainingthedeficienciesoftwomethodsforpredictingtheoccurrenceofearthquakes.

A. Thepassagedoesnotcomparethepracticabilityofthetwomethods.

B. Thepassagedoesnotdiscusscombininglong-termandshort-termmethods.

C. Onlythefirsthalfofthepassagediscussesdilatancytheory;thesecondhalfdiscussesadifferentmethodforpredictingtheoccurrenceofearthquakes.

D. Correct.Thepassagedescribestwomethodsforpredictingtheoccurrenceofearthquakesandexplainstheshortcomingsofeachmethod.

E. Onlythesecondhalfofthepassagediscussespatternsintheoccurrenceofpastearthquakes;thefirsthalfdiscussesadifferentmethodforpredictingtheoccurrenceofearthquakes.

18. Accordingtothepassage,laboratoryevidenceconcerningtheeffectsofstressonrocksmighthelpaccountfor

A. differencesinmagnitudeamongearthquakes

B. certainphenomenathatoccurpriortoearthquakes

C. variationsintheintervalsbetweenearthquakesinaparticulararea

D. differencesinthefrequencywithwhichearthquakesoccurinvariousareas

E. theunreliabilityofshort-termearthquakepredictions

Supportingideas

Thisquestionasksforinformationexplicitlystatedinthepassage.Thefirstparagraphexplainsthatrockssubjectedtostressinthelaboratoryundergomultiplechanges.Accordingtodilatancytheory,suchchangeshappeningtorocksinthefieldcouldleadtoearthquakeprecursors—phenomenathatoccurbeforelargeearthquakes.

A. Thepassageexplainshowlaboratoryevidencemightbeusedtopredicttheoccurrenceoflargeearthquakes,nottodifferentiatebetweenearthquakes’magnitudes.

B. Correct.Accordingtodilatancytheory,thesortofchangesthathavebeenobservedinlaboratoriestooccurinrocksmightleadtoearthquakeprecursorsinthefield.

C. Althoughthepassagediscussesvariationinearthquakeintervals,thatevidenceisbasedonhistoricalrecords,notlaboratoryevidence.

D. Thepassagedoesnotreferinanywaytodifferencesinthefrequencyofearthquakesinvariousregions.

E. Theunreliabilityofonemethodformakingshort-termearthquakepredictionsisimpliedbyinformationgatheredinthefield,notbylaboratoryevidence.

19. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatoneproblemwithusingprecursoryphenomenatopredictearthquakesisthatminortremors

A. typicallyoccursomedistancefromthesitesofthelargeearthquakesthatfollowthem

B. aredirectlylinkedtothemechanismsthatcauseearthquakes

C. aredifficulttodistinguishfrommajortremors

D. haveprovendifficulttomeasureaccurately

E. arenotalwaysfollowedbylargeearthquakes

Inference

Thisquestionaskswhatcanbeinferredfromcertaininformationinthepassage.Thesecondparagraphexplainstwoproblemswithusingminortremorstopredictearthquakes.First,minortremorsprovidenoinformationabouthowlargeanimpendingearthquakewillbe.Second,theminortremorsthatoccurpriortoalargeearthquakeareindistinguishablefromotherminortremors.Thus,itcanbeinferredthatminortremorssometimesoccurwhennolargeearthquakefollows.

A. Thepassagedoesnotmentionthedistancebetweenminortremorsandensuingearthquakes.

B. Thepassageimpliesthatminortremorssometimesoccurwithoutanensuingearthquake,sothephenomenaaremostlikelynotdirectlylinked.

C. Thepassagesuggestsnodifficultyindistinguishingbetweenminortremorsandmajortremors.

D. Thepassagedoesnotmentionanydifficultiesinthemeasurementofminortremors.

E. Correct.Thepassageindicatesthatminortremorsoccurringpriortoalargeearthquakeareindistinguishablefromminortremorsthatarenotfollowedbylargeearthquakes.Sothefactthatminortremorsarenotalwaysfollowedbylargeearthquakes,togetherwiththeinabilitytodistinguishbetweenthosethatareandthosethatarenot,posesaproblemforanyattempttopredictlargeearthquakesonthebasisofthistypeofprecursoryphenomena.

20. Accordingtothepassage,someresearchersbasedtheirresearchaboutlong-termearthquakepredictiononwhichofthefollowingfacts?

A. Thehistoricalrecordconfirmsthatmostearthquakeshavebeenprecededbyminortremors.

B. TheaverageintervalbetweenearthquakesinoneregionoftheSanAndreasFaultis132years.

C. Someregionstendtobethesiteofnumerousearthquakesoverthecourseofmanyyears.

D. Changesinthevolumeofrockcanoccurasaresultofbuildingstressandcanleadtotheweakeningofrock.

E. Paleoseismologistshavebeenabletounearthanddategeologicalfeaturescausedbypastearthquakes.

Supportingidea

Thisquestionasksforinformationexplicitlyprovidedinthepassage.Thequestionaskswhatthebasisisfortheresearchintolong-termearthquakepredictiondescribedinthethirdparagraph.Basedonthefactthatnumerousearthquakesoccurinsomeregionsoverthecourseofmanyyears,theresearcherstriedtoidentifyregularearthquakeintervalsthatwouldassistinmakinglong-termpredictions.Thus,thebasisoftheirresearchistheoccurrenceofnumerousearthquakesatparticularsites.

A. Thepassageindicatesthatminortremorsareusedbysomescientiststomakeshort-termearthquakepredictions,notthattheywerethebasisforresearchaboutlong-termpredictions.

B. ThisfactabouttheSanAndreasFaultwasusedbypaleoseismologiststoshowtheinadequacyofthelong-termpredictionresearch,sinceactualearthquakeintervalsvariedgreatlyfromtheaverage.

C. Correct.Sinceearthquakesoccurrepeatedlyincertainregions,researcherstriedtoidentifyregularcyclesinearthquakeintervals.

D. Thepassageindicatesthatchangesinrockvolumehavebeenusedbysomescientiststomakeshort-termearthquakepredictions,notthattheywerethebasisforresearchaboutlong-termpredictions.

E. Paleoseismologists’researchprovidedevidenceagainsttheexistenceofregularearthquakecyclesusedinmakinglong-termpredictions.

21. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutthepaleoseismologists’findingsdescribedinlines42–50?

A. Theysuggestthatthefrequencywithwhichearthquakesoccurredataparticularsitedecreasedsignificantlyoverthepasttwomillennia.

B. Theysuggestthatpaleoseismologistsmaysomedaybeabletomakereasonablyaccuratelong-termearthquakepredictions.

C. Theysuggestthatresearchersmaysomedaybeabletodeterminewhichpastoccurrencesofminortremorswereactuallyfollowedbylargeearthquakes.

D. Theysuggestthattherecurrenceofearthquakesinearthquake-pronesitesistooirregulartoserveasabasisforearthquakeprediction.

E. Theyindicatethatresearchersattemptingtodeveloplong-termmethodsofearthquakepredictionhaveoverlookedimportantevidenceconcerningthecausesofearthquakes.

Inference

Thisquestionasksaboutwhatcanbeinferredfromaparticularportionofthepassage(lines42–50).Thethirdparagraphdescribesresearchthatattemptedtoidentifyregularpatternsofrecurrenceinearthquake-proneregions,toaidinlong-termearthquakeprediction.Thefourthparagraphdescribesevidencediscoveredbypaleoseismologiststhatunderminesthisideathatregularearthquakecyclesexist.TheparagraphindicatesthatinoneregionalongtheSanAndreasFault,theaverageintervalbetweenearthquakeswas132years,butindividualintervalsvariedwidely—from44to332years.Thisinformationimpliesthatearthquakeintervalsaretooirregulartobeusedforaccuratelong-termearthquakeprediction.

A. Theevidencesuggeststhattheearthquakeintervalsareirregular,notthattheyhavebecomeshorterovertime.

B. Thefindingsprovideevidenceagainsttheuseofregularearthquakecyclesinlong-termearthquakeprediction.

C. Thefindingsdonotclearlypertaintominortremors.

D. Correct.Thegreatvariationinintervalsbetweenearthquakessuggeststhatrecurrenceistooirregulartoserveasthebasisforlong-termearthquakeprediction.

E. Thepaleoseismologistsstudiedevidenceshowingwhenearthquakesoccurred.Thepassagedoesnotsuggestthattheevidencehasanyimplicationsregardingthecausesofearthquakes.

22. Theauthorimplieswhichofthefollowingabouttheabilityoftheresearchersmentionedinline18topredictearthquakes?

A. Theycanidentifywhenanearthquakeislikelytooccurbutnothowlargeitwillbe.

B. Theycanidentifytheregionswhereearthquakesarelikelytooccurbut

notwhentheywilloccur.

C. Theyareunabletodetermineeitherthetimeortheplacethatearthquakesarelikelytooccur.

A. Theyarelikelytobemoreaccurateatshort-termearthquakepredictionthanatlong-termearthquakeprediction.

B. Theycandeterminetheregionswhereearthquakeshaveoccurredinthepastbutnottheregionswheretheyarelikelytooccurinthefuture.

Supportingidea

Thequestionasksforinformationexplicitlyprovidedinthepassage.Thesecondparagraphindicatesthatresearchersatfirstreportedsuccessinidentifyingearthquakeprecursors,butfurtheranalysisofthedataunderminedtheirtheory.Thepassagethenexplainsthatatypicalseismicwaveswererecordedbeforesomeearthquakes;thisevidenceatfirstseemedtosupporttheresearchers’theory,beforefurtheranalysisprovedtheevidenceinadequate.

A. Althoughearthquakesarecausedbystressonrock,thepassagedoesnotindicatethatthisfactencouragedresearcherstobelievethatprecursorscouldbeusedtopredictearthquakes.

B. Thisfactwouldunderminethetheorythatchangesinseismicwavesareprecursoryphenomenathatcanbeusedtopredictearthquakes.

C. Correct.Seismicwaveswithunusualvelocitiesoccurringbeforeearthquakesatfirstseemedtoprovidesupportforresearchers’theorythatearthquakescouldbepredictedbyprecursoryphenomena.

D. Thoughearthquakes’recurrenceincertainregionsismentionedasbeingimportanttoresearchersseekingtomakelong-termearthquakepredictions,itisnotmentionedasbeingrelevanttoresearchers’theorythatearthquakescanbepredictedbyprecursoryphenomena.

E. Thisisnotmentionedasbeingrelevanttoscientists’beliefthatearthquakescouldbepredictedonthebasisofprecursoryphenomena.

23. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatonereasonanadvertisermightpreferahard-sellapproachtoasoft-sellapproachisthat

A. therisksofboomerangeffectsareminimizedwhentheconclusionsanadvertiserwantstheconsumertodrawarethemselvesleftunstated

B. counterargumentationislikelyfromconsumerswhofailtodrawtheirownconclusionsregardinganadvertisingclaim

C. inferentialactivityislikelytooccurevenifconsumersperceivethemselvestobemoreknowledgeablethantheindividualspresentingproductclaims

D. researchonconsumermemorysuggeststhattheexplicitconclusionsprovidedbyanadvertiserusingthehard-sellapproachhaveasignificantimpactondecisionmaking

E. theinformationpresentedbyanadvertiserusingthesoft-sellapproachmayimplydifferentconclusionstodifferentconsumers

Inference

Thisquestionreliesonwhatthepassagesuggestsaboutthedifferencebetweenthehard-sellandsoft-sellapproaches—andwhythehard-sellapproachmightbepreferred.Thehard-sellapproach,accordingtothesecondparagraph,presentsexplicitconclusions.Thesoft-sellapproach,ontheotherhand,doesnotexplicitlystateconclusionsaboutproducts;instead,consumersmakeuptheirownminds.

A. Whilethepassagemakesclearthatboomerangeffectsareminimizedwhenconclusionsareleftunstated,thisisanadvantageofthesoft-sellapproachoverthehard-sellapproach.

B. Accordingtothesecondparagraph,counterargumentationisadisadvantage,notanadvantage,ofthehard-sellapproach.Thisisareasonnottopreferthehardsell.

C. Thethirdparagraphsuggeststhatincasesinwhichconsumersmayperceivethemselvesasmoreknowledgeablethanindividualspresentingproductclaims,thesoft-sellapproachoffersanadvantageoverthehard-sellapproach.

D. Accordingtothethirdparagraph,self-generatedconclusionsthatareassociatedwiththesoft-sellapproachhaveagreaterimpactondecisionmakingthanexplicitconclusions.Thepassagedoesnotalludetoanyresearchonmemorythatwouldfavorthehard-sellapproach.

E. Correct.Thefourthparagraphsuggeststhatoneproblemwiththe

soft-sellapproachisthatconsumerscouldmissthepoint;theymaynotcometotheconclusionsthattheadvertiserwouldprefer.Thusanadvertisermightpreferahard-sellapproach.

24. Eachofthefollowingismentionedinthepassageasacharacteristicofthehard-sellapproachEXCEPT:

A. Itsoverallmessageisreadilygrasped.

B. Itappealstoconsumers’knowledgeabouttheproduct.

C. Itmakesexplicitclaimsthattheadvertisedbrandissuperiortootherbrands.

D. Itusesstatementsthatareexpressedveryclearly.

E. Itmakesclaimsintheformofdirectconclusions.

Supportingidea

Thisquestionasksaboutwhatisdirectlystatedinthepassageaboutthehard-sellapproach.Thefirstandsecondparagraphsprovidethedetailsaboutthisapproach,includingthatitusesdirect,forcefulclaimsaboutbenefitsofabrandovercompetitors’brands;itsclaimsaresimpleandstraightforward,intheformofexplicitconclusions;andconsumersaregenerallyleftwithlittleroomforconfusionaboutthemessage.

A. Thesecondparagraphstatesthatthereislittleroomforconfusionaboutthemessage.

B. Correct.Theextentofconsumers’knowledgeabouttheproductisnotmentionedinthepassage.

C. Thefirstparagraphindicatesthatinthehard-sellapproachadvertisersmakedirectclaimsregardingthebenefitsoftheadvertisedbrandoverotherofferings.

D. Thefirstandsecondparagraphssaythathard-sellclaimsaredirect,simple,andstraightforward.

E. Thesecondparagraphemphasizesthatthehard-sellapproachpresentsitclaimsintheformofexplicitconclusions.

25. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatadvertiserscouldreduceoneofthe

risksdiscussedinthelastparagraphiftheywereabletoprovide

A. motivationforconsumerstothinkabouttheadvertisement’smessage

B. informationthatimpliestheadvertiser’sintendedconclusionbutleavesthatconclusionunstated

C. subtleevidencethattheadvertisedproductissuperiortothatofcompetitors

D. informationcomparingtheadvertisedproductwithitscompetitors

E. opportunityforconsumerstogeneratetheirownbeliefsorconclusions

Inference

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandingtherisksdiscussedinthelastparagraphofthepassage.Thoserisksare,first,thatconsumerswouldnotbemotivatedtothinkabouttheadvertisementandthuswouldmissthemessage’spoint;second,thatconsumersmaydrawconclusionsthattheadvertiserdidnotintend;andfinally,thatconsumerscouldquestionthevalidityoftheconclusionstheyreach,evenifthoseconclusionsarewhatadvertisersintend.

A. Correct.Providingmotivationforconsumerstothinkaboutanadvertisement’smessagewouldreducethefirstriskdiscussedinthelastparagraph:thatconsumerswouldfailtodrawanyconclusionsbecausetheywouldlackmotivationtoengagewithadvertisements.

B. Providinginformationthatimpliesaconclusionbutleavesitunstatedistheverydefinitionofthesoft-sellapproach,anditisthisapproachthatgivesrisetotherisksdiscussedinthelastparagraph.

C. Providingsubtleevidencethataproductissuperiorismostlikelytogiverisetoallthreeoftherisksidentifiedinthelastparagraph,inthatitssubtletywouldleaveconsumersfreetodrawtheirownconclusions,tofailtodrawthoseconclusions,ortoquestionthevalidityoftheirownconclusions.

D. Adirectcomparisonoftheadvertisedproductwithitscompetitorswouldrunalltherisksidentifiedinthelastparagraph:consumersmightnotfindthecomparisonmotivating;theycoulddrawconclusionsthattheadvertiserdidnotintend(e.g.,thatthecompetingproductsaresuperior);ortheycouldquestionwhateverconclusionstheydodraw.

E. Givingconsumerstheopportunitytogeneratetheirownbeliefsorconclusionsisanintrinsicpartofthesoft-sellapproach,whichproducestherisksdiscussedinthelastparagraph.

A. pointouttherisksinvolvedintheuseofaparticularadvertisingstrategy

B. makeacaseforthesuperiorityofoneadvertisingstrategyoveranother

C. illustratethewaysinwhichtwoadvertisingstrategiesmaybeimplemented

D. presenttheadvantagesanddisadvantagesoftwoadvertisingstrategies

E. contrastthetypesoftargetmarketsforwhichtwoadvertisingstrategiesareappropriate

Inference

Overall,thepassageisconcernedwithtwoadvertisingstrategies.Thefirstparagraphintroducesthestrategies.Thesecondparagraphexplainshowaparticularaspectofoneapproachmaybebothpositiveandnegativeandhowthesecondapproachmitigatestheseproblems.Thethirdparagraphcontinuesthisdiscussionofmitigation,whilethefourthparagraphpointsoutthattherearedrawbackstothisapproach,too.Thus,accordingtothepassage,bothstrategieshavepositiveandnegativeaspects.

A. Thepassageisconcernednotwithoneparticularadvertisingstrategybutwithtwo,anditdiscussesbenefits,aswellasrisks,involvedwithbothstrategies.

B. Thepassagedoesnotsuggestthatonestrategyissuperiortotheotherbutratherthateachhaspositiveandnegativeaspects.

C. Thepassagedoesnotdiscusshowtoimplementeitherofthestrategiesitisconcernedwith;instead,itdealswithhowconsumersarelikelytorespondoncetheimplementationhasalreadytakenplace.

D. Correct.Thepassageisprimarilyconcernedwithshowingthatbothofthestrategiesdescribedhaveadvantagesanddisadvantages.

E. Thepassageprovidessomeindirectgroundsforinferringthetargetmarketsforwhicheachadvertisingstrategymightbeappropriate,but

itisnotprimarilyconcernedwithcontrastingthosemarkets.

27. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesthefunctionofthesentenceinlines25–28inthecontextofthepassageasawhole?

A. Itreiteratesadistinctionbetweentwoadvertisingstrategiesthatismadeinthefirstparagraph.

B. Itexplainshowaparticularstrategyavoidsadrawbackdescribedearlierintheparagraph.

C. Itsuggeststhatariskdescribedearlierintheparagraphislessseriousthansomeresearchersbelieveittobe.

D. Itoutlineswhythestrategydescribedintheprevioussentenceinvolvescertainrisksforanadvertiser.

E. Itintroducesanargumentthatwillberefutedinthefollowingparagraph.

Evaluation

Thesentenceinlines25–28explainshowthekindsofconclusionsconsumersareinvitedtodrawbasedonthesoft-sellapproachreducetheriskthatconsumerswillrespondwithresentment,distrust,andcounterargumentation—thatis,thepossibleboomerangeffectidentifiedearlierintheparagraphasadrawbackofthehard-sellapproach.

A. Thesentencedoesnotreiteratethedistinctionbetweenthehard-andsoft-sellapproaches;rather,itexplainsanadvantageofthesoft-sellapproach.

B. Correct.Thesentenceexplainshowthesoft-sellapproachavoidstheproblemsthatcanarisefromthehard-sellapproach’sexplicitlystatedconclusions.

C. Thesentencesuggeststhattheriskofboomerangeffectsdescribedearlierintheparagraphisseriousbutthatadifferentapproachcanmitigateit.

D. Thesentenceoutlineswhythestrategydescribedintheprevioussentencereducesadvertisers’risks,notwhyitinvolvesrisks.

E. Atnopointdoesthepassagerefutetheideathatimplicitconclusionsreducetheriskofboomerangeffects.Itdoessaythattherecouldbe

drawbackstothesoft-sellapproach,butthosedrawbacksarerelatedtotheproblemwithimplicitconclusionsthemselvesandhowpeoplereachthem.Inaddition,thefollowingparagraphdoesnotmentionthedrawbacks,onlytheadvantagesofimplicitconclusions.

28. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatonesituationinwhichtheboomerangeffectoftenoccursiswhenconsumers

A. havebeenexposedtoforcefulclaimsthatarediametricallyopposedtothoseinanadvertiser’smessage

B. havepreviousself-generatedbeliefsorconclusionsthatarereadilyaccessiblefrommemory

C. aresubjectedtoadvertisingmessagesthataretargetedatspecificmarketstowhichthoseconsumersdonotbelong

D. areconfusedregardingthepointoftheadvertiser’smessage

E. cometoviewtheadvertiser’smessagewithsuspicion

Inference

Thepassagediscussestheboomerangeffectinthesecondparagraph.Thiseffectisdefinedasconsumersderivingconclusionsfromadvertisingthataretheoppositeofthosethatadvertisersintendedtopresent,anditoccurswhenconsumersresentand/ordistrustwhattheyarebeingtold.

A. Thepassageprovidesnogroundsforinferringthatconsumersneedtobeexposedtoopposingclaimsinordertobelievesuchclaims;theymayreachopposingclaimsontheirown.

B. Thepassageindicatesthattheboomerangeffectcanbereducedbyusingasoft-sellapproach,whichcanresultinself-generatedconclusions,butitprovidesnoevidenceaboutanypossibleeffectsofpreexistingself-generatedbeliefsorconclusionsontheboomerangeffect.

C. Thepassagedoesnotaddresshowconsumerswhoaresubjectedtoadvertisingmessagesnotintendedforthemmightrespond.

D. Confusionregardingthepointoftheadvertiser’smessageismorelikelytooccur,thepassagesuggests,whenadvertisersuseasoft-sellapproach—butitisthehard-sellapproach,notthesoft-sell,thatis

likelytoresultintheboomerangeffect.

E. Correct.Thesecondparagraphindicatesthatconsumerswhoresentbeingtoldwhattobelieveandcometodistrusttheadvertiser’smessage—thatis,thosewhoviewthemessagewithsuspicion—mayexperienceaboomerangeffect,believingtheoppositeoftheconclusionsoffered.

29. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheresearchmentionedinline29supportswhichofthefollowingstatements?

A. Implicitconclusionsaremorelikelytocaptureaccuratelythepointoftheadvertiser’smessagethanareexplicitconclusions.

B. Counterargumentationislesslikelytooccurifanindividual’sbeliefsorconclusionsarereadilyaccessiblefrommemory.

C. Thehard-sellapproachresultsinconclusionsthataremoredifficultfortheconsumertorecallthanareconclusionsresultingfromthesoft-sellapproach.

D. Whenthebeliefsofothersarepresentedasdefiniteandforcefulclaims,theyareperceivedtobeasaccurateasself-generatedbeliefs.

E. Despitetheadvantagesofimplicitconclusions,thehard-sellapproachinvolvesfewerrisksfortheadvertiserthandoesthesoft-sellapproach.

Inference

Theresearchthisitemrefersto—researchonconsumermemoryandjudgment—indicatesthatbeliefsaremorememorablewhentheyareself-generatedandsomatterwhenmakingjudgmentsanddecisions.Further,self-generatedbeliefsseemmorebelievabletothosewhohavethemthanbeliefsthatcomefromelsewhere.

A. Thefourthparagraphindicatesthatimplicitconclusionsaremorelikelytofailtoreplicatetheadvertiser’smessagethanexplicitconclusionsare.

B. Theresearchdiscussedinthepassagedoesnotaddresswhencounterargumentationismoreorlesslikelytooccur.Eventhoughcounterargumentationisariskwhenconsumersdistrusttheadvertiser’smessage—astheymaydowhenharder-to-recallexplicit

conclusionsaregiven—itmaybeasmuchofariskwhenconsumersreachanimplicitconclusionthatisreadilyaccessiblefrommemory.

C. Correct.Theresearchindicatesthatitiseasierforconsumerstorecallconclusionstheyhavereachedontheirown—thatis,thesortsofconclusionsthatareencouragedbythesoft-sellapproach—thanconclusionsthathavebeenprovidedexplicitly,ashappensinthehard-sellapproach.

D. Theresearchdoesnotshowthattheforcefulnesswithwhichclaimsarepresentedincreasesperceptionsoftheaccuracyofthoseclaims.Indeed,itismostlikelytheopposite,astheforcefulnessofothers’claimsmaymakethemseemevenlessrelatedtoanyconclusionstheconsumermightgenerateforhim-orherself.

E. Theresearchsuggeststhatitisthesoft-sell,notthehard-sell,approachthathasfewerrisks.Thefourthparagraphindicatesthattherecouldbesomeriskstotheimplicitconclusionsthatconsumersdraw,butthisisnotpartoftheresearchinquestion.

A. describingtheeffectsofhumanactivitiesonalgaeincoralreefs

B. explaininghowhumanactivitiesareposingathreattocoralreefcommunities

C. discussingtheprocessbywhichcoralreefsdeteriorateinnutrient-poorwaters

D. explaininghowcoralreefsproducefoodforthemselves

E. describingtheabundanceofalgaeandfilter-feedinganimalsincoralreefareas

Mainidea

Thisquestionconcernstheauthor’smainpoint,thefocusofthepassageasawhole.Thefirstparagraphdescribesthesymbioticprocessofcoralreefssothatreaderswillunderstandhowhumanactivitiesaredegradingthisfragileecosystem,asexplainedinthesecondparagraph.Theauthorfocusesonhowharmfulthesehumanactivitiesaretocoralreefs.

A. Theincreasedabundanceofalgae(line23)isadetailsupportingthemainpoint.

B. Correct.Humanactivitiesarethreateningcomplexcoralreefcommunities.

C. Thefirstparagraphexplainshowcoralreefsthriveinnutrient-poorwaters.

D. Thezooxanthellaecellsofalgaefeedthecoralreefs(lines7–12);thispointisadetailthatsupportsthemainidea.

E. Thisabundanceisadetailsupportingthemainidea,notthemainideaitself.

31. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutcoralreefcommunities?

A. Coralreefcommunitiesmayactuallybemorelikelytothriveinwatersthatarerelativelylowinnutrients.

B. Thenutrientsonwhichcoralreefcommunitiesthriveareonlyfoundinshallowwaters.

C. Humanpopulationgrowthhasledtochangingoceantemperatures,whichthreatenscoralreefcommunities.

D. Thegrowthofcoralreefcommunitiestendstodestabilizeunderwaterherbivorepopulations.

E. Coralreefcommunitiesaremorecomplexanddiversethanmostecosystemslocatedondryland.

Inference

Thewordsuggestsinthequestionindicatesthattheanswerwillbeaninferencebasedonwhatthepassagesaysaboutcoralreefcommunities.Thebeginningofthepassagestatesthatnutrient-poorwaters(lines4–5)sustainthethrivinglifeofacoralreef.Lines25–27showthatnutrientinputisincreasingbecauseofhumanactivities,withconsequentdeclinesinreefcommunities(line24).Giventhisinformation,itisreasonabletoconcludethatcoralreefsthriveinnutrient-poor,ratherthannutrient-rich,waters.

A. Correct.Coralreefsflourishinclear,nutrient-poorwaters.

B. Shallowwatersarementionedonlyinthecontextofdeterioratingmarinehabitats(line17),notasasourceofnutrients;thepassagedoesnotindicatethatthenutrientsareuniquetoshallowwaters.

C. Oceantemperaturesarenotmentionedinthepassage.

D. Reefdecline,notreefgrowth,leadstodestabilizedherbivorepopulations(lines21–22).

E. Nocomparisonsaremadebetweenecosystemsinwaterandonland.

32. Theauthorrefersto“filter-feedinganimals”(lines23–24)inorderto

A. provideanexampleofacharacteristicsignofreefdeterioration

B. explainhowreefcommunitiesacquiresustenanceforsurvival

C. identifyafactorthathelpsherbivorepopulationsthrive

D. indicateacauseofdecreasingnutrientinputinwatersthatreefsinhabit

E. identifymembersofcoralreefcommunitiesthatrelyoncoralreefsfornutrients

Logicalstructure

Thisquestionconcernswhytheauthorhasincludedaparticulardetail.Lookatthecontextforthephrasefilter-feedinganimals.Thecompletesentence(lines21–24)showsthatahigherpopulationoffilter-feedinganimalsisasymptomofreefdecline.

A. Correct.Anincreasingabundanceoftheseanimalsisatypicalsignofreefdecline.

B. Zooxanthellaecellsofalgae,notfilter-feedinganimals,providesustenanceforreefcommunities(lines7–12).

C. Anincreaseinfilter-feedinganimalsisassociatedwithdestabilized,notthriving,herbivorepopulations.

D. Anincreaseinnutrients,ratherthanadecrease,causesreefdecline,whenthepopulationoffilter-feedinganimalsthengrows.

E. Theauthorincludesfilter-feedinganimalsinthecontextofthedeclineofcoralreefs,notthesymbioticprocessofcoralreefs.

33. Accordingtothepassage,whichofthefollowingisafactorthatisthreateningthesurvivalofcoralreefcommunities?

A. Thewaterstheyinhabitcontainfewnutrientresources.

B. Adeclineinnutrientinputisdisruptingtheirsymbioticrelationshipwithzooxanthellae.

C. Thedegradedwatersoftheirmarinehabitatshavereducedtheirabilitytocarryoutphotosynthesis.

D. Theyaretoobiologicallycomplextosurviveinhabitatswithminimalnutrientinput.

E. Wasteby-productsresultinanincreaseinnutrientinputtoreefcommunities.

Supportingideas

Thephraseaccordingtothepassageindicatesthatthenecessaryinformationisexplicitlystatedinthepassage.Lookatthethreatstocoralreefslistedinlines18–21andmatchthemagainstthepossibleanswers.Wasteby-productsincreasenutrientsinthewater,andreefsdeclineasnutrientsgrowmoreplentiful(lines21–24).

A. Coralreefsthriveinnutrient-poorwaters,asthefirstparagraphexplains.

B. Nutrientinputisincreasing,notdecreasing(lines20–21).

C. Thepassagedoesnotsaythatthedegradedwatersinhibitphotosynthesis.

D. Thecomplexecosystemofcoralreefsthrivesinnutrient-poorwaters.

E. Correct.Wasteby-productscontributetoincreasednutrientinput,whichcausesreefdecline.

34. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheauthordescribescoralreefcommunitiesasparadoxicalmostlikelyforwhichofthefollowingreasons?

A. Theyarethrivingeventhoughhumanactivitieshavedepletedthenutrientsintheirenvironment.

B. Theyareabletosurviveinspiteofanoverabundanceofalgae

inhabitingtheirwaters.

C. Theyareabletosurviveinanenvironmentwithlimitedfoodresources.

D. Theirmetabolicwastescontributetothedegradationofthewatersthattheyinhabit.

E. Theyaredecliningevenwhenthewatersurroundingthemremainsclear.

Inference

Aparadoxisapuzzlingstatementthatseemstocontradictitself.Toanswerthisquestion,lookforinformationthatappearspuzzling.Theauthorcallscoralreefsoneofthefascinatingparadoxesofthebiospherebecausethereefsareprolificandproductivedespiteinhabitingclearwaterswithfewnutrients.Theparadoxisthatthereefsseemtoflourishwithlittlefood.

A. Humanactivitieshaveharmedcoralreefsbyincreasingnutrientinput(lines24–29).

B. Anincreaseinalgaeisasignofreefdecline,notreefsurvival(lines21–23).

C. Correct.Coralreefsthriveinwatersthatprovidelittlefood.

D. Algaecellsusethemetabolicwastesofthecoralstocarryoutphotosynthesis;theresultissustenanceforthereefcommunity,notadegradationofwaters(lines9–12).

E. Coralreefsthriveinclear,nutrient-poorwateranddeclineinnutrient-richwater.

35. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatthetwoproceduresdescribedinthepassagehavewhichofthefollowingincommon?

A. Theyhavebeenappliedinpractice.

B. Theyrelyontheuseofadevicethatmeasurestension.

C. Theirpurposeistodetermineanunknownmass.

D. Theycanonlybeappliedtosmallsolidobjects.

E. Theyinvolveattractionbetweenobjectsofsimilarmass.

Inference

Theproceduresdescribedinthepassageareintroducedbythesuggestioninthefirstparagraphthatsomeoneinaspaceshipwhowantedtodetermineasolidobject’smasscoulddosoinaparticularway.Thesecondparagraphusesthewordweighinquotestorefertoasimilarprocedurefordeterminingthemassofadouble-starsystem.

A. Thelanguageofthefirstparagraphishypothetical:wecoulddoparticularthings.Thus,thereisnowaytodeterminefromthepassagewhetherthatprocedurehasbeenappliedinpractice.

B. Thefirstprocedurereliesonaspringscale,whichmeasurestension,butthesecondproceduremeasurestimeanddistancetodeterminerestrainingforce.

C. Correct.Bothproceduresdeterminemass:thefirstprocedurecandeterminethemassofasmallsolidobjectonaspaceshipinfreefall,andthesecondcandeterminethemassofadouble-starsystem.

D. Thefirstprocedurewould,accordingtothepassage,beappliedtoasmallsolidobject,butthesecondweighsdouble-starsystems,whichareclearlynotsmallobjects.

E. Thesecondprocedureinvolvesattractionbetweentwostars,whichcouldbeofsimilarmass,inthesamesystem,butthefirstprocedureinvolvesmeasuringtensioninastringandspeedofwhirling,notattractionbetweenobjects.

36. Accordingtothepassage,thetensioninthestringmentionedinlines8–9isanalogoustowhichofthefollowingaspectsofadouble-starsystem?

A. Thespeedwithwhichonestarorbitstheother

B. Thegravitationalattractionbetweenthestars

C. Theamountoftimeittakesforthestarstocircleoneanother

D. Thedistancebetweenthetwostars

E. Thecombinedmassofthetwostars

Supportingidea

Thesecondparagraphstatesthatanattractiveforceisanalogoustothetensioninthestring.Thisattractiveforceisidentifiedintheprevioussentenceasthegravitationalforcebetweenthetwostarsinadouble-starsystem.

A. Thesecondparagraphstatesthatthespeedwithwhichthestarscircleeachotherdependsonthegravitationalforcebetweenthem,butitisthatforcethatisanalogoustothetensioninthestring.

B. Correct.Thesecondparagraphclearlyidentifiesthegravitationalforcebetweenthetwostarsastheattractiveforcethatisanalogoustothetensioninthespringscale’sstring.

C. Theamountoftimeittakesforthestarstocircleoneanotherisnecessaryforcalculatingtheforcethatholdsthemtogether,butitistheforceitselfthatisanalogoustothestring’stension.

D. Thedistancebetweenthestarsmustbemeasurediftheattractionbetweenthemistobedetermined,buttheattraction,notthedistance,isanalogoustothestring’stension.

E. Thecombinedmassofthetwostarsiswhattheprocedureisdesignedtodetermine;itisanalogoustothemassofthesmallsolidobject,asdescribedinthefirstparagraph.

37. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribestherelationshipbetweenthefirstandthesecondparagraphofthepassage?

A. Thefirstparagraphprovidesanillustrationusefulforunderstandingaproceduredescribedinthesecondparagraph.

B. Thefirstparagraphdescribesahypotheticalsituationwhoseplausibilityistestedinthesecondparagraph.

C. Thefirstparagraphevaluatestheusefulnessofaprocedurewhoseapplicationisdescribedfurtherinthesecondparagraph.

D. Thesecondparagraphprovidesevidencetosupportaclaimmadeinthefirstparagraph.

E. Thesecondparagraphanalyzesthepracticalimplicationsofamethodologyproposedinthefirstparagraph.

Evaluation

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandingthatthesecondparagraphdescribesasomewhatdifficult-to-understandprocedurethatthefirstparagraphillustratesinsmaller,andsimpler,terms.

A. Correct.Thefirstparagraphillustrates,hypothetically,asimpleprocedurefordeterminingmass,andthisillustrationprovidesthegroundsonwhichthepassageexplainstheprocedureofthesecondparagraph.

B. Thefirstparagraphdescribesasituationinhypotheticalterms,butthesecondparagraphdoesnottestthatsituation’splausibility.Instead,thesecondparagraphdrawsananalogybetweentheinitialsituationandanotherprocedure.

C. Thefirstparagraphdoesnotevaluatetheusefulnessoftheprocedurefordeterminingasmallsolidobject’smasswhileinaspaceshipinfreefall;itsimplydescribeshowthatprocedurewouldwork.

D. Thesecondparagraphprovidesnoevidence;itdescribesaprocedureanalogoustowhatisdescribedinthefirstparagraph.

E. Thesecondparagraphdoesnotdiscussthepracticalimplicationsofthefirstparagraph’smethodologybutratheraprocedurethatisanalogoustothehypotheticalsituationofthefirstparagraph.

38. Theauthorofthepassagementionsobservationsregardingtheperiodofadouble-starsystemasbeingusefulfordetermining

A. thedistancebetweenthetwostarsinthesystem

B. thetimeittakesforeachstartorotateonitsaxis

C. thesizeoftheorbitthesystem’stwostarsoccupy

D. thedegreeofgravitationalattractionbetweenthesystem’sstars

E. thespeedatwhichthestarsystemmovesthroughspace

Supportingidea

Theauthormentionstheperiodofadouble-starsysteminthefinalsentenceofthesecondparagraph,definingitasthetimerequiredforstarstocircleeachother.Knowingthistime,incombinationwiththedistancebetweenthestars,enablesthedeterminationoftherestrainingforce

betweenthestars,enablesthedeterminationoftherestrainingforcebetweenthestars.

A. Thefinalsentenceofthesecondparagraphindicatesthattheperiodofadouble-starsystemismeasuredindependentlyofthedistancebetweenthetwostarsinthesystem.

B. Thepassageisnotconcernedwithhowlongittakeseachstartorotateonitsaxis.

C. Thepassagedoesnotmentionanyone’stryingtodeterminethesizeoftheorbitofasystem’stwostars.Itdoesmentiontherelatedtopicofdistancebetweenthestarsbutindicatesthatknowingsuchdistanceisrequiredformeasuringthestars’mass,notthatitcanbeinferredfromtheperiodofthesystem.

D. Correct.Accordingtothepassage,therestrainingforce,orgravitationalattraction,betweenthetwostarscanbededucedbasedontheperiodandthedistancebetweenthem.

E. Thepassagedoesnotmentionthespeedatwhichthestarsystemmovesthroughspace.

A. describenewwaysofstudyingthepossibilitythatlifeonceexistedonMars

B. reviseatheoryregardingtheexistenceoflifeonMarsinlightofnewevidence

C. reconcileconflictingviewpointsregardingthepossibilitythatlifeonceexistedonMars

D. evaluatearecentlyproposedargumentconcerningtheoriginofALH84001

E. describeacontroversyconcerningthesignificanceofevidencefromALH84001

Mainidea

Answeringthisquestionrequiresdeterminingthepurposeofthepassageasawhole.Inthefirstparagraph,thepassageindicatesthataresearch

asawhole.Inthefirstparagraph,thepassageindicatesthataresearchteamfoundthataMartianmeteoriteinAntarcticacontainscompellingevidencethatlifeexistedonMars.Therestofthepassagethendescribesargumentsbyskepticsagainsttheresearchteam’sconclusiontogetherwiththeresearchteam’srebuttalstotheskeptics’arguments.

A. WhilethepassagediscussesonetypeofevidencethatlifemighthaveexistedonMars,itdoesnotdescribemultiplewaysofstudyingthepossibilityofMartianlife,norcharacterizeanymethodofstudyasnew.

B. Thepassagemerelyreportsanddoesnotmakeanyattemptatrevisingexistingtheories.

C. ThepassagedescribesbutdoesnottrytoreconcileconflictingviewpointsconcerninglifeonMars.

D. TheoriginofALH84001isgenerallyagreedupon(line5),notarecentlyproposedhypothesisevaluatedbythepassage.

E. Correct.ThepassagedescribesopposingargumentsaboutwhetherALH84001suggestslifeeverexistedonMars.

40. ThepassageassertswhichofthefollowingabouttheclaimthatALH84001originatedonMars?

A. ItwasinitiallyproposedbytheMcKayteamofscientists.

B. Itisnotamatterofwidespreadscientificdispute.

C. IthasbeenquestionedbysomeskepticsoftheMcKayteam’swork.

D. IthasbeenunderminedbyrecentworkonPAHs.

E. ItisincompatiblewiththefactthatALH84001hasbeenonEarthfor13,000years.

Supportingideas

Thisquestionrequiresrecognizingwhatthepassageindicatesaboutapieceofinformationitoffers.Thepassagestatesthatscientistsgenerallyagree(line5)thatALH84001originatedonMars,whichstronglysuggeststhatthereisnotmuchdisputeaboutit.

A. WhileitispossiblethatMcKay’steaminitiallymadetheproposal,thepassagedoesnotsayso.

B. Correct.InstatingthatscientistsgenerallyagreeALH84001originatedonMars,thepassageindicatesthereisnorealcontroversyonthismatter.

C. TheskepticsmentionedinthepassagearenotdescribedascallingintoquestionthatALH84001originatedonMars.

D. ThepassagedoesnottietheexistenceofPAHsinALH84001toquestionsaboutitsMartianorigins.

E. ThepassagemakesnoconnectionbetweenthetimeALH84001hasbeenontheEarthandquestionsastoitsMartianorigins.

41. ThepassagesuggeststhatthefactthatALH84001hasbeenonEarthfor13,000yearshasbeenusedbysomescientiststosupportwhichofthefollowingclaimsaboutALH84001?

A. ALH84001maynothaveoriginatedonMars.

B. ALH84001containsPAHsthataretheresultofnonbiologicalprocesses.

C. ALH84001maynothavecontainedPAHswhenitlandedonEarth.

D. TheorganicmoleculesfoundinALH84001arenotPAHs.

E. TheorganicmoleculesfoundinALH84001couldnotbetheresultofterrestrialcontamination.

Supportingideas

Thisquestionrequiresrecognizinghowaparticularfactisusedtosupportaparticularpointofviewreportedinthepassage.Inthesecondparagraph,thepassagepresentsvariousskeptics’argumentsaboutwhetherthePAHsinALH84001originatedonMars.Inlines15–19,thepassageindicatesthatsomescientistsseethefactthatALH84001hasbeenonEarthfor13,000yearsasraisingthepossibilitythatthePAHsinALH84001resultedfromterrestrialcontaminationorinotherwordsthatitdidnotcontainPAHswhenitlandedonEarth.

A. ThepassageindicatesonlythatmostscientistsbelievethatALH84001originatedonMars.

B. AlthoughthepassageindicatesthatskepticshavepointedoutthatPAHscanbeformedbynonbiologicalprocesses,theirpointisnot

relatedtothelengthoftimeALH84001hasbeenonEarth.

C. Correct.ThepassageindicatesthatsomescientistsbelievethatthePAHsinALH84001mayhavebeentransferredtoitduringits13,000yearsonEarth.

D. ThepassagedoesnotindicatethatanyscientistsdoubtthepresenceofPAHsinALH84001.

E. ThepassageindicatesthatthefactthatALH84001hasbeenonEarthfor13,000yearsisusedbysomescientiststosupporttheideaofterrestrialcontamination.

42. ThepassagesuggeststhatifameteoritecontainedPAHsthatweretheresultofterrestrialcontamination,thenonewouldexpectwhichofthefollowingtobetrue?

A. ThemeteoritewouldhavebeenonEarthformorethan13,000years.

B. ThemeteoritewouldhaveoriginatedfromasourceotherthanMars.

C. ThePAHscontainedinthemeteoritewouldhaveoriginatedfromnonbiologicalprocesses.

D. ThemeteoritewouldcontainfewerPAHsthanmostothermeteoritescontain.

E. ThePAHscontainedinthemeteoritewouldbeconcentratedtowardthemeteorite’ssurface.

Application

Answeringthisquestioninvolvesapplyinginformationcontainedinthepassagetoasituationthatisnotdescribedinthepassage.Accordingtothepassage,somescientistsbelievethatbecauseALH84001hasbeenonEarthforaslongas13,000years,anyPAHscontainedinitmayhavebeentransferredfromtheEarth,aprocessthepassagedescribesasterrestrialcontamination(line19).ThepassagealsoindicatesthatifterrestrialcontaminationoccurredwithALH84001,then,contrarytothefindingsofMcKay’steamthatshowedPAHconcentrationsincreasingasonelooksdeeperintoALH84001(lines21–22),thePAHswouldbeexpectedtobeconcentratedmoretowardtheouterparts,orsurface,ofALH84001.

A. Thepassageindicatesthatscientistsbelievethat13,000yearsis

sufficienttimeforterrestrialcontaminationtohappen.

B. ThepassagedoesnotsuggestthattheoriginofameteoriteaffectsitsabilitytobecomecontaminatedwithterrestrialPAHs.

C. ThepassagedoesnotindicatewhetherPAHsresultingfromterrestrialcontaminationwouldbenonbiologicalornot.

D. ThepassagedoesnotmentionthatdifferentmeteoritesmaycontaindifferentamountsofPAHs.

E. Correct.ThepassagesuggeststhatifALH84001experiencedterrestrialcontamination,thenthePAHswouldbemoreconcentratedtowardtheoutersurfaceofthemeteorite.

43. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesthefunctionofthelastsentenceofthefirstparagraph?

A. ItidentifiesapossibleorganicsourceforthePAHsfoundinALH84001.

B. ItdescribesafeatureofPAHsthatisnotsharedbyothertypesoforganicmolecules.

C. Itexplainshowacharacteristiccommontomostmeteoritesoriginates.

D. ItsuggestshowtheterrestrialcontaminationofALH84001mighthavetakenplace.

E. ItpresentsevidencethatunderminestheclaimthatlifeonceexistedonMars.

Evaluation

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandinghowapartofthepassagefunctionswithinthepassageasawhole.ThefirstparagraphbeginsbyestablishingthatMcKay’steambelievesthatthePAHsfoundinALH84001providecompellingevidencethatlifeexistedonMars.Toexplainthis,thepassageindicatesthatPAHsareatypeoforganicmolecules,whichformthebasisforlife.Furthermore,toconnectPAHstopossiblelifeonMars,thefinalsentenceofthefirstparagraphindicatesthatonesourceofPAHsisthedecayofdeadmicrobes.

A. Correct.WithoutevidenceofanorganicsourceforthePAHsinALH84001,theteam’sargumentwouldnotmakesense.

B. ThepassageindicatesthatPAHscanbeformedbythedecayoforganicmaterialfrommicrobesbutdoesnotimplythatotherorganicmoleculescannotbeformedthisway.

C. ThesentencereferredtoexplainsonepossibleoriginofamoleculefoundinALH84001butdoesnotimplythatmostmeteoritescontainthatmolecule.

D. Thesentencereferredtodoesnotinvolvetheprocessofterrestrialcontamination.

E. Thesentencereferredtoprovidesinformationnecessarytotheteam’sargumentthatlifemayhaveexistedonMars.

44. ThepassagesuggeststhatMcKay’steamwouldagreewithwhichofthefollowingregardingthePAHsproducedbynonorganicprocesses?

A. ThesePAHsarenotlikelytobefoundinanymeteoritethathasbeenonEarthfor13,000yearsormore.

B. ThesePAHsarenotlikelytobefoundinanymeteoritethatoriginatedfromMars.

C. ThesePAHsarenotlikelytobeproducedbystarformation.

D. ThesePAHsarelikelytobefoundincombinationsthatdistinguishthemfromthePAHsproducedbyorganicprocesses.

E. ThesePAHsarelikelytobefoundinfewermeteoritesthanthePAHsproducedbyorganicprocesses.

Inference

Thisquestioninvolvesunderstandingaparticularpointofviewpresentedinthepassage.Thepassageindicatesinlines11–13thattheorganicmoleculesfoundinALH84001arePAHs.Inlines23–27,skepticsofMcKay’steam’sfindingspointoutthatprocessesunrelatedtoorganiclife,includingstarformation,canproducePAHs.Inthefinalsentenceofthepassage,McKay’steamnotesthatthetypeofPAHsfoundinALH84001aremoresimilartothoseproducedbyorganicprocessesthantothoseproducedbynonorganicprocesses.

A. McKay’steamdoesnottiethepresenceofnonorganicPAHsinmeteoritestothelengthoftimethemeteoriteshavebeenonEarth.

B. McKay’steamdoesnotdenythepossibilitythatatleastsomeofthePAHsfoundinMartianmeteoritesarenonorganicinorigin.

C. McKay’steamdoesnotdenythatPAHscanbeproducedbytheformationofstars.

D. Correct.McKay’steamnotesinlines29–34thatthePAHcombinationsproducedbyorganicprocessescanbedistinguishedfromthoseproducedbynonorganicprocesses.

E. McKay’steamdoesnotaddresstheprobabilityofnonorganicPAHsbeingfoundinmeteorites.

45. TheauthorofthepassagedrawsconclusionsaboutthefurtradeinNorthAmericafromallofthefollowingsourcesEXCEPT

A. Cartier’saccountsoftradingwithNativeAmericans

B. aseventeenth-centuryaccountofEuropeansettlements

C. asixteenth-centuryaccountwrittenbyasailingvesselcaptain

D. archaeologicalobservationsofsixteenth-centuryNativeAmericansites

E. asixteenth-centuryaccountofNativeAmericansinwhatisnowNewEngland

Supportingidea

Thisquestionasksaboutthesourcesmentionedbytheauthorofthepassage.AnsweringthequestioncorrectlyrequiresdeterminingwhichansweroptionisNOTreferredtointhepassageasasourceofevidenceregardingtheNorthAmericanfurtrade.

A. Correct.ThepassagementionsCartier’svoyagebutdoesnotrefertoCartier’saccountsofhistrading.

B. Inthefirstparagraph,NicolasDenys’s1672accountofEuropeansettlementsprovidesevidenceoffurtradingbysixteenth-centuryEuropeanfishingcrews.

C. Inthesecondparagraph,aPortuguesecaptain’srecordsprovide

evidencethatthefurtradewasgoingonforsometimepriortohis1501account.

D. Inthefirstparagraph,archaeologists’observationsofsixteenth-centuryNativeAmericansitesprovideevidenceoffurtradingatthattime.

E. Inthesecondparagraph,a1524accountprovidesevidencethatNativeAmericanslivinginwhatisnowNewEnglandhadbecomeselectiveaboutwhichEuropeangoodstheywouldacceptintradeforfurs.

46. ThepassagesuggeststhatwhichofthefollowingispartiallyresponsibleforthedifficultyinestablishingtheprecisedatewhenthefurtradeinNorthAmericabegan?

A. AlackofwrittenaccountsbeforethatofNicolasDenysin1672

B. Alackofwrittendocumentationbefore1501

C. AmbiguitiesintheevidencefromNativeAmericansources

D. UncertaintyaboutNativeAmericantradenetworks

E. UncertaintyabouttheoriginofartifactssupposedlytradedbyEuropeanfishingcrewsforfurs

Inference

Thequestionasksaboutinformationimpliedbythepassage.ThefirstparagraphpointsoutthedifficultyofestablishingexactlywhenthefurtradebetweenNativeAmericansandEuropeansbegan.Thesecondparagraphexplainsthatthefirstwrittenrecordofthefurtrade(atleasttheearliestknowntoscholarswhostudythehistoryofthetrade)datesto1501,butthattradingwasalreadywellestablishedbythattime.Thus,itcanbeinferredthatlackofwrittenrecordspriorto1501contributestothedifficultyinestablishinganexactdateforthebeginningofthefurtrade.

A. TwowrittenrecordsofthefurtradepriortotheaccountbyNicolasDenysarementionedinthepassage.Thepassagedoesnotsuggestthatalackofwrittenrecordsfrombefore1672isasourceofthedifficultyinestablishingthedate.

B. Correct.Thepassageindicatesthatthefurtradewaswellestablishedbythetimeofthedocumentationdatingfrom1501butstrongly

suggeststhatthereisnoknownearlierdocumentationregardingthattrade,soalackofrecordsbeforethattimecontributestothedifficultyinestablishinganexactdate.

C. TheonlyNativeAmericansourcesmentionedinthepassagearearchaeologicalsites,andthereisnoindicationofambiguitiesatthosesites.

D. NativeAmericantradenetworksarenotmentionedinthepassage.

E. Thepassagementionsthatfishingcrewsexchangedpartsoftheirshipsforfursanddoesnotsuggestanyuncertaintyabouttheoriginofthoseartifacts.

47. Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,moststrengthenstheauthor’sassertioninthefirstsentenceofthesecondparagraph?

A. WhenEuropeansretracedCartier’svoyageinthefirstyearsoftheseventeenthcentury,theyfrequentlytradedwithNativeAmericans.

B. Fursfrombeavers,whichwereplentifulinNorthAmericabutnearlyextinctinEurope,becameextremelyfashionableinEuropeinthefinaldecadesofthesixteenthcentury.

C. Firingarmswererarelyfoundonsixteenth-centuryNativeAmericansitesoronEuropeanlistsoftradinggoodssincesucharmsrequiredfrequentmaintenanceandrepair.

D. EuropeansandNativeAmericanshadestablishedtradeprotocols,suchasbodylanguageassuringoneanotheroftheirpeacefulintentions,thatantedatetheearliestrecordsoftrade.

E. Duringthefirstquarterofthesixteenthcentury,anItalianexplorerrecordedseeingmanyNativeAmericanswithwhatappearedtobecopperbeads,thoughtheymayhavebeenmadeofindigenouscopper.

Evaluation

Thequestiondependsonevaluatinganassertionmadeinthepassageanddeterminingwhichadditionalevidencewouldmoststrengthenit.ThefirstsentenceofthesecondparagraphclaimsthatthefurtradewaswellestablishedbythetimeEuropeanssailingtheAtlanticcoastofAmericafirstdocumentedit.Thepassagethenindicatesthatthefirstwrittendocumentationofthetradedatesto1501.Thus,evidenceshowingthat

documentationofthetradedatesto1501.Thus,evidenceshowingthattradehadbeengoingonforsometimebefore1501wouldstrengthen(support)theassertion.

A. Thisevidenceshowstradeoccurringinthefirstyearsoftheseventeenthcentury,notpriortothefirstrecordsfrom1501.

B. Thisevidenceshowstradeoccurringinthefinaldecadesofthesixteenthcentury,notpriortothefirstrecordsfrom1501.

C. Thisevidencedoesnotindicatethattradetookplacepriortothefirstrecordsfrom1501.

D. Correct.Evidencethattradeprotocolshaddevelopedbeforethetradewasfirstrecorded(in1501)wouldstrengthensupportfortheassertionthattradewastakingplacepriortotheearliestdocumentation.

E. BecausethecopperbeadsmayhavebeenmadebyNativeAmericansratherthanacquiredthroughtradewithothersocieties,thisobservationwouldnotprovideevidencethattradewithEuropeanstookplacepriorto1501.

48. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribestheprimaryfunctionoflines11–16?

A. Itoffersareconsiderationofaclaimmadeintheprecedingsentence.

B. Itrevealshowarchaeologistsarrivedataninterpretationoftheevidencementionedintheprecedingsentence.

C. Itshowshowscholarsmisinterpretedthesignificanceofcertainevidencementionedintheprecedingsentence.

D. Itidentifiesoneofthefirstsignificantaccountsofseventeenth-centuryEuropeansettlementsinNorthAmerica.

E. ItexplainswhyDenys’saccountofseventeenth-centuryEuropeansettlementsisthoughttobesignificant.

Evaluation

Thisquestiondependsonunderstandinghowthelastsentenceofthefirstparagraphfunctionsinrelationtothelargerpassage.ThefirstparagraphexplainsthattheearliestEuropeanstotradewithNativeAmericanswerefishingcrewsnearNewfoundland.Thesecond-to-lastsentenceoftheparagraphdescribesarchaeologicalartifactsfromNativeAmericansites.

paragraphdescribesarchaeologicalartifactsfromNativeAmericansites.ThelastsentencethenexplainsthatNicolasDenys’s1672accounthelpedarchaeologistsrealizethattheartifactswereevidenceoftradewithfishingcrews.Thus,thelastsentenceofthepassageshowshowarchaeologistslearnedtointerprettheevidencementionedintheprevioussentence.

A. Theonlyclaimmadeintheprevioussentenceisthatarchaeologistsfoundaparticulartypeofevidence.Thefinalsentenceoftheparagraphdoesnotsuggestthatthisclaimshouldbereconsidered.

B. Correct.AfterreadingDenys’saccount,archaeologistswereabletointerpretthearchaeologicalevidencementionedintheprevioussentence.

C. Thepassagesuggeststhatarchaeologistscorrectlyinterpretedtheevidence,notmisinterpretedit.

D. Denys’saccountismentionedprimarilytoexplainhowarchaeologistslearnedtointerpretthearchaeologicalevidence,notprimarilytoidentifyanimportantearlyaccountofsettlements.

E. ThepassagedoesnotdiscusswhyDenys’saccountissignificant,onlythatarchaeologistsusedittohelpunderstandtheevidencementionedintheprevioussentence.

49. ItcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheauthorwouldagreewithwhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutthefurtradebetweenNativeAmericansandEuropeansintheearlymodernera?

A. Thistrademayhavebegunasearlyasthe1480s.

B. Thistradeprobablydidnotcontinuemuchbeyondthe1530s.

C. Thistradewasmostlikelyatitspeakinthemid-1520s.

D. Thistradeprobablydidnotbeginpriorto1500.

E. Thereisnowrittenevidenceofthistradepriortotheseventeenthcentury.

Inference

Thequestionrequiresdeterminingwhichstatementcanmostreasonablybeinferredfromtheinformationinthepassage.ThepassagearguesthatitisdifficulttodeterminewhenthefurtradebetweenNativeAmericansandEuropeansbegan,sincetheearliestpeopletoparticipateinthattrade

apparentlyleftnowrittenrecords.Thesecondparagraphnotesthatatthetimeoftheearliestknownrecordin1501,tradewasalreadywellunderway.Inthefinaltwosentencesofthepassage,theauthormentionsaneventthatoccurredin1534andthensaysthatbythattimethetrademayhavebeengoingonforperhapshalfacentury.

A. Correct.Thenext-to-lastsentenceofthepassagecitesevidenceoffurtradebetweenNativeAmericansandEuropeansin1524.Inthefinalsentenceofthepassage,theauthormentionsaneventthathappenedadecadeafterthatdate—thusin1534—andexpressestheopinionthatthetradestartedperhapshalfacentury(fiftyyears)beforethatlaterdate.Fiftyyearsbefore1534wouldbe1484.Thisimpliesthattheauthoracceptsthatthetrademayhavebegunbythe1480s.

B. Thepassagegivesnoindicationthattheauthorbelievestradeendedshortlyafterthe1530s.

C. Thepassagedoesnotdiscusswhenthefurtradewasatitspeak.

D. Tothecontrary,thepassagearguesthattradebeganwellbefore1501.

E. Thepassagementionswrittenevidenceofthetradefrom1501and1524.

50. WhichofthefollowingcanbeinferredfromthepassageabouttheNativeAmericansmentionedinline24?

A. Theyhadlittleusefordecorativeobjectssuchasearrings.

B. Theybecameincreasinglydependentonfishingbetween1501and1524.

C. By1524,onlycertaingroupsofEuropeanswerewillingtotradewiththem.

D. TheselectivityoftheirtradingchoicesmadeitdifficultforthemtoengageinwidespreadtradewithEuropeans.

E. TheselectivityoftheirtradingchoicesindicatesthattheyhadbeentradingwithEuropeansforasignificantperiodoftimepriorto1524.

Inference

Thequestionasksaboutinformationthatcanbeinferredfromthepassage.TheNativeAmericansmentionedinthe1524chroniclesacceptedonly

certainkindsofEuropeangoodsintrade.ThepassageindicatesthattheseNativeAmericanshadbecomeselectiveaboutwhichgoodstheywouldaccept,whichimpliesthatby1524theyhadbeentradinglongenoughtodeterminewhichEuropeangoodsweremostvaluabletothem.

A. ThepassagedoesnotimplythattheseNativeAmericanshadnousefordecorativeobjects,onlythattheydidnotdesiretoobtainsuchitemsthroughtradewithEuropeans.

B. ThepassagedoesnotsuggestthattheNativeAmericans’dependencyonfishingchangedovertime.

C. ThereisnoindicationthatanygroupsofEuropeanswereunwillingtotradewiththeseNativeAmericans.

D. ThepassagenotesthattheNativeAmericanswereselectiveintheirtradechoicesbutdoesnotsuggestthatsuchselectivitymadewidespreadtradedifficult.

E. Correct.Thepassagenotesthatby1524,theNativeAmericanshadbecomeselectiveaboutwhichEuropeangoodstheywouldaccept,andthepassagetakesthistoindicatethatthetradewithEuropeanssignificantlypredated1524.

51. Thepassagesupportswhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutsixteenth-centuryEuropeanfishingcrewsworkingthewatersoffNewfoundland?

A. Theywrotenoaccountsoftheirfishingvoyages.

B. TheyprimarilysailedundertheflagofPortugal.

C. TheyexchangedshippartswithNativeAmericansforfurs.

D. TheycommonlytradedjewelrywithNativeAmericansforfurs.

E. TheycarriedsurplusmetalimplementstotradewithNativeAmericansforfurs.

Inference

Thequestionaskswhichstatementissupportedbyinformationprovidedinthepassage.ThefirstparagraphstatesthatEuropeanfishingcrewsaroundNewfoundlandwerethefirstEuropeanstotradegoodsforfurswithNativeAmericansinthemodernperiod.Thelastsentenceoftheparagraphstatesthatarchaeologicalevidenceindicatesthecrewshaddismantledtheirshipstotradeshippartsforfurs.

dismantledtheirshipstotradeshippartsforfurs.

A. ThesecondsentencestatesthatthecrewsleftnowrittenaccountsoftheirtradewithNativeAmericans,butitdoesnotsuggestthattheyleftnowrittenaccountsoftheirvoyages.

B. ThepassagementionsonePortuguesevesselbutdoesnotsuggestthattheEuropeancrewswhofishedoffNewfoundlandweremostlyonPortuguesevessels.

C. Correct.Thelastsentenceofthefirstparagraphsupportstheconclusionthatthecrewstradedshippartsforfurs.

D. ThepassagementionsoneinstanceofaNativeAmericanacquiringearringsfromEuropeansbutdoesnotsuggestthattradesforsuchgoodswerecommon.

E. ThepassageindicatesthatfishingcrewstradedmetalimplementswithNativeAmericansbutdoesnotsuggestthattheybroughtsurplusimplementsforthatpurpose—andinfactmentionsthatsometimestradedmetalarticleshadbeenpartsoftheirownships.

52. WhichofthefollowingcanbeinferredfromthepassageaboutevidencepertainingtothefurtradebetweenNativeAmericansandEuropeansintheearlymodernera?

A. AlackofwrittenevidencehasmadeitdifficulttoestablishwhichEuropeansfirstparticipatedinthistrade.

B. Ingeneral,thephysicalevidencepertainingtothistradehasbeenmoreusefulthanthewrittenevidencehasbeen.

C. Thereismorewrittenevidencepertainingtothistradefromtheearlypartofthesixteenthcenturythanfromlaterinthatcentury.

D. Theearliestwrittenevidencepertainingtothistradedatesfromatimewhenthetradewasalreadywellestablished.

E. Someimportantpiecesofevidencepertainingtothistrade,suchasDenys’s1672account,werelongoverlookedbyarchaeologists.

Inference

Thisquestionasksaboutinformationthatcanbeinferredfromthepassage.AnysuggestionthatNativeAmericansmayhaveproducedwrittenevidenceoftheearly-moderntradewithEuropeansisabsentfrom

writtenevidenceoftheearly-moderntradewithEuropeansisabsentfromthepassage.ThesecondparagraphstatesthatbythetimeEuropeansfirstdocumentedthefurtrade,itwasalreadywellunderway.Thisstatement,inthecontextofthepassage,impliesthattheearliestwrittenrecordsofthetradedatetoatimeafteritwaswellestablished.

A. ThefirstparagraphindicatesthatthefirstEuropeanstoparticipateinthetradewerequitecertainlyfishingcrewsnearNewfoundland.

B. Thepassagegivesnoindicationthatphysicalevidenceofthetradehasbeenmoreusefulthanwrittenevidence.

C. Althoughthepassagedoesnotcitewrittenevidencefromthelatesixteenthcentury,thepassagegivesnoreasontobelievethatlesswrittenevidenceexistsfromthattime.

D. Correct.Accordingtothepassage,thefurtradewaswellunderwaywhenwrittenevidenceofthetradewasfirstdocumentedbyEuropeans.ThepassagecontainsnosuggestionthattheremighthavebeenearlierdocumentationofthattradebyanybodyotherthanEuropeans.

E. Thepassagedoesnotimplythatarchaeologistsoverlookedevidenceforlongperiodsoftime.

53. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutthesixteenth-centuryNativeAmericanswhotradedwithEuropeansonthecoastofwhatisnowcalledNewEngland?

A. By1524theyhadbecomeaccustomedtoexchanginggoodswithEuropeans.

B. TheywereunfamiliarwithmetalsbeforeencounteringEuropeans.

C. TheyhadnopracticalusesforEuropeangoodsotherthanmetalsandmetalimplements.

D. By1524theyhadbecomedisdainfulofEuropeantradersbecausesuchtradershadtreatedthemunfairlyinthepast.

E. By1524theydemandedonlythemostprizedEuropeangoodsbecausetheyhadcometorealizehowvaluablefurswereonEuropeanmarkets.

Inference

Thequestionasksaboutwhatisimpliedinthepassage.TheNativeAmericanstradingwithEuropeansonthecoastofwhatisnowcalledNewEnglandarediscussedinthe1524chroniclesmentionedinthesecondparagraph.ThepassageindicatesthattheseNativeAmericanshadbecomeselectiveaboutwhichEuropeangoodstheywouldacceptintrade,whichsuggeststheyhadbecomeaccustomedtotradingwithEuropeans.

A. Correct.Bythetimethechroniclewaswritten,theNativeAmericanswerefamiliarenoughwithtradetobeabletospecifywhichEuropeangoodstheywouldaccept.

B. AlthoughtheNativeAmericanschosetotradefursforEuropeanmetalgoods,thepassagedoesnotimplytheywereunfamiliarwithanymetalspriortoencounteringEuropeans.

C. ThepassagedoesnotsuggestwhyNativeAmericanspreferredcertaingoodsoverothers.

D. ThepassagedoesnotattributedisdainforEuropeantraderstoNativeAmericans.

E. ThereisnoindicationinthepassagethatNativeAmericanswereawareoffurs’valueinEuropeanmarkets.

A. describingthedevelopmentofthebiologicalspeciesconcept

B. respondingtoacritiqueofreproductivecompatibilityasacriterionfordefiningaspecies

C. consideringtwodifferentapproachestoidentifyingbiologicalspecies

D. pointingouttheadvantageofonemethodofdistinguishingrelatedspecies

E. identifyinganobstacletotheclassificationofbiologicalspecies

Mainidea

Thisquestiondependsonunderstandingthepassageasawhole.Thepassagebeginsbyexplainingthatidentifyingaspeciescanbedifficult,becausetherearedifferentwaysofdefiningtheterm.Thebiologicalspeciesconceptisoneapproach,butithasproblems.Phenotypeisanother

speciesconceptisoneapproach,butithasproblems.Phenotypeisanotherapproachthatcanbeusedwhenthebiologicalspeciesconceptprovesdifficult.

A. Thefirstparagraphdefinesthebiologicalspeciesconceptandidentifiessomeproblemswithitsapplication,butitdoesnotexplainhowthatconceptdeveloped.

B. Thepassagepresentssomecritiquesofreproductivecompatibilityasawayofidentifyingabiologicalspecies;itdoesnotconcernitselfwithrespondingtothosecritiques.

C. Correct.Thepassageconsidersthebiologicalspeciesconceptandtheideaofphenotypeaswaysofidentifyingbiologicalspecies.

D. Whilethepassageidentifiestwowaysofdistinguishingspeciesandstatesthatsomeinvestigatorsuseoneofthosemethods—thephenotypemethod—whenthebiologicalmethodisdifficulttoapply,thepassageisnotprimarilyconcernedwithpointingoutthateitheroneisbetterthantheother.

E. Thepassagedoesdiscusscertainobstaclestotheclassificationofspecies.First,itpointsoutthatthereisnosingleaccepteddefinitionofdistinctspecies.Second,itpointsoutobstaclesrelatedtooneparticularapproachtotheclassificationofspecies.However,thepassageconsiderstheseobstaclesinserviceofitsprimaryconcern,namelyconsideringtwodifferentapproachestoidentifyingbiologicalspecies.

55. Theauthorofthepassagementions“groupsthatliveindifferentplaces”(line21)mostprobablyinorderto

A. pointoutatheoreticalinconsistencyinthebiologicalspeciesconcept

B. offerevidenceinsupportofthebiologicalspeciesconcept

C. identifyanobstacletotheapplicationofthebiologicalspeciesconcept

D. noteaninstanceinwhichphenotypeclassificationiscustomarilyused

E. describeanalternativetothebiologicalspeciesconcept

Evaluation

Theauthor’smentionofgroupsthatliveindifferentplacescomesattheendofthefirstparagraph,inthecontextofdiscussingathirdproblemwith

thebiologicalspeciesconcept:thatinvestigatorsmaynotknowwhetheranimalsinsuchgroupsareabletointerbreed.

A. Theauthordoesnotaddresstheoreticalinconsistenciesinthebiologicalspeciesconcept.

B. Theauthormentionsgroupsthatliveindifferentplacesinordertoaddressaproblemwiththebiologicalspeciesconcept,nottosupportit.

C. Correct.Oneobstacletoapplyingthebiologicalspeciesconceptisthatthoseattemptingtodistinguishamongspeciesmaynotbeabletodeterminewhethergeographicallyseparatedgroupsofanimalscaninterbreed.

D. Thepassagedoesmentionthatsomeinvestigatorsusephenotypeclassificationwhenthebiologicalspeciesconceptisdifficulttoapply,butitdoesnotmentionspecificallythatasituationinwhichgroupsliveindifferentplacesisaninstanceinwhichphenotypeclassificationiscustomarilyused.

E. Animalgroupsthatliveindifferentplacesposeaproblemfortheapplicationofthebiologicalspeciesconcept,accordingtotheauthor.Theauthordoesnotmentionthesegroupsinordertodescribeanalternativetothatconcept.

56. Withwhichofthefollowingstatementsregardingtheclassificationofindividualspecieswouldtheauthormostlikelyagree?

A. Phenotypecomparisonmayhelptoclassifyspecieswhenapplicationofthebiologicalspeciesconceptprovesinconclusive.

B. Becausenostandarddefinitionexistsforwhatconstitutesaspecies,theclassificationofanimalpopulationsisinevitablyanarbitraryprocess.

C. Thecriteriausedbybiologiststoclassifyspecieshavenotbeenbasedonadequateresearch.

D. Theexistenceofhybridsinwildanimalspeciesisthechieffactorcastingdoubtontheusefulnessofresearchintoreproductivecompatibilityasawayofclassifyingspecies.

E. Phenotypeoverlapshouldbeusedasthebasiccriterionforstandardizingspeciesclassification.

Inference

Thisquestiondependsonunderstandingthegeneralpointstheauthormakeswithregardtoclassificationofindividualspecies.Theauthorexplainsthatthereisnosingledefinitionofspeciesandthendescribesthebiologicalspeciesconcept,whichdependsonreproductivecompatibility.Thisapproachhasseveralproblems,however,andtheauthorgoesontosaythatphenotypemaybeusedwhenthebiologicalspeciesconceptisdifficulttoapply.

A. Correct.Theauthorstatesatthebeginningofthesecondparagraphthatsomeinvestigatorsusephenotypewhentheyfinditdifficulttoapplythebiologicalspeciesconcept,andthepassageprovidesnoreasontobelievethattheauthorwoulddisagreewiththeideathatphenotypecomparisoncanbehelpfulinthesesituations.

B. Theauthorwouldmostlikelynotagreethatclassificationofanimalpopulationsisarbitrary.Investigatorsuseclearlydefinedapproaches,suchasthebiologicalspeciesconceptandphenotypeclassification,tomakesuchclassifications.Thattheremaybeproblemswithanapproachdoesnotmakeitarbitrary.

C. Theauthorstatesthatthebiologicalspeciesconceptcanbetoorestrictive,butthereisnosuggestionthattheauthorfindsthisapproach,orphenotypeclassification,tobeinadequatelyresearched.

D. Theauthormentionshybridizationfirstasafactorcastingdoubtontheusefulnessofthebiologicalspeciesconcept,butnothinginthepassagesuggeststhattheauthorthinksthatitismoresignificantthantheotherreasonsofferedforfindingthebiologicalspeciesconcepttoorestrictive.

E. Phenotypeoverlapdoesnotreceivetheauthor’sendorsementasthebest,ormostbasic,wayofclassifyingspecies;instead,theauthorstatesmerelythatsomeinvestigatorsrelyonthisapproachwhentheycannotapplythebiologicalspeciesconcept.

57. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesthefunctionoflines10–13?

A. Itelaboratesthedefinitionofthebiologicalspeciesconceptgiveninaprevioussentence.

B. Itdevelopsapointaboutthebiologicalspeciesconceptmadeintheprevioussentence.

C. Itstatestheauthor’scentralpointaboutthebiologicalspeciesconcept.

D. Itidentifiesacentralassumptionunderlyingthebiologicalspeciesconcept.

E. Itdemonstrateswhythebiologicalspeciesconceptisinvalid.

Evaluation

Thehighlightedsentencediscusseshybridizationasafirstfactorcomplicatingtheapplicabilityofthebiologicalspeciesconcept.Thusitsfunctionistohelpexplainwhy,astheprevioussentencestates,thatconceptistoorestrictive.

A. Thehighlightedsentencebringsupaproblemwiththebiologicalspeciesconcept;itdoesnotelaboratethedefinitionofthatconcept.

B. Correct.Accordingtothesentencethatprecedesthehighlightedsentence,thebiologicalspeciesconceptcanbetoorestrictive.Theauthoroffersthreereasonstodevelopthispoint,andthefirstreasonisgiveninthehighlightedsentence.

C. Thehighlightedsentencecouldbesaidtosupporttheauthor’scentralpointaboutthebiologicalspeciesconcept—thatitisone(flawed)wayofdeterminingwhetherapopulationisaspecies—butitdoesnotstatethatcentralpoint.

D. Thehighlightedsentenceexpressesaproblemwiththebiologicalspeciesconcept,notacentralassumptionofit.

E. Thehighlightedsentenceservestoindicateaproblemwiththebiologicalspeciesconcept,butitdoesnotgosofarastodemonstratethatitisinvalid.

A. enumeratereasonswhybothtraditionalscholarlymethodsandnewer

scholarlymethodshavelimitations

B. identifyashortcominginascholarlyapproachanddescribeanalternativeapproach

C. provideempiricaldatatosupportalong-heldscholarlyassumption

D. comparetwoscholarlypublicationsonthebasisoftheirauthors’backgrounds

E. attempttoprovideapartialanswertoalong-standingscholarlydilemma

Mainidea

Tofindtheprimarypurpose,lookatwhattheauthorisdoingintheentirepassage.Inthefirstparagraph,theauthorexaminestwoapproachestopoliticalhistory,bothofwhichsufferfromthesameflaw,theexclusionofwomen.Inthesecondparagraph,theauthorreviewsanalternative,moreinclusivewaytounderstandpoliticalhistory.

A. Thefirstparagraphidentifiesonlyonereasonthatthetwoapproachesareflawed;analternativeapproachisdiscussedinthesecondparagraph.

B. Correct.Theauthorpointstotheflawinearlierapproachestohistoryandshowsanalternativewayofthinkingaboutpoliticalhistory.

C. Nodataareofferedtosupportanassumption.

D. Onlyonehistorianismentionedbyname;herbackgroundisnotmentioned.

E. Nolong-standingdilemmaisdiscussed.

59. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingconcerningthetechniquesusedbythenewpoliticalhistoriansdescribedinthefirstparagraphofthepassage?

A. Theyinvolvedtheextensiveuseofthebiographiesofpoliticalpartyleadersandpoliticaltheoreticians.

B. Theywereconceivedbypoliticalhistorianswhowerereactingagainstthepoliticalclimatesofthe1960’sand1970’s.

C. TheywereofmoreuseinanalyzingthepositionsofUnitedStates

politicalpartiesinthenineteenthcenturythaninanalyzingthepositionsofthoseinthetwentiethcentury.

D. Theywereofmoreuseinanalyzingthepoliticalbehaviorofnineteenth-centuryvotersthaninanalyzingthepoliticalactivitiesofthosewhocouldnotvoteduringthatperiod.

E. Theyweredevisedasameansoftracingtheinfluenceofnineteenth-centurypoliticaltrendsontwentieth-centurypoliticaltrends.

Inference

Thequestion’suseoftheverbsuggestsisanindicationthataninferencemustbemade.Examinethefirstparagraph,wherethenewschoolofpoliticalhistoryisdiscussed.Thesehistoriansusedtechniquessuchasquantitativeanalysesofelectionreturnsthattheauthordescribesasuselessinanalyzingthepoliticalactivitiesofwomen,whoweredeniedthevoteuntil1920(lines9–12).Itcan,however,beassumedthatthesametechniquesdidproveusefulinunderstandingthemasspoliticalbehaviorofvoters.

A. Thefirstsentenceexplainsthatthesehistorianssoughttogobeyondthetraditionalfocus...onleadersandgovernmentinstitutions.

B. Thepassagedoesnotindicatethatthenewhistorianswerereactingagainstthepoliticalclimateoftheirowntime.

C. Thenewhistoriansexaminedthepoliticalpracticesofordinarycitizens(line5),notthepositionsofpoliticalparties.

D. Correct.Lines7–12explicitlystatethatthenewhistorians’techniqueswereuselessinanalyzingthepoliticalactivitiesofthosenotallowedtovote;thesamelinesimplythatthetechniqueswereusefulinanalyzingthepoliticalbehaviorofvoters.

E. Noinformationinthepassagesupportsthisexplanation.

60. ItcanbeinferredthattheauthorofthepassagequotesBakerdirectlyinthesecondparagraphprimarilyinorderto

A. clarifyapositionbeforeprovidinganalternativetothatposition

B. differentiatebetweenanoveldefinitionandtraditionaldefinitions

C. provideanexampleofapointagreedonbydifferentgenerationsof

scholars

D. provideanexampleoftheprosestyleofanimportanthistorian

E. amplifyadefinitiongiveninthefirstparagraph

Logicalstructure

Toanalyzewhytheauthorusesadirectquotation,lookatthelogicalstructureofthepassageinrelationtothequotation.Thehistoriansdiscussedinthefirstparagraphdefinepoliticalactivityasvoting.PaulaBaker,however,hasanewdefinitionofpoliticalactivity,onethatincludestheactivitiesofthosewhowerenotallowedtovote.ItisreasonabletoinferthattheauthorquotesBakertodrawattentiontothisnewdefinition,whichprovidesaninnovative,alternativewayofthinkingaboutpoliticalhistory.

A. PaulaBaker’sisthealternativepositionoffered;noalternativetohersisdiscussed.

B. Correct.Bakerisquotedtoemphasizethatherdefinitionisnewandthatitdifferssignificantlyfromthetraditionaldefinitionusedbyotherhistorians.

C. Thecontrastingviewsexpressedinthefirstandsecondparagraphsshowthatdifferentgenerationsofscholarshavenotagreed.

D. TheauthordoesnotcommentonBaker’sprosestyle.

E. Baker’sdefinitioncontrastswith,ratherthanamplifies,theoneofferedinthefirstparagraph.

61. Accordingtothepassage,PaulaBakerandthenewpoliticalhistoriansofthe1960’sand1970’ssharedwhichofthefollowing?

A. Acommitmenttointerestgrouppolitics

B. Adisregardforpoliticaltheoryandideology

C. Aninterestinthewaysinwhichnineteenthcenturypoliticsprefiguredcontemporarypolitics

D. Arelianceonsuchquantitativetechniquesastheanalysisofelectionreturns

E. Anemphasisonthepoliticalinvolvementofordinarycitizens

Supportingideas

Sincethequestionusesthephraseaccordingtothepassage,theanswerisexplicitlystatedinthepassage.LookforapointonwhichthenewpoliticalhistoriansandBakeragree.Thefirstsentenceofthepassagesaysthatthesenewhistorianswereinterestedinthepoliticalactivitiesofordinarycitizens(line5).PaulaBakerissimilarlyinterestedinthepoliticalactivitiesofordinarycitizens(lines15–16),especiallyoffemalecitizens,whowerenotallowedtovote.

A. Nomentionatallismadeofinterestgrouppolitics,neitherinrelationtoBakernorinrelationtothenewhistorians.

B. Thepassagedoesnotshowthattheydisregardedpoliticaltheoryandideology.

C. ThepassageonlydiscussesBaker’sinterestinthewaywomen’spoliticalactivitiesinthenineteenthcenturyprefiguredtwentieth-centurytrends(lines16–18).

D. ThepassageexplainsthatnewhistoriansreliedonsuchtechniquesbutthatBakerdidnot.

E. Correct.BoththenewhistoriansandBakeraresaidtohavestudiedthepoliticalactivitiesofordinarycitizens.

62. Whichofthefollowingbestdescribesthestructureofthefirstparagraphofthepassage?

A. Twoscholarlyapproachesarecompared,andashortcomingcommontobothisidentified.

B. Tworivalschoolsofthoughtarecontrasted,andathirdisalludedto.

C. Anoutmodedscholarlyapproachisdescribed,andacorrectiveapproachiscalledfor.

D. Anargumentisoutlined,andcounterargumentsarementioned.

E. Ahistoricaleraisdescribedintermsofitspoliticaltrends.

Logicalstructure

Toanswerthisquestion,analyzethestructureofthefirstparagraph.Itcomparestheoldapproachofstudyingpoliticalhistorythroughemphasis

onleadersandgovernmentinstitutionswiththenewschoolofpoliticalhistory,whichturnedinsteadtothepoliticalpracticesofordinarycitizens.Bothapproachessufferedfromthesamedrawback:thefailuretoincludewomenintheiranalyses.

A. Correct.Twoapproachestohistoryarediscussed,andaflawsharedbyboth,theexclusionofwomen,isidentified.

B. Thefirstparagraphdoesnotalludetoathirdschoolofthought.

C. Acorrectiveapproachisnotdiscussedinthefirstparagraph.

D. Thefirstparagraphdoespresentanargument,butnocounterargumentsaremade.

E. Thepoliticaltrendsofanhistoricaleraarenotdetailedinthefirstparagraph.

63. Theinformationinthepassagesuggeststhatapre-1960’spoliticalhistorianwouldhavebeenmostlikelytoundertakewhichofthefollowingstudies?

A. Ananalysisofvotingtrendsamongwomenvotersofthe1920’s

B. Astudyofmalevoters’gradualideologicalshiftfrompartypoliticstoissue-orientedpolitics

C. Abiographyofaninfluentialnineteenth-centuryministerofforeignaffairs

D. Ananalysisofnarrativeswrittenbypreviouslyunrecognizedwomenactivists

E. Astudyofvotingtrendsamongnaturalizedimmigrantlaborersinanineteenth-centuryloggingcamp

Inference

Inusingsuggests,thisquestionasksthereadertoapplyinformationstatedinthepassagetomakeaninferenceaboutthemethodsofhistoriansbeforethe1960’s.Thesemethodsarediscussedinthefirstparagraph.Lines3–4saythatthetraditionalfocusofpoliticalhistorians(beforetheadventofthenewschoolofhistoriansinthe1960’sand1970’s)wasonleadersandgovernmentinstitutions.Itisreasonabletoinferthatthepre-1960’shistorianwaslikelytofocusonaleaderorgovernmentinstitution.

A. Traditionalhistoriansdidnotfocusonordinarycitizens,butontheirleaders.

B. Bakerisinterestedinthisgroupshift,buttraditionalhistorianswerenot.

C. Correct.Traditionalhistoriansemphasizedtheworkofleadersandgovernmentinstitutions;abiographyofaforeignaffairsministerfitsthisfocusperfectly.

D. SuchananalysiswouldbeofinteresttoBakerbutnottotraditionalhistoriansfocusingonleadersandgovernment.

E. Thenewhistorianswouldbeinterestedinsuchastudy,butnottraditionalhistorians,whodidnotlookattheactivitiesofordinarycitizens.

A. identifyinghistoricalcircumstancesthatledDuBoistoalterhislong-termgoals

B. defining“accommodationism”andshowinghowDuBoisusedthisstrategytoachievecertaingoals

C. accountingforaparticularpositionadoptedbyDuBoisduringtheFirstWorldWar

D. contestingtheviewthatDuBoiswassignificantlyinfluencedbyeitherWashingtonorTrotter

E. assessingtheeffectivenessofastrategythatDuBoisurgedAfricanAmericanstoadopt

Mainidea

Thisquestionaskswhatthepassageasawholeisattemptingtodo.ThepassageopensbyindicatingthatmanyAfricanAmericansweresurprisedbyapoliticalpositiontakenbyDuBoisin1918,whichseemedmoreaccommodationistthanexpected.ThepassagethengoesontodemonstratethatDuBoisoftenshiftedpositions(line9)andstatesthatDuBois’s1918positionwaspragmaticinthatitrespondedtorealsocialpressure.ThepassagethenindicatesthatDuBois’saccommodationiststancedidnotlast

(line31),andthathereturnedtoamoreconfrontationiststanceuponlearningofthetreatmentofAfricanAmericansinthemilitary.

A. ThepassageindicatesthatDuBoisdidnotchangehislong-termgoals(lines22–24).

B. Accomodationismisnotdefinedinthepassagebutisassociatedwithcertainactions(communityimprovement),ideologies(solidarity),andleaders(Washington);thepassagedoesnotindicateifDuBoiswassuccessfulinachievingtheaccommodationistgoalsof1895(lines11–15).

C. Correct.ThepassageexplainswhyDuBoistookhisaccommodationistpositionandwhyheeventuallyrejectedit.

D. ThepassageoffersnojudgmentastohowmuchDuBoiswasinfluencedbyWashingtonorTrotter.

E. ThepassagedoesnotindicatethattherewaswidespreadadoptionofanyofthestrategiesDuBoisrecommended.

65. ThepassageindicateswhichofthefollowingaboutDuBois’sattitudetowardWashington?

A. ItunderwentashiftduringtheFirstWorldWarasDuBoisbecamemoresympatheticwithTrotter’sviews.

B. Itunderwentashiftin1903forreasonsotherthanDuBois’sdisagreementwithWashington’saccommodationistviews.

C. ItunderwentashiftasDuBoismadealong-termcommitmenttothestrategyofaccommodation.

D. ItremainedconsistentlypositiveeventhoughDuBoisdisagreedwithWashington’seffortstocontroltheAfricanAmericanpress.

E. ItwasshapedprimarilybyDuBois’sappreciationofWashington’spragmaticapproachtotheadvancementoftheinterestsofAfricanAmericans.

Supportingideas

Answeringthisquestioninvolvesrecognizingwhatthepassageindicatesaboutaparticularpointofviewitdescribes.Inline15,thepassageindicatesthatDuBoispraisedWashington’sideas,butthatin1903Du

BoisalignedhimselfwithWashington’smilitantopponent(lines16–17),ashiftthepassagedescribesasbeingduelesstoideologicalreasons(lines17–21)thantopoliticalreasons.

A. Thepassageindicatesthattheshiftdescribedoccurredin1903,notduringtheFirstWorldWar.

B. Correct.ThepassageindicatesDuBois’sshiftwasnotduetodifferenceshehadwithWashington’sideasorviews.

C. ThepassageindicatesthatDuBois’saccommodationiststancedidnotlast(lines30–31)andthereforewasnotalong-termcommitment.

D. Thepassageindicatesinlines16–17thatDuBoisatonepointalignedhimselfwithWashington’smilitantopponent.

E. ThepassageindicatesthatDuBoiseventuallyrejectedtheaccommodationistviewsofWashington.

66. ThepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutthecontributionsofAfricanAmericanstotheUnitedStateswareffortduringtheFirstWorldWar?

A. ThecontributionsweremadelargelyinresponsetoDuBois’s1918editorial.

B. ThecontributionshadmuchthesameeffectasAfricanAmericans’contributionstopreviouswars.

C. ThecontributionsdidnotenddiscriminationagainstAfricanAmericansinthemilitary.

D. ThecontributionsweremadeinprotestagainstTrotter’sconfrontationisttactics.

E. Thecontributionsweremadeprimarilybycivilrightsactivistswhoreturnedtoactivismafterthewar.

Inference

Thisquestionrequiresmakinganinferencefrominformationgiveninthepassage.ThepassagebeginsbyindicatingthatDuBoiscalledonAfricanAmericanstosuspendtheirfightforequalityandtohelpwiththewareffortduringtheFirstWorldWar.Thefinalsentenceofthepassage,however,indicatesthatDuBoislearnedthatAfricanAmericanswere

experiencingsystematicdiscriminationinthemilitaryduringthistime.

A. ThepassagedoesnotindicatehowAfricanAmericansrespondedtoDuBois’seditorialotherthanthatmanyAfricanAmericansweresurprisedbyit.

B. ThepassageindicatesthatAfricanAmericans’participationinpreviouswarsbroughtlegalandpoliticaladvancesbutthatAfricanAmericansexperienceddiscriminationintheFirstWorldWar.

C. Correct.ThepassageindicatesthatAfricanAmericansexperiencedsystematicdiscriminationinthemilitaryduringtheFirstWorldWar.

D. ThepassagedoesnotdescribehowAfricanAmericansrespondedtoTrotter’stacticsduringtheFirstWorldWar.

E. ThepassagedoesnotindicatewhetherAfricanAmericansinvolvedinthewareffortwereprimarilycivilrightsactivists.

67. TheauthorofthepassagereferstoWashington’scalltoAfricanAmericansin1895primarilyinorderto

A. identifyDuBois’scharacteristicpositiononthecontinuumbetweenaccommodationismandconfrontationism

B. explainwhyDuBoiswassympatheticwithWashington’sviewsin1895

C. clarifyhowTrotter’sviewsdifferedfromthoseofWashingtonin1895

D. supportanassertionaboutDuBois’stendencytoshifthispoliticalpositions

E. dismisstheclaimthatDuBois’spositioninhis1918editorialwasconsistentwithhispreviousviews

Evaluation

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandinghowapartofthepassagefunctionswithinthepassageasawhole.ThepassagebeginsbyindicatingthatmanyAfricanAmericansweresurprisedbyDuBois’sviewsinhis1918editorial.ThepassagethenexplainsthatDuBoisoftenshiftedpositionsalongthecontinuum(lines9–10).Todemonstratethis,thepassageindicatesthatDuBoispraisedWashington’s1895speechdirectedtoAfricanAmericans,butthatby1903,DuBoishadalignedhimselfwith

Washington’smilitantopponent(lines16–17).

A. ThepassageindicatesthatDuBoisshiftedpositions(line9)alongtheaccommodationist-confrontationistcontinuum.

B. ThepassagedoesnotindicatewhyDuBoispraisedWashington’s1895speech.

C. ThepassagedoesnotindicatewhatTrotter’sviewsofWashington’s1895speechwere.

D. Correct.ThepassageusesDuBois’spraiseforWashington’s1895speechandsubsequentsupportofTrottertoillustrateDuBois’stendencytoshiftpositions.

E. ThepassagedoesnotincludeanyclaimsthatDuBois’s1918editorialwasconsistentwithhispreviousviews.

68. Accordingtothepassage,whichofthefollowingistrueofthestrategythatDuBois’s1918editorialurgedAfricanAmericanstoadoptduringtheFirstWorldWar?

A. ItwasastrategythatDuBoishadconsistentlyrejectedinthepast.

B. ItrepresentedacompromisebetweenDuBois’sownviewsandthoseofTrotter.

C. Itrepresentedasignificantredefinitionofthelong-termgoalsDuBoisheldpriortothewar.

D. ItwasadvocatedbyDuBoisinresponsetohisrecognitionofthediscriminationfacedbyAfricanAmericansduringthewar.

E. ItwasadvocatedbyDuBoisinpartbecauseofhishistoricalknowledgeofgainsAfricanAmericanshadmadeduringpastwars.

Supportingideas

Thisquestionrequiresrecognizinghowapartofthepassagefunctionswithinthepassageasawhole.ThepassagebeginsbyindicatingthatDuBois’s1918editorialcalledonAfricanAmericanstoabandonpoliticalandsocialactivismandhelpwiththewareffortintheFirstWorldWar.Inthesecondparagraph,thepassageindicatesthatDuBois’swartimeposition,expressedinhis1918speech,wasatleastpartlymotivatedbyhisbeliefthatAfricanAmericans’contributionstopastwareffortshad

broughtthemsomelegalandpoliticaladvances(lines28–30).

A. ThepassagedoesnotdiscusswhetherDuBoisrecommendedthisstrategypriorto1918.

B. ThepassagedoesnotindicatethatDuBoisconsciouslycompromisedwithTrotter’sviews.

C. Thepassageindicatesthathis1918wartimeviewswerenotachangeinhislong-termgoals(lines22–23).

D. ThepassageindicatesthatDuBois’srecognitionofdiscriminationinthemilitarycausedhimtorejecthisown1918wartimeviews.

E. Correct.ThepassageindicatesthatDuBois’s1918viewswereinfluencedpartlybyabeliefthatpastwareffortshelpedAfricanAmericansbothlegallyandpolitically.

A. contrastpossibleoutcomesofatypeofbusinessinvestment

B. suggestmorecarefulevaluationofatypeofbusinessinvestment

C. illustratevariouswaysinwhichatypeofbusinessinvestmentcouldfailtoenhancerevenues

D. tracethegeneralproblemsofacompanytoacertaintypeofbusinessinvestment

E. criticizethewayinwhichmanagerstendtoanalyzethecostsandbenefitsofbusinessinvestments

Mainidea

Lookatthepassageasawholetofindtheprimarypurpose.Thispassageusesanexample,describedinthesecondparagraph,toillustratetheprincipleofbusinesspracticeexplainedinthefirstparagraph.Theauthorbeginsbysayingthateffortstoimproveservicedonotalwaysresultinacompetitiveadvantageforacompany.Thus,aninvestmentinservicemustbecarefullyevaluatedtodetermineifitwillreducecostsorincreaserevenues(lines4–8).

A. Onlyoneoutcome,failuretogainacompetitiveadvantage,isexamined.

B. Correct.Investmentsinservicemustbecarefullyevaluatedforthereturnstheywillbring.

C. Onlyoneway,anunnecessaryinvestmentinimprovedservice,isdiscussed.

D. Theexampleofthebankisusedonlytoillustrateageneralbusinessprinciple;thebankitselfisnotthefocusofthepassage.

E. Thepassagecriticizestheabsenceofsuchananalysis,notthewayitisconducted.

70. Accordingtothepassage,investmentsinservicearecomparabletoinvestmentsinproductionanddistributionintermsofthe

A. tangibilityofthebenefitsthattheytendtoconfer

B. increasedrevenuesthattheyultimatelyproduce

C. basisonwhichtheyneedtobeweighed

D. insufficientanalysisthatmanagersdevotetothem

E. degreeofcompetitiveadvantagethattheyarelikelytoprovide

Supportingideas

Thephraseaccordingtothepassageindicatesthatthequestioncoversmaterialthatisexplicitlystatedinthepassage.Theanswertothisquestiondemandsacarefulreadingofthesecondsentence(lines4–8).Investmentsinservicearelikeinvestmentsinproductionanddistributionbecausetheymustbebalancedagainstothertypesofinvestmentsonthebasisofdirect,tangiblebenefits.Thus,theseinvestmentsshouldbeweighedonthesamebasis.

A. Theauthorisnotequatingthetangiblebenefitsthedifferentkindsofinvestmentsreapbutratherthebasisonwhichdecisionstomakeinvestmentsaremade.

B. Revenuesgeneratedfrominvestinginservicearenotsaidtobecomparabletorevenuesgeneratedfrominvestinginproductionanddistribution.

C. Correct.Anevaluationofwhetherornottomaketheseinvestmentsmustbemadeonthesamebasis.

D. Howmanagersanalyzeinvestmentsinproductionanddistributionisnotdiscussed.

E. Thecompetitiveadvantageofsuperiorserviceisacknowledged,butnotthedegreeofit;itisnotmentionedatallinthecontextofproductionanddistribution.

71. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutserviceprovidedbytheregionalbankpriortoitsinvestmentinenhancingthatservice?

A. Itenabledthebanktoretaincustomersatanacceptablerate.

B. Itthreatenedtoweakenthebank’scompetitivepositionwithrespecttootherregionalbanks.

C. Ithadalreadybeenimprovedafterhavingcauseddamagetothebank’sreputationinthepast.

D. Itwasslightlysuperiortothatofthebank’sregionalcompetitors.

E. Itneededtobeimprovedtoattainparitywiththeserviceprovidedbycompetingbanks.

Inference

Becausethequestionusesthewordsuggests,findingtheanswerdependsonmakinganinferenceaboutserviceatthebank.Theparagraphthatdiscussesthebankbeginswiththetransitionalexpression,thistruth,whichreferstotheprevioussentence(lines8–15).Thetruthisthatinvestinginimprovedserviceisawasteifacompanyisalreadyeffectivelyonaparwithitscompetitorsbecauseitprovidesservicethatavoidsadamagingreputationandkeepscustomersfromleavingatanunacceptablerate.Becauseofthewaytheauthorhaslinkedthisgeneralizationtothedescriptionofthebankafterinvestment,itisreasonabletoinferthatthehypotheticalcompany’ssituationdescribesthebankpriortoitsinvestmentinimprovedservice.

A. Correct.Thebank’sservicewouldhavebeengoodenoughtoavoidadamagingreputationandtoretaincustomersatanacceptablerate.

B. Thepassagedoesnotsuggestthatthebank’sservicewaseitherpooror

deficienttothatofitscompetitors.

C. Thepassageimpliesthatthebank’sserviceavoidedadamagingreputation.

D. Thebankwouldhavebeenonaparwithitscompetitors,notsuperiortothem.

E. Thebankwouldhavebeenonaparwithitscompetitors,notinferiortothem.

72. Thepassagesuggeststhatbankmanagersfailedtoconsiderwhetherornottheserviceimprovementmentionedinlines18–20

A. wastoocomplicatedtobeeasilydescribedtoprospectivecustomers

B. madeameasurablechangeintheexperiencesofcustomersinthebank’soffices

C. couldbesustainedifthenumberofcustomersincreasedsignificantly

D. wasaninnovationthatcompetingbankscouldhaveimitated

E. wasadequatetobringthebank’sgenerallevelofservicetoalevelthatwascomparablewiththatofitscompetitors

Inference

Thequestion’suseofthewordsuggestsmeansthattheanswerdependsonmakinganinference.Toanswerthisquestion,lookattheentiresecondparagraph.Managersfailedtothinkahead.Wouldtheserviceimprovementattractnewcustomersbecauseotherbankswouldfinditdifficulttocopy?Orwouldtheserviceimprovementbeeasilyimitatedbycompetitors?Themanagersshouldhaveinvestigatedthisareabeforeinvestinginimprovedservice.

A. Thepassagestatestheimprovementcouldeasilybedescribedtocustomers(lines28–29).

B. Noevidenceinthepassageshowsthatthemanagersfailedtothinkabouttheircustomers’experienceinthebank.

C. Thepassagedoesnotimplythatmanagersfailedtoconsideranincreaseinclients.

D. Correct.Themanagersdidnotwonderifotherbankswouldcopy

theirserviceimprovement.

E. Lines8–12implythatthebankenjoyedacomparablelevelofservicebeforeinvestinginserviceimprovement.

73. Thediscussionoftheregionalbankinthesecondparagraphserveswhichofthefollowingfunctionswithinthepassageasawhole?

A. Itdescribesanexceptionalcaseinwhichinvestmentinserviceactuallyfailedtoproduceacompetitiveadvantage.

B. Itillustratesthepitfallsofchoosingtoinvestinserviceatatimewheninvestmentisneededmoreurgentlyinanotherarea.

C. Itdemonstratesthekindofanalysisthatmanagersapplywhentheychooseonekindofserviceinvestmentoveranother.

D. Itsupportstheargumentthatinvestmentsincertainaspectsofservicearemoreadvantageousthaninvestmentsinotheraspectsofservice.

E. Itprovidesanexampleofthepointaboutinvestmentinservicemadeinthefirstparagraph.

Logicalstructure

Thisquestionrequiresthinkingaboutwhatthesecondparagraphcontributestothewholepassage.Thefirstparagraphmakesageneralizationaboutinvestinginimprovementsinservice;incertainconditions,suchimprovementsdonotresultinthecompetitiveadvantageacompanyhopesfor.Thesecondparagraphoffersthebankasanexampleofthisgeneralization.

A. Thefirstsentenceofthepassageexplainsthatimprovingservicedoesnotnecessarilybringacompetitiveadvantage,sothebankisnotexceptional.

B. Thebankillustratesthepitfallofnotevaluatingaserviceimprovementonthebasisoftangiblebenefits;otherareasofthebankarenotmentioned.

C. Thepassagedoesnotdiscusshowmanagersanalyzeandchoosedifferentserviceinvestments.

D. Investmentsindifferentaspectsofservicearenotevaluatedinthepassage.

E. Correct.Thebankisanexampleofthepositionstatedinthefirstparagraphthatinvestinginimprovedservicecanbeawasteiftheinvestmentisnotevaluatedcarefully.

74. Theauthorusestheword“only”inline27mostlikelyinorderto

A. highlighttheoddityoftheserviceimprovement

B. emphasizetherelativelylowvalueoftheinvestmentinserviceimprovement

C. distinguishtheprimaryattributeoftheserviceimprovementfromsecondaryattributes

D. singleoutacertainmeritoftheserviceimprovementfromothermerits

E. pointoutthelimiteddurationoftheactualserviceimprovement

Logicalstructure

Thequestionasksyoutoconsiderthelogicoftheauthor’swordchoice.Theprevioustwosentencesdiscusswhytheserviceimprovementwasawastedinvestment.Incontrast,thefinalsentenceturnstothesoleadvantageoftheserviceimprovement,whichistrivialbycomparison.Theauthorusesonlytomodifymeritinordertoemphasizetheminimalnatureofthisadvantage.

A. Thepassagedoesnotindicatethattheserviceimprovementissomehowstrangeorpeculiar.

B. Correct.Onlyemphasizesthelowvalueattachedtothesinglebenefit.

C. Noattributesoftheserviceimprovementarementioned.

D. Onlysignifiesthattherewasonesolemeritoftheserviceimprovement.

E. Thedurationofthebenefitisnotdiscussedinthepassage.

A. reviewresearchdemonstratingthebenefitsofcorporatemergersand

acquisitionsandexaminesomeofthedrawbacksthatacquisitionbehaviorentails

B. contrasttheeffectsofcorporatemergersandacquisitionsonacquiringfirmsandonfirmsthatareacquired

C. reportfindingsthatraisequestionsaboutareasonforcorporatemergersandacquisitionsandsuggestpossiblealternativereasons

D. explainchangesinattitudeonthepartofacquiringfirmstowardcorporatemergersandacquisitions

E. accountforarecentdeclineintherateofcorporatemergersandacquisitions

Mainidea

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandingwhatthepassageasawholeistryingtodo.Thepassagebeginsbycitingthreestudiesthatdemonstratethatwhenfirmsacquireotherfirms,thereisnotnecessarilyaworthwhileeconomicgain.Thepassagethenciteseconomicinterestsasthereasongivenbyfirmswhentheyacquireotherfirmsbutcallsintoquestiontheveracityofthisreasoning.Thepassagethengoesontospeculateastowhymergersandacquisitionsoccur.

A. Theresearchcitedinthepassagecallsintoquestionwhethermergersandacquisitionsarebeneficialtofirms.

B. Thepassageisnotconcernedwithcomparingtherelativeeffectsofmergersandacquisitionsontheacquiredandacquiringfirms.

C. Correct.Thepassagesurveysreportsthatquestionthereasonsgivenbyfirmswhentheyacquireotherfirmsandsuggestsotherreasonsfortheseacquisitions.

D. Thepassagedoesnotindicatethattherehasbeenachangeintheattitudeofacquiringfirmstowardmergersandacquisitions.

E. Thepassagedoesnotindicatethattherehasbeenadeclineintherateofmergersandacquisitions.

76. Thefindingscitedinthepassagesuggestwhichofthefollowingabouttheoutcomesofcorporatemergersandacquisitionswithrespecttoacquiringfirms?

A. Theyincludeadecreaseinvalueofmanyacquiringfirms’stocks.

B. Theytendtobemorebeneficialforsmallfirmsthanforlargefirms.

C. Theydonotfulfilltheprofessedgoalsofmostacquiringfirms.

D. Theytendtobebeneficialtosuchfirmsinthelongtermeventhoughapparentlydetrimentalintheshortterm.

E. Theydiscouragemanysuchfirmsfromattemptingtomakesubsequentbidsandacquisitions.

Inference

Answeringthisquestionrequiresrecognizingwhatisinferablefrominformationgiveninthepassage.Thepassagebeginsbycitingthreestudiesthatshowthatmergersandacquisitionsoftenharmtheeconomicgoalsofacquiringfirms.Thepassagealsoindicatesthat,nonetheless,acquiringfirmscontinuetoassertthattheirobjectivesareeconomicones(lines15–16),suggestingthatthegoalsofthesefirmsarenotmetbyacquiringotherfirms.

A. Thepassagesuggeststhatthestockofacquiringfirmstendstoincreaseinvalue(lines12–13),albeitlessthanthefirmitacquires.

B. Thethreestudiescitedinthepassagedocontrasttheeffectsofcorporatemergersonacquiringfirmsandonacquiredfirms,buttheeffectsinquestionaresignificantonlyinsofarastheycontributetothewiderinvestigationintowhymergerstakeplaceatall.

C. Correct.Thepassageindicatesthatevenwhileacquiringfirmsciteeconomicgoals,theresultsofthestudiesindicatethatthesegoalsarenotbeingmet.

D. Thepassagemakesnocomparisonbetweenthelong-termandshort-termgainsofacquiringfirms.

E. Thepassagedoesnotindicatethatfirmshavebeenaffectedbytheresultsofthestudiescited.

77. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethattheauthorwouldbemostlikelytoagreewithwhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutcorporateacquisitions?

A. Theirknownbenefitstonationaleconomiesexplaintheirappealto

individualfirmsduringthe1970’sand1980’s.

B. Despitetheiradverseimpactonsomefirms,theyarethebestwaytochannelresourcesfromlesstomoreproductivesectorsofanation’seconomy.

C. Theyareaslikelytooccurbecauseofpoormonitoringbyboardsofdirectorsastobecausedbyincentivecompensationformanagers.

D. Theywillbelessprevalentinthefuture,sincetheiractualeffectswillgainwiderrecognition.

E. Factorsotherthaneconomicbenefittotheacquiringfirmhelptoexplainthefrequencywithwhichtheyoccur.

Inference

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandingwhatviewtheauthorhasaboutaparticularissue.Thethreestudiescitedbythepassageallsuggestthatmergersandacquisitionsdonotnecessarilybringeconomicbenefittotheacquiringfirms.Theauthorconcludesthereforethatfactorshavinglittletodowithcorporateeconomicinterestsexplainacquisitions(lines23–24)andthengoesontospeculateastowhatthereasonsmayactuallybe.

A. Thepassageindicatesthatwhilemergersandacquisitionsmaybenefitthenationaleconomy,theappealofmergersandacquisitionsmustbetiedtocompanies’privateeconomicinterests(lines19–22).

B. Thepassagemakesnojudgmentastothebestwayforfirmstohelpchannelresourcesfromlesstomoreefficienteconomicsectors.

C. Thepassagemakesnocomparisonbetweentheinfluenceofpoormonitoringbyboardsandthatofexecutiveincentives.

D. Thepassagemakesnopredictionastofuturetrendsinthemarketformergersandacquisitions.

E. Correct.Thepassagestatesthatfactorsotherthaneconomicinterestsdrivemergersandacquisitions.

78. Theauthorofthepassagementionstheeffectofacquisitionsonnationaleconomiesmostprobablyinorderto

A. provideanexplanationforthemergersandacquisitionsofthe1970’sand1980’soverlookedbythefindingsdiscussedinthepassage

B. suggestthatnationaleconomicinterestsplayedanimportantroleinthemergersandacquisitionsofthe1970’sand1980’s

C. supportanoneconomicexplanationforthemergersandacquisitionsofthe1970’sand1980’sthatwascitedearlierinthepassage

D. citeandpointouttheinadequacyofonepossibleexplanationfortheprevalenceofmergersandacquisitionsduringthe1970’sand1980’s

E. explainhowmodelingaffectedthedecisionsmadebymanagersinvolvedinmergersandacquisitionsduringthe1970’sand1980’s

Evaluation

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandingwhyapieceofinformationisincludedinthepassage.Afterthepassagecitestheresultsofthethreestudiesonmergersandacquisitions,whichcallintoquestiontheeconomicbenefitsofacquisitions,itindicatesthatfirmsnonethelessclaimthattheirobjectivesareeconomic.Thepassagethenstatesthatwhileacquisitionsmaywellhaveadesirableeffectonnationaleconomies(lines17–19),theresultsofthestudiessuggestthatfactorsotherthaneconomicinterestmustdriveexecutivestoarrangemergersandacquisitions.

A. Thepassagedoesnotmentionnationaleconomiesaspartofanexplanationfortheoccurrenceofmergersandacquisitions.

B. Thepassagesuggeststhattheeffectofacquisitionsonnationaleconomiesisnottiedtoanyexplanationsforwhyacquisitionsoccur.

C. Theeffectofacquisitionsonnationaleconomiesisnotmentionedinthepassageasanexplanationforwhyacquisitionsoccur.

D. Correct.Thepassageusesthementionofnationaleconomiesaspartofalargerpointquestioningthestatedmotivationsbehindfirms’effortstoacquireotherfirms.

E. Inthepassage,modelingisunrelatedtotheideathatacquisitionsmayhaveadesirableeffectonnationaleconomies.

79. Accordingtothepassage,duringthe1970’sand1980’s,biddingfirmsdifferedfromthefirmsforwhichtheybidinthatbiddingfirms

A. tendedtobemoreprofitablebeforeamergerthanafteramerger

B. weremoreoftenconcernedabouttheimpactofacquisitionson

nationaleconomies

C. wererunbymanagerswhoseactionsweremodeledonthoseofothermanagers

D. anticipatedgreatereconomicadvantagesfromprospectivemergers

E. experiencedlessofanincreaseinstockvaluewhenaprospectivemergerwasannounced

Supportingideas

Thisquestionrequiresrecognizinginformationcontainedinthepassage.Inlines10–14,thepassagedescribesthefindingsofthethirdstudyofmergersandacquisitionsinthe1970’sand1980’s.Thisstudyfoundthat,aftertheannouncementofapossiblemerger,thestockvalueofanacquiring,orbidding,firmincreasesmuchlessthanthestockvalueofthefirmforwhichitisintheprocessofbidding.

A. Thepassagedoesnotindicatewhethertheprofitabilityofacquiringfirmstendedtobegreaterorlessafteramerger.

B. Thepassagedoesnotindicatethatacquiringfirmswereconcernedabouttheimpactoftheiractionsonnationaleconomies.

C. Thepassagedoesnotmentiontheactionsofmanagersatfirmsthatarebeingacquired.

D. Thepassagedoesnotdiscusswhetheracquiringfirmstendedtoexpectgreateroveralleconomicgainsthanactuallyoccurred.

E. Correct.Thepassageindicatesthatthestockvalueofacquiringfirmsgrewlessthanthatofthefirmstheywereattemptingtoacquire.

80. Accordingtothepassage,whichofthefollowingwastrueofcorporateacquisitionsthatoccurredduringthe1970’sand1980’s?

A. Fewoftheacquisitionsthatfirmsmadeweresubsequentlydivested.

B. Mostsuchacquisitionsproducedonlysmallincreasesinacquiredfirms’levelsofprofitability.

C. Mostsuchacquisitionswerebasedonanoverestimationofthevalueoftargetfirms.

D. Thegainsrealizedbymostacquiringfirmsdidnotequaltheamounts

expendedinacquiringtargetfirms.

E. Abouthalfofsuchacquisitionsledtolong-termincreasesinthevalueofacquiringfirms’stocks.

Supportingideas

Thisquestionrequiresrecognizinginformationcontainedinthepassage.Thepassagereportsonthreestudiesofmergersandacquisitionsinthe1970’sand1980’s.Inlines7–10,thepassageindicatesthatthesecondstudyfoundthatthepostacquisitiongainstomostoftheacquiringfirmsdidnotoffset,oratleastequal,thepricepaidtoacquirethefirms.

A. Thepassagedoesnotdiscusspostacquisitiondivesting.

B. Thepassageindicatesthatonaverage,theprofitabilityofacquiredfirmsfellafterbeingacquired(lines5–7).

C. Thepassagedoesnotindicatewhethermostacquiringfirmsoverestimatedthevalueofthefirmstheyacquired.

D. Correct.Thepassagestatesthatformostacquiringfirmsthecostsofbuyingtheacquiredfirmweregreaterthanthegainsderivedfromacquiringit.

E. Thepassagedoesnotindicatewhatpercentageofacquiringfirms,ifany,experiencedlong-termgainsintheirstockvalue.

81. Theauthorofthepassageimpliesthatwhichofthefollowingisapossiblepartialexplanationforacquisitionbehaviorduringthe1970’sand1980’s?

A. Managerswishedtoimitateothermanagersprimarilybecausetheysawhowfinanciallybeneficialotherfirms’acquisitionswere.

B. Managersmiscalculatedthevalueoffirmsthatweretobeacquired.

C. Lackofconsensuswithinboardsofdirectorsresultedintheirimposingconflictinggoalsonmanagers.

D. Totalcompensationpackagesformanagersincreasedduringthatperiod.

E. Thevalueofbiddingfirms’stockincreasedsignificantlywhenprospectivemergerswereannounced.

Inference

Thisquestionrequiresrecognizingwhatcanbeinferredfromtheinformationinthepassage.Afterprovidingtheresultsofthestudiesofmergersandacquisitions,theauthorconcludesthateventhoughacquiringfirmsstatethattheirobjectivesareeconomic,factorshavinglittletodowithcorporateeconomicinterestsexplainacquisitions(lines22–24).Amongalternativeexplanations,theauthorpointstomanagerialerrorinestimatingthevalueoffirmstargetedforacquisition(lines27–28)aspossiblycontributingtoacquisitionbehaviorinthe1970’sand1980’s.

A. Whilethepassageindicatesthatmanagersmayhavemodeledtheirbehavioronothermanagers,itdoesnotprovideareasonforwhythiswouldbeso.

B. Correct.Theauthorstatesthatoneexplanationforacquisitionbehaviormaybethatmanagerserredwhentheyestimatedthevalueoffirmsbeingacquired.

C. Theauthordiscussesalackofmonitoringbyboardsofdirectorsbutmakesnomentionofconsensuswithintheseboards.

D. Theauthordoesnotdiscusscompensationpackagesformanagers.

E. Thepassagedoesnotstatehowsignificantlythevalueofthebiddingfirm’sstockincreaseduponannouncingamergerbutonlythatitincreasedlessinvaluethandidthestockoftheprospectivefirmbeingacquired.

82. Accordingtothepassage,conventionalspiralgalaxiesdifferfromlow-surface-brightnessgalaxiesinwhichofthefollowingways?

A. Theyhavefewerstarsthandolow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

B. Theyevolvemorequicklythanlow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

C. Theyaremorediffusethanlow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

D. Theycontainlessheliumthandolow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

E. Theyarelargerthanlow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

Supportingideas

Thisquestionrequiresrecognizinginformationthatisprovidedinthepassage.Thefirstparagraphdescribesandcomparestwotypesof

passage.Thefirstparagraphdescribesandcomparestwotypesofgalaxies:conventionalgalaxiesanddim,orlow-surface-brightness,galaxies.Itstatesthatdimgalaxieshavethesameapproximatenumberofstarsasacommontypeofconventionalgalaxybuttendtobelargerandmorediffusebecausetheirmassisspreadoverwiderareas(lines4–10).Thepassagealsoindicatesthatdimgalaxiestakelongerthanconventionalgalaxiestoconverttheirprimordialgasesintostars,meaningthatdimgalaxiesevolvemuchmoreslowlythanconventionalgalaxies(lines10–14),whichentailsthatconventionalgalaxiesevolvemorequicklythandimgalaxies.

A. Thepassagestatesthatdimgalaxieshaveapproximatelythesamenumbersofstarsasacommontypeofconventionalgalaxy.

B. Correct.Thepassageindicatesthatdimgalaxiesevolvemuchmoreslowlythanconventionalgalaxies,whichentailsthatconventionalgalaxiesevolvemorequickly.

C. Thepassagestatesthatdimgalaxiesaremorespreadout,andthereforemorediffuse,thanconventionalgalaxies.

D. Thepassagedoesnotmentiontherelativeamountsofheliuminthetwotypesofgalaxiesunderdiscussion.

E. Thepassagestatesthatdimgalaxiestendtobemuchlargerthanconventionalgalaxies.

83. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatwhichofthefollowingisanaccuratephysicaldescriptionoftypicallow-surface-brightnessgalaxies?

A. Theyarelargespiralgalaxiescontainingfewerstarsthanconventionalgalaxies.

B. Theyarecompactbutverydimspiralgalaxies.

C. Theyarediffusespiralgalaxiesthatoccupyalargevolumeofspace.

D. Theyaresmall,youngspiralgalaxiesthatcontainahighproportionofprimordialgas.

E. Theyarelarge,densespiralswithlowluminosity.

Inference

Thisquestionrequiresdrawinganinferencefrominformationgiveninthe

passage.Thefirstparagraphcomparesdimgalaxiesandconventionalgalaxies.Dimgalaxiesaredescribedashavingthesamegeneralshape(lines4–5)asacommontypeofconventionalgalaxy,thespiralgalaxy,suggestingthatdimgalaxiesare,themselves,spiralshaped.Thepassagealsoindicatesthat,althoughbothtypesofgalaxiestendtohaveapproximatelythesamenumberofstars,dimgalaxiestendtobemuchlargerandspreadoutoverlargerareasofspace(lines4–10)thanconventionalgalaxies.

A. Thepassagestatesthatthetwotypesofgalaxieshaveapproximatelythesamenumberofstars.

B. Thepassageindicatesthatdimgalaxiesarerelativelylargeandspreadout.

C. Correct.Thepassageindicatesthatdimgalaxieshavethesamegeneralshapeasspiralgalaxiesandthattheirmassisspreadoutoverlargeareasofspace.

D. Thepassageindicatesthatdimgalaxiesarerelativelylargeandspreadout.

E. Thepassagestatesthatdimgalaxieshavefewstarsperunitofvolume,suggestingthattheyarenotdensebutdiffuse.

84. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatthe“long-standingpuzzle”referstowhichofthefollowing?

A. Thedifferencebetweentherateatwhichconventionalgalaxiesevolveandtherateatwhichlow-surface-brightnessgalaxiesevolve

B. Thediscrepancybetweenestimatesoftotalbaryonicmassderivedfrommeasuringheliumandestimatesbasedonmeasuringgalacticluminosity

C. Theinconsistencybetweentheobservedamountofheliumintheuniverseandthenumberofstarsintypicallow-surface-brightnessgalaxies

D. Uncertaintiesregardingwhatproportionofbaryonicmassiscontainedinintergalacticspaceandwhatproportioninconventionalgalaxies

E. Difficultiesinvolvedindetectingverydistantgalaxiesandin

investigatingtheirluminosity

Inference

Thisquestionrequiresdrawinganinferencefrominformationgiveninthepassage.Thesecondparagraphdescribesthelong-standingpuzzleofthemissingbaryonicmassintheuniverse.Thepassagestatesthatbaryonsarethesourceofgalacticluminosity,andsoscientistscanestimatetheamountofbaryonicmassintheuniversebymeasuringtheluminosityofgalaxies(lines17–21).Thepuzzleisthatspectroscopicmeasuresofheliumintheuniversesuggestthatthebaryonicmassintheuniverseismuchhigherthanmeasuresofluminositywouldindicate(21–25).

A. Thedifferencesbetweentheratesofevolutionofthetwotypesofgalaxiesisnottreatedasbeingcontroversialinthepassage.

B. Correct.Thepassageindicatesthatmeasurementsusingspectroscopyandmeasurementsusingluminosityresultinpuzzlingdifferencesinestimatesoftheuniverse’sbaryonicmass.

C. Thepassagedoesnotsuggesthowheliummightrelatetothenumbersofstarsindimgalaxies.

D. Thepassageindicatesthatastronomershavespeculatedthatthemissingbaryonicmassmightbediscoveredinintergalacticspaceorhard-to-detectgalaxiesbutdoesnotsuggestthatthesespeculationsareconstituentsofthelong-standingpuzzle.

E. Thepassagedoesnotmentionhowthedistancetogalaxiesaffectsscientists’abilitytodetectthesegalaxies.

85. Theauthorimpliesthatlow-surface-brightnessgalaxiescouldconstituteananswertothepuzzlediscussedinthesecondparagraphprimarilybecause

A. theycontainbaryonicmassthatwasnottakenintoaccountbyresearchersusinggalacticluminositytoestimatethenumberofbaryonsintheuniverse

B. they,likeconventionalgalaxiesthatcontainmanybaryons,haveevolvedfrommassive,primordialgasclouds

C. theymaycontainrelativelymorehelium,andhencemorebaryons,

thandogalaxieswhoseheliumcontenthasbeenstudiedusingspectroscopy

D. theyhaverecentlybeendiscoveredtocontainmorebaryonicmassthanscientistshadthoughtwhenlow-surface-brightnessgalaxieswerefirstobserved

E. theycontainstarsthataresignificantlymoreluminousthanwouldhavebeenpredictedonthebasisofinitialstudiesofluminosityinlow-surface-brightnessgalaxies

Inference

Thisquestionrequiresdrawinganinferencefrominformationgiveninthepassage.Thepuzzleisthatestimatesofthebaryonicmassoftheuniversebasedonluminosityarelowerthanthosebasedonspectroscopy(lines21–25).Thepassagestatesthatastronomersdidnotnoticedimgalaxiesuntilrecently(lines2–3)andthatthesegalaxiesmayhelpaccountforthemissingbaryonicmassintheuniverse(lines15–17).Thepassagealsosuggeststhatastronomersmeasuretheluminosityofspecificgalaxies(lines19–21).Thusitcanbeinferredthat,priortotheirbeingnoticedbyastronomers,theluminosityofthesedimgalaxieswasnotmeasured,andtheirbaryonicmasswasnottakenintoaccountintheestimatesofluminositythatledtothelong-standingpuzzle.

A. Correct.Thepassagestatesthatthemissingbaryonicmassintheuniversemaybediscoveredinthedimgalaxiesthathaveonlyrecentlybeennoticedbyastronomers.

B. Thepassagedoesnotsuggestthatdimandconventionalgalaxiesbothoriginatingfromprimordialgascloudshelpsolvethelong-standingpuzzleofthemissingbaryonicmassintheuniverse.

C. Thepassagedoesnotsuggestthatdimgalaxiesmightcontainmoreheliumthandoconventionalgalaxiesorthatmeasuresofbaryonicmassusingspectroscopydonottakesomedimgalaxiesintoaccount.

D. Thepassagedoesnotsuggestthatdimgalaxiescontainmorebaryonicmassthanscientistsoriginallybelievedupondiscoveringthesegalaxies.

E. Thepassagesuggeststhatscientistsmeasuredtheluminosityofgalaxies,notofindividualstars.

86. Theauthormentionsthefactthatbaryonsarethesourceofstars’luminosityprimarilyinordertoexplain

A. howastronomersdeterminethatsomegalaxiescontainfewerstarsperunitvolumethandoothers

B. howastronomersareabletocalculatethetotalluminosityofagalaxy

C. whyastronomerscanusegalacticluminositytoestimatebaryonicmass

D. whyastronomers’estimatesofbaryonicmassbasedongalacticluminosityaremorereliablethanthosebasedonspectroscopicstudiesofhelium

E. howastronomersknowbrightgalaxiescontainmorebaryonsthandodimgalaxies

Evaluation

Thisquestionrequiresunderstandinghowoneaspectofthepassagerelatestothereasoninginalargerportionofthepassage.Thesecondparagraphexplainsthatscientistshavebeenpuzzledovermissingbaryonicmassintheuniverseasmeasuredbyluminosity(lines21–25).Giventhatbaryonsarethesourceofluminosityinthegalaxy(lines17–19),astronomerscanestimatethebaryonicmassofagalaxybymeasuringitsluminosity.

A. Thepassagediscussionofbaryonsdoesnotaddressthenumberofstarsinindividualgalaxies.

B. Thepassagediscusseshowtheluminosityofgalaxiescanbeusedtoestimatebaryonicmassbutdoesnotaddresshowtotalluminosityismeasured.

C. Correct.Thepassageindicatesthatbecausebaryonsarethesourceofgalacticluminosity,measuringluminositycanbeusedtoestimatebaryonicmassofgalaxies.

D. Thepassagesuggeststhatestimatesbasedonluminositymayhavebeenlessaccurate,notmoreaccurate,thanthosebasedonspectroscopy.

E. Thepassagedoesnotindicatethatbrightgalaxiescontainmorebaryonsthandodimgalaxies.

87. Theauthorofthepassagewouldbemostlikelytodisagreewithwhichofthefollowingstatements?

A. Low-surface-brightnessgalaxiesaremoredifficulttodetectthanareconventionalgalaxies.

B. Low-surface-brightnessgalaxiesareoftenspiralinshape.

C. Astronomershaveadvancedplausibleideasaboutwheremissingbaryonicmassmightbefound.

D. Astronomershavedevisedausefulwayofestimatingthetotalbaryonicmassintheuniverse.

E. Astronomershavediscoveredasubstantialamountofbaryonicmassinintergalacticspace.

Inference

Thisquestioninvolvesidentifyingwhichansweroptionpotentiallyconflictswiththeinformationtheauthorhasprovidedinthepassage.Thesecondparagraphindicatesthatastronomers’estimatesofthebaryonicmassoftheuniverseislowerwhenmeasuredusingluminositythanitiswhenmeasuredusingspectroscopy(lines21–25).Thefinalsentencestatesthatastronomershavespeculatedthatthemissingbaryonicmassmightbediscoveredinintergalacticspaceorinhard-to-detectgalaxies(lines25–29).Althoughthepassagedoesindicatethatthediscoveryofdim,low-surface-brightnessgalaxiesmighthelpaccountforthemissingbaryonicmass(lines15–17),thepassageprovidesnosupportforthepossibilitythatbaryonicmasshasbeendiscoveredinintergalacticspace.

A. Thepassageindicatesthatlow-surface-brightnessgalaxieswentunnoticeduntilrecently,unlikeconventionalgalaxies.

B. Thepassageindicatesthatlow-surface-brightnessgalaxieshavethesamegeneralshapeasspiralgalaxies.

C. Thepassagedescribestwopossibleexplanationsastronomershavegivenforthemissingbaryonicmass,oneofwhichwasmademoreplausiblebythediscoveryoflow-surface-brightnessgalaxies.

D. Thepassageindicatesthatastronomershaveusedspectroscopytoestimatebaryonicmassandgivesnoreasontosuspectthatthismethod

isnotuseful.

E. Correct.Thepassagedoesnotindicatethatastronomershavefoundanybaryonicmassinintergalacticspace.

A. describeaphenomenonandconsideritsscientificsignificance

B. contrasttwophenomenaanddiscussapuzzlingdifferencebetweenthem

C. identifyanewlydiscoveredphenomenonandexplainitsorigins

D. comparetwoclassesofobjectsanddiscussthephysicalpropertiesofeach

E. discussadiscoveryandpointoutitsinconsistencywithexistingtheory

Mainidea

Thisquestionrequiresunderstanding,inbroadterms,thepurposeofthepassageasawhole.Thefirstparagraphdescribesaphenomenon:thediscoveryofdimgalaxiesandsomeoftheirgeneralattributes.Thesecondparagraphdescribeshowthisdiscoverymayhelpastronomerstosolvealong-standingpuzzleaboutthebaryonicmassoftheuniverse.

A. Correct.Thepassagedescribesthephenomenonofdimgalaxiesanddescribestheirsignificanceinsolvingthelong-standingpuzzleofthemissingbaryonicmassintheuniverse.

B. Althoughthepassagediscussesthepuzzlingdifferencebetweenthetwoestimatesofbaryonicmass,thisoptiondoesnotaccountforthebroadertopicofdimgalaxies.

C. Whilethepassageidentifiesthenewlydiscoveredphenomenonofdimgalaxies,itdoesnotofferasignificantexplanationforthesegalaxies’origins.

D. Althoughthepassagecomparesdimandconventionalgalaxiesinthefirstparagraph,thisoptiondoesnotaccountfortheimportantdetailthatdimgalaxiesmayhelpsolvealong-standingpuzzle.

E. Thediscoveryofdimgalaxiesdiscussedinthepassageisnotsaidtobeinconsistentwithanyexistingscientifictheory.

89. The“apparentcontradiction”mentionedinline29referstothediscrepancybetweenthe

A. legalstatusofMexicanwomeninterritorialCaliforniaandtheirstatusintheUnitedStates

B. unflatteringdepictionofMexicansinnovelsandtheactualpublicsentimentabouttheMexican-AmericanWar

C. existenceofmanymarriagesbetweenCalifornianasandnon-Hispanicmerchantsandthestricturesagainstthemexpressedinnovels

D. literarydepictionofeliteCalifornianasandtheliterarydepictionofotherMexicanindividuals

E. novelisticportrayalsofeliteCalifornianas’privilegedlivesandtheactualcircumstancesofthoselives

Supportingidea

Theapparentcontradictioninline29referstothedifference,notedintheprevioussentence,betweenfavorableliteraryportrayalsofeliteCalifornianas—thatis,MexicanwomenoftheCaliforniaterritory—ontheonehandandnovels’generallyunflatteringdepictionsofMexicansontheother.

A. ThepassagediscussesthedifferencebetweenthelegalrightsofMexicanwomenintheCaliforniaterritoryandthoseofnon-Hispanicwomen.ThelegalrightsofMexicanwomenoutsideterritorialCaliforniaarenotmentioned.

B. ThepassagesuggeststhatthereisnocontradictionbetweenunflatteringdepictionsofMexicansinnovelsandpublicsentimentabouttheMexican-AmericanWar:suchdepictionsofMexicansservedtostirupsentimentinsupportofthewar.

C. Accordingtothepassage,novelsexpressednostricturesagainstmarriagesbetweenCalifornianasandnon-Hispanicmerchants.Instead,thenovelsportrayedsuchmarriagesfavorably.

D. Correct.Non-HispanicnovelistsglorifiedeliteCalifornianasbasedontheimportanceofforgingeconomicallianceswiththem,whereas

novelistsdepictedotherMexicansinunflatteringterms.

E. ThepassageindicatesthateliteCalifornianas’liveswereinfactprivileged,atleastincomparisontothoseofnon-Hispanicwomen.ItdoesnotsuggestthattherewasanycontradictionbetweeneliteCalifornianas’livesandhowthoseliveswereportrayedinnovels.

90. WhichofthefollowingcouldbestserveasanexampleofthekindoffictionalplotdiscussedbyAntoniaCastañeda?

A. AlandspeculatorofEnglishancestrywedsthedaughterofaMexicanvineyardownerafterthespeculatorhasmigratedtoCaliforniatoseekhisfortune.

B. ACalifornianwomanofHispanicancestryfindsthatheragriculturallivelihoodisthreatenedwhenherhusbandisforcedtoseekworkinatextilemill.

C. AMexicanrancherwholoseshislandasaresultoftheMexican-AmericanWarmigratestothenorthernUnitedStatesandmarriesanimmigrantschoolteacher.

D. AwealthyCalifornianawhosefatherhasbequeathedherallhispropertycontendswithavariciousrelativesforherinheritance.

E. ApoormarriedcoupleemigratefromFrenchCanadaandgraduallybecomewealthyasmerchantsinterritorialCalifornia.

Application

Accordingtothepassage,CastañedafocusesonaparticularplotinwhichaneliteCalifornianaispursuedbyanon-Hispanicmerchantortraderforthepurposeofgainingeconomicadvantage.

A. Correct.Thestoryofanon-HispaniclandspeculatorweddingaCalifornianawhoislikely,basedontheinheritancerightsgrantedherbytheHispaniclawinterritorialCalifornia,toinheritherfather’svineyardwouldpreciselyfittheplotthatCastañedadiscusses.

B. ThisdescriptionfailstoidentifytheethnicityoftheCaliforniana’shusbandandthereasonhemarriedher,sothereisnowaytodeterminewhetherthestorywouldfitCastañeda’splot.

C. Castañeda’splotinvolvesanon-Hispanicmaleprotagonist,soa

Mexicanranchercouldnotplaythemainmaleroleinsuchastory.

D. ThepresenceofawealthyCalifornianawhoinheritspropertymightmakethisstoryseemtobeanexampleofthefictionalplotthatCastañedadiscusses,butthereisnomentionofanon-Hispanicmerchantortraderwhoseeksherhandinmarriage.

E. SimplytakingplaceinterritorialCaliforniawouldnotmakeastoryanappropriateexampleoftheplotdiscussedbyCastañeda.

91. Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldprovidethemostsupportforCastañeda’sexplanationofthe“stereotypicalplot”mentionedinthelines18–19?

A. Non-HispanictradersfoundbusinessmoreprofitableinCaliforniawhileitwasaterritorythanwhenitbecameastate.

B. VeryfewmarriagesbetweenHispanicwomenandnon-Hispanicmeninnineteenth-centuryterritorialCaliforniahaveactuallybeendocumented.

C. RecordsfromthenineteenthcenturyindicatethatsomelargeandvaluablepropertieswereownedbyeliteCalifornianasintheirownright.

D. Unmarriednon-Hispanicwomeninthenineteenth-centuryUnitedStatesweresometimesabletocontrolpropertyintheirownright.

E. Mostofthepropertyinnineteenth-centuryterritorialCaliforniawascontrolledbyHispanicmen.

Evaluation

Castañedaexplainsthestereotypicalplotofanon-HispanicmerchantseekingtomarryaneliteCalifornianabasedoneconomics:thesewomenhadpropertyandinheritancerightsequaltomen.Novelistsbasedtheirplotsonthewomen’sreal-lifeeconomicpower,whichresultedinmen’swishingtobuildeconomicallianceswiththem.Supportingthisexplanationrequiressupportingtheseeconomicideasinsomeway.

A. Theprofitabilityofnon-Hispanictraders’businessisnotanissueinCastañeda’sexplanation;thusthechangedescribedhasnosignificantrelevancetothatexplanation.

B. Thelackofthetypeofdocumentationdescribed,ratherthanprovidingsupportforCastañeda’sexplanation,signifiesadeficitindocumentarysupportforthatexplanation.

C. Correct.IfeliteCalifornianasdidinfactownvaluableproperties,Castañeda’seconomicexplanationgainsforce.ThewomendidhavetherealeconomicsignificanceuponwhichCastañedasuggeststhenovelistsdrew.

D. Ifitweretruethatsomenon-Hispanicwomencontrolledpropertyinthisway,Castañeda’sexplanationofCalifornianas’uniquenesswouldbesomewhatundermined.

E. Ifmostofthepropertyinnineteenth-centuryterritorialCaliforniawascontrolledbyHispanicmen,thatsuggeststhatCalifornianaswerelesslikelytopossessthekindofeconomicpowerdescribedinCastañeda’sargument.

92. Thepassagesuggeststhat,intheearly1990s,Michaelswouldhavebeenmostlikelytoagreewithwhichofthefollowingstatementsaboutthedisparitymentionedinthelines3–4?

A. ThisdisparityisrelativelylessextremeintheNorthernHemispherebecauseofsulfatecooling.

B. Thisdisparityisonlyashort-termphenomenonbroughtaboutbysulfatecooling.

C. Thisdisparityismostsignificantinthosepartsoftheworlddominatedbyoceans.

D. Theextentofthisdisparityisbeingmaskedbythetemporaryeffectofsulfatecooling.

E. Thedisparityconfirmsthatcurrentmodelsofglobalwarmingarecorrect.

Inference

Thedisparityhighlightedinthisquestionisbetweenglobalwarmingmodelsandactualclimatedata—thatis,thatthemodelspredictedwarmingthathasnotoccurred.Intheearly1990s,accordingtothepassage,Michaelstriedtoexplainthisdisparitybysayingthatindustrial

passage,Michaelstriedtoexplainthisdisparitybysayingthatindustrialsulfateemissionshadacoolingeffectthatslowedglobalwarmingbriefly.

A. ThepassagedoesnotindicatethatMichaelscametodistinguishbetweentheNorthernandSouthernHemispheresuntilhebegantodoubthisearly1990sexplanationforthementioneddisparity.

B. Correct.Michaelsclaimedintheearly1990sthatthedisparitywastemporary,andthatitoccurredduetothecoolingeffectofsulfateemissions.

C. Santer’scontention,notMichaels’s,isbasedontheeffectofoceansonglobalwarming.

D. Intheearly1990s,Michaelsusedtheideaofsulfatecoolingtoexplaintheobserveddisparity,nottosuggestthatthedisparityitselfwaslargerthanobserved.

E. Inseekingtoexplainthedisparity,Michaelsseemstohaveassumed,intheearly1990satleast,thatthemodelsofglobalwarmingwerecorrect.Buthedidnottakethedisparityasevidenceoftheircorrectness.

93. Accordingtothepassage,Santerassertswhichofthefollowingaboutglobalwarming?

A. ItwillbecomeamoreseriousproblemintheSouthernHemispherethanintheNorthernHemisphereinspiteofthecoolinginfluenceofoceansinthesouth.

B. Itisunlikelytobeaseriousprobleminthefuturebecauseofthepervasiveeffectofsulfatecooling.

C. ItwillproceedatthesamegeneralrateintheNorthernandSouthernHemispheresoncethetemporaryinfluenceofsulfatecoolingcomestoanend.

D. Untilthelate1980s,itwasmoderatedintheNorthernHemispherebytheeffectofsulfatecooling.

E. Largelybecauseofthecoolinginfluenceofoceans,ithashadnodiscernibleimpactontheSouthernHemisphere.

Supportingidea

ThesecondparagraphofthepassagediscussesSanter’stakeonglobal

ThesecondparagraphofthepassagediscussesSanter’stakeonglobalwarming.Heisconcernedwiththeeffectofoceansandofsulfatecoolingonthisprocess,andhearguesthattherateofwarmingintheSouthernandNorthernHemisphereshasbeendifferentlyaffectedbyeachofthese.Ingeneral,oceansslowwarminginthesouth,whilesulfatecoolingtemporarilyslowedwarminginthenorthuntilthelate1980s.

A. Accordingtothepassage,Santerhasarguedthatsince1987theNorthernHemispherehaswarmedmoresignificantlythantheSouthernHemisphere.

B. Santermaintainsthatsulfatecoolingcomplicatesourattemptstounderstandglobalwarming.Henotes,however,thatsulfatecoolingpeakedintheNorthernHemisphereinthemid-1900s,andthatthathemisphere’swarminghasincreasedconsiderably.Sosulfatecooling’seffectisnotpervasiveandhasnotmitigatedthemedium-andlong-termproblemofglobalwarming.

C. Santerarguesthat,intheabsenceofsulfatecooling,globalwarmingwouldoccurmoreslowlyintheSouthernHemisphereduetothegreateroceancoveragethere.

D. Correct.SantersaysthatsulfatecoolingslowedwarmingintheNorthernHemisphere,butthatin1987,theinfluenceofsulfatecoolingwasnolongersignificant.

E. SantermaintainsthatglobalwarminghappensmoreslowlyintheSouthernHemisphereduetothegreateroceancoveragethere,notthatithasnodiscernibleimpactthere.

94. ThepassagesuggeststhatSanterandMichaelswouldbemostlikelytoDISAGREEoverwhichofthefollowingissues?

A. Whetherclimatologicaldatainvalidatesglobalwarmingmodels

B. WhetherwarmingintheNorthernHemispherehasintensifiedsince1987

C. Whetherdisparitiesbetweenglobalwarmingmodelsandclimatologicaldatacanbedetected

D. Whetherlandmasseswarmmorerapidlythanoceans

E. Whetheroceanshaveasignificanteffectonglobalclimatepatterns

Inference

Accordingtotheendofthefirstparagraph,Michaelsbegantodoubtthatsulfatecoolinghadaneffectonglobalwarming,and,further,basedonthefactthathecouldnotfindananswerforwhyclimatologicaldatadidnotlineupwithglobalwarmingmodels,hequestionedtheaccuracyofthosemodels.ThesecondparagraphexplainsthatSanter,incontrast,offeredamorenuancedexplanationfortheeffectofsulfatecooling,andthatbasedonthisexplanation,hedisputedtheclaimthatclimatologicaldatawereinconsistentwiththemodels’predictions.

A. Correct.Basedonthepassage,SanterandMichaelswouldclearlydisagreeaboutwhetherclimatologicaldatainvalidateglobalwarmingmodels:Michaelscametoquestionthemodelsonthebasisofthosedata,whileSanterfoundthemodelpredictionswereinfactultimatelyconsistentwiththeobserveddata.

B. BothSanterandMichaelsaccepttheideathatwarminginthenorthhasacceleratedsince1987.

C. SanterandMichaelsbothofferedreasonsforwhytheseemingdisparitybetweenmodelsanddataoccurred—thustheyagreedthatsuchdisparitieswereinfactdetected.

D. Accordingtothesecondparagraph,Santerholdsthatlandmasseswarmmorerapidlythanoceans.ButthepassageoffersnoindicationthatMichaelsdisagreeswiththis.

E. Santer’sargumentisbasedinlargepartontheeffectofoceansonglobalclimatepatterns,butnothinginthepassage’sdiscussionofMichaels’sworkindicatesthatMichaelswoulddisagreethatoceanshavesuchaneffect.

95. Accordingtothepassage,WalkerandSzalaydisagreeonwhichofthefollowingpoints?

A. Thestructureandcompositionofaustralopithecineteeth

B. Thekindsofconclusionsthatcanbedrawnfromthemicro-wearpatternsonaustralopithecineteeth

C. Theideathatfruitwasapartoftheaustralopithecinediet

D. Theextenttowhichseedcrackingandbonecrunchingproducesimilarmicro-wearpatternsonteeth

E. Thefunctionoftheheavyenamelonaustralopithecineteeth

Supportingidea

Thisquestionreferstothefirstparagraph,whichstatesthatWalkerdoesnotagreewithSzalay’sideathattheheavyenamelofaustralopithecineteethisanadaptationtobonecrunching.

A. Accordingtothepassage,WalkerandSzalaydisagreeaboutthefunctionofheavyenamelontheteeth,notthestructureandcompositionoftheteeth.

B. ThepassagedoesnotindicatethatSzalayhasanythingtosayaboutthemicro-wearpatternsontheteeth.

C. Walkerdoes,accordingtothepassage,believethataustralopithecinesatefruit,butitgivesnoevidenceaboutwhetherSzalaybelievesthattheyateatleastsomefruit.

D. Accordingtothepassage,Walkerbelievesthatseedcrackingandbonecrunchingproducedistinctivemicro-wearpatternsonteeth,buthedoesnotnecessarilybelievethattheyaresimilar.ThepassagedoesnotindicateSzalay’spositiononthedifferencebetweenmicro-wearpatterns.

E. Correct.ThefunctionoftheheavyenamelontheteethistheonlyideaaboutwhichthepassageclearlyindicatesthatWalkerandSzalaydisagree.

96. ThepassagesuggeststhatWalker’sresearchindicatedwhichofthefollowingaboutaustralopithecineteeth?

A. Theyhadmicro-wearcharacteristicsindicatingthatfruitconstitutedonlyasmallpartoftheirdiet.

B. Theylackedmicro-wearcharacteristicsassociatedwithseedeatingandbonecrunching.

C. Theyhadmicro-wearcharacteristicsthatdifferedincertainwaysfromthemicro-wearpatternsofchimpanzeesandorangutans.

D. Theyhadmicro-wearcharacteristicssuggestingthatthedietofaustralopithecinesvariedfromoneregiontoanother.

E. Theylackedthemicro-wearcharacteristicsdistinctiveofmodernfrugivores.

Inference

Accordingtothepassage,Walker’sresearchfocusesonmicro-wearpatternsontheteethofaustralopithecines.Hedrawsseveralconclusionsonthebasisofthesepatterns:first,thataustralopithecinesdidnoteathardseeds;next,thattheydidnotcrunchbones;andfinally,thattheyatefruit.

A. ThepassageindicatesthatWalker’sobservationofmicro-wearpatternsledhimtoconcludethataustralopithecinesatemostlyfruit,notthatfruitconstitutedonlyasmallpartoftheirdiet.

B. Correct.ThefirstparagraphexplainsthatWalkerconcludedfrommicro-wearpatternsthataustralopithecinesdidnoteathardseedsanddidnotcrunchbones;thus,hisresearchmusthaveindicatedthattheylackedmicro-wearcharacteristicsassociatedwithsuchactivities.

C. Accordingtothepassage,theoppositeistrue:basedontheobservationthattheirmicro-wearpatternswereindistinguishablefromthoseofchimpanzeesandorangutans,Walkerconcludedthataustralopithecinesatefruit.

D. ThesecondparagraphofthepassagecomplicatesWalker’sviewbysuggestingthataustralopithecines’dietmighthavevariedfromoneregiontoanother,butthepassagesaysnothingaboutWalker’sresearchfromwhichtoinferthatitindicatedsuchvariation.

E. Chimpanzeesandorangutansareassumedtobefrugivores,accordingtothepassage,andWalker’sresearchindicatedthataustralopithecineteethhadmicro-wearcharacteristicsidenticaltotheirs.

97. Thepassagesuggeststhatwhichofthefollowingwouldbetrueofstudiesoftoothmicro-wearpatternsconductedonmodernbaboons?

A. Theywouldinaccuratelysuggestthatsomebaboonseatmoresoft-bodiedthanhard-bodiedinsects.

B. Theywouldsuggestthatinsectsconstitutethelargestpartofsome

baboons’diets.

C. Theywouldrevealthattherearenosignificantdifferencesintoothmicro-wearpatternsamongbaboonpopulations.

D. Theywouldinadequatelyreflecttheextenttowhichsomebaboonsconsumecertaintypesofinsects.

E. Theywouldindicatethatbaboonsincertainregionseatonlysoft-bodiedinsects,whereasbaboonsinotherregionseathard-bodiedinsects.

Inference

Thesecondparagraphstatesthatmodernbaboonseatonlysoft-bodiedinsectsandsowouldnotexhibittoothabrasiontoindicatethattheywereinsectivores.Thus,itwouldbedifficulttodetermineexactlywhichsoft-bodiedinsectstheyate.

A. Thepassagestatesthatbaboonseatonlysoft-bodiedinsects—soitisinfactaccuratetosuggestthatallbaboonseatmoresoft-bodiedthanhard-bodiedinsects.

B. Thepassagesaysthatbaboonseatonlysoft-bodiedinsects.Italsosuggeststhatsoft-bodiedinsectsdonotleavesignificantenoughabrasionsonbaboons’teethtoprovideevidenceofthisaspectoftheirdiet.Therefore,thetooth-wearpatternswouldgivelittleornoinformationregardingwhatproportionofthebaboons’overalldietconsistsofinsects.

C. Thepassagedoesnotprovidegroundsforinferringanythingaboutthedifferences,orlackthereof,amongbaboonpopulationsintermsoftoothmicro-wearpatterns.

D. Correct.Becausesoft-bodiedinsectscauselittletoothabrasion,micro-wearpatternswouldmostlikelynotreflecttheextenttowhichbaboonsconsumesoft-bodiedinsects.

E. Thepassagestatesthatbaboonseatonlysoft-bodiedinsects.Nothinginthepassagesuggeststhatbaboonsincertainregionseathard-bodiedinsects.

98. Thepassagesuggestswhichofthefollowingaboutthemicro-wear

patternsfoundontheteethofomnivorousprimates?

A. Thepatternsprovideinformationaboutwhatkindsoffoodsarenoteatenbytheparticularspeciesofprimate,butnotaboutthefoodsactuallyeaten.

B. Thepatternsofvariousprimatespecieslivinginthesameenvironmentresembleoneanother.

C. Thepatternsmaynotprovideinformationabouttheextenttowhichaparticularspecies’dietincludesseeds.

D. Thepatternsprovidemoreinformationabouttheseprimates’dietthandothetoothmicro-wearpatternsofprimateswhoarefrugivores.

E. Thepatternsmaydifferamonggroupswithinaspeciesdependingontheenvironmentwithinwhichaparticulargrouplives.

Inference

Thisquestionfocusesmainlyontheendofthesecondparagraph,whichstatesthatthedietsofcurrentomnivorousprimatesvaryconsiderablydependingontheenvironmentsinwhichtheylive.Itgoesontoconcludethataustralopithecines,iftheywereomnivores,wouldsimilarlyconsumevarieddiets,dependingonenvironment,andexhibitvariedtoothmicro-wearpatternsaswell.Thus,itisreasonabletoconcludethatanyomnivorousprimateslivingindifferentenvironmentsandconsumingdifferentdietswouldexhibitvariedmicro-wearpatterns.

A. Thepassageindicatesthattheabsenceofcertaintypesofmicro-wearpatternscanprovideevidenceaboutwhatfoodsaspeciesdoesnoteat.Italsosaysthatamongomnivorousprimates,onemightexpecttofindconsiderablepopulationvariationintheirtoothmicro-wearpatterns.Wherevermicro-wearpatternsarepresent,theyprovideevidenceaboutwhatkindsoffoodsareeaten.

B. Thepassagesuggeststhatvariousprimatespecieslivinginthesameenvironmentmightconsumeavarietyofdifferentdiets,sothereisnoreasontoconcludethattheirmicro-wearpatternswouldresembleoneanother.

C. Thepassageindicatesthatseed-eatingproducesdistinctivemicro-wearpatterns,sothepatterns,orlackthereof,ontheteethofanyspecieswouldmostlikelyprovideinformationabouttheextenttowhichthe

species’dietincludesseeds.

D. Theendofthefirstparagraphsuggeststhatfrugivores’micro-wearpatternsaredistinctive;thepassageprovidesnoreasontobelievethatomnivores’dietsprovidemoreinformation.

E. Correct.Accordingtothepassage,omnivorousprimatesofaparticularspeciesmayconsumedifferentdietsdependingonwheretheylive.Thus,theirmicro-wearpatternsmaydifferonthisbasis.

99. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatifstudiesoftoothmicro-wearpatternswereconductedonmodernbaboons,whichofthefollowingwouldmostlikelybetrueoftheresultsobtained?

A. Therewouldbeenoughabrasiontoallowadeterminationofwhetherbaboonsarefrugivorousorinsectivorous.

B. Theresultswouldsuggestthatinsectsconstitutethelargestpartofthebaboons’diet.

C. Theresultswouldrevealthattherearenosignificantdifferencesintoothmicro-wearpatternsfromoneregionalbaboonpopulationtoanother.

D. Theresultswouldprovideanaccurateindicationoftheabsenceofsomekindsofinsectsfromthebaboons’diet.

E. Theresultswouldbeunlikelytoprovideanyindicationofwhatinferencesabouttheaustralopithecinedietcanorcannotbedrawnfrommicro-wearstudies.

Inference

Thesecondparagraphstatesthatmodernbaboonseatsoft-bodiedinsectsbutnothard-bodiedones—anditishard-bodiedinsects,thepassagesuggests,thatwouldcauseparticularmicro-wearpatternsonteeth.Sothepatternsonmodernbaboons’teethmostlikelydonotexhibitthepatternsindicatinghard-bodiedinsectconsumption.

A. Thepassagestatesthatbaboons’consumptionofsoft-bodiedinsectswouldnotshowupinthepatternsontheirteeth—sotheabrasionwouldmostlikelynotprovideenoughinformationforadeterminationofwhetherbaboonsarefrugivorousorinsectivorous.

B. Sincesoft-bodiedinsectsdonotabradetheteethsignificantly,itwouldbedifficulttodetermine,basedonmicro-wearpatterns,thepartsuchinsectsplayinthebaboons’diet.Furthermore,thepassagedoesnotsuggestthatmicro-wearpatternscanindicatethequantityoffoodananimalmighthaveeaten.

C. Therecouldbedifferencesintoothmicro-wearpatternsfromoneregionalbaboonpopulationtoanotheriftheyconsumedanythinginadditiontosoft-bodiedinsects.

D. Correct.Studyingtoothmicro-wearpatternsonbaboons’teethwouldmostlikelyshowthattheirteethdonotexhibitpatternstypicalofcreaturesthatconsumehard-bodiedinsects.

E. Thepassagesuggeststhatbasedonresultsfrommicro-wearpatternsonmodernbaboons’teeth,onecannotinferfrommicro-wearstudieswhetheraustralopithecinesatesoft-bodiedinsects.

100. ItcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatWalker’sconclusionabouttheaustralopithecinedietwouldbecalledintoquestionunderwhichofthefollowingcircumstances?

A. Thetoothenamelofaustralopithecinesisfoundtobemuchheavierthanthatofmodernfrugivorousprimates.

B. Themicro-wearpatternsofaustralopithecineteethfromregionsotherthaneastAfricaareanalyzed.

C. Orangutansarefoundtohaveamuchbroaderdietthaniscurrentlyrecognized.

D. TheenvironmentofeastAfricaatthetimeaustralopithecineslivedthereisfoundtohavebeenfarmorevariedthaniscurrentlythought.

E. Theareainwhichtheaustralopithecinespecimenswerefoundisdiscoveredtohavebeenveryrichinsoft-bodiedinsectsduringtheperiodwhenaustralopithecineslivedthere.

Inference

ThepassageexplainsthatWalkerbaseshisconclusionaboutthefrugivorousnatureoftheaustralopithecinedietonthefactthatthemicro-wearpatternsonaustralopithecineteethareindistinguishablefromthose

ofchimpanzeesandorangutans,bothofwhicharepresumedtohavefrugivorousdiets.

A. ThepassageindicatesthatWalkertookintoaccountthefactthataustralopithecineshadrelativelyheavytoothenamelandthatherejectedtheviewthatthisheavinesswasevidenceagainstthehypothesisthattheywerefrugivorous.Forallwecantellfromtheinformationinthepassage,theaustralopithecines’toothenamelwasalreadyknowntobemuchheavierthanthatofmodernfrugivorousprimates.

B. Itcouldbethecasethatanalyzingthemicro-wearpatternsofaustralopithecineteethfromotherregionswouldyieldthesamedataasthosefromeastAfrica.

C. Correct.Accordingtothepassage,Walkerbasestheconclusionthataustralopithecineswerefrugivorousonthesimilaritybetweentheirmicro-wearpatternsandthoseofmodernchimpanzeesandorangutans.Iforangutanswerefoundtohaveadietthatincludedagreaterrangeofnon-fruitfoodsthaniscurrentlyrecognized,thenthecorrespondencebetweentheirmicro-wearpatternsandaustralopithecines’micro-wearpatternswouldbeconsistentwiththehypothesisthataustralopithecines’dietwasbroaderaswell.

D. EveniftheenvironmentofeastAfricaweremorevaried,thatwouldnotmeantheaustralopithecinesnecessarilyateamorevarieddiet.Manyspeciesthatliveinveryvariedenvironmentsspecializenarrowlyonparticularfoodsinthoseenvironments.

E. Justbecausemanysoft-bodiedinsectsmighthavebeenavailabletoaustralopithecinesdoesnotmeanthataustralopithecinesatethem.

101. Theauthorofthepassagementionsthedietsofbaboonsandotherlivingprimatesmostlikelyinorderto

A. provideevidencethatrefutesWalker’sconclusionsaboutthefoodsmakingupthedietsofaustralopithecines

B. suggestthatstudiesoftoothmicro-wearpatternsareprimarilyusefulfordeterminingthedietsoflivingprimates

C. suggestthataustralopithecineswereprobablyomnivoresratherthan

frugivores

D. illustratesomeofthelimitationsofusingtoothmicro-wearpatternstodrawdefinitiveconclusionsaboutagroup’sdiet

E. suggestthattoothmicro-wearpatternsarecausedbypersistent,asopposedtooccasional,consumptionofparticularfoods

Evaluation

Thepassagediscussesthedietsofbaboonsandotherlivingprimatesmainlyinthesecondparagraph,whichisconcernedwithexplainingthelimitedutilityofmicro-wearstudies.

A. TheauthorraisessomedoubtsaboutWalker’sconclusionsbutdoesnotgoasfarastotrytorefutethemoutright.Theauthorarguesonlythat,asthefinalsentenceofthepassagestates,theymayneedtobeexpanded.

B. Theauthordiscussesthedietsofbaboonsandotherlivingprimatesinrelationtomicro-wearresearchonextinctprimates.Nothinginthediscussionsuggeststhatmicro-wearstudieswouldbemoreusefulfordeterminingthedietsoflivingprimatesthanforprovidingevidenceregardingthedietsofearlierprimatesorofothertypesofanimals.Furthermore,thementionofbaboondietssuggeststhatmicro-wearstudiesmaynotbeveryusefulfordeterminingthedietsofsomelivingprimates.

C. Theauthorleavesopenthequestionofwhetheraustralopithecineswereomnivoresorfrugivores.Thepassagesuggeststhatsomeaustralopithecinesmighthavebeenomnivores,ifaustralopithecines’dietsvariedaccordingtotheenvironmentstheyinhabited.Walker’sconclusionregardingeastAfricanaustralopithecines’beingfrugivoresmightstillhold,however.

D. Correct.Theauthorreferstobaboons’dietsandthoseofcurrentomnivorousprimatesinordertosuggestthattheremightbelimitationstoWalker’suseoftoothmicro-wearpatternstodetermineaustralopithecines’diet.

E. Thepassagedoesnotmakeadistinctionbetweenpersistentandoccasionalconsumptionofparticularfoods.

A. presentrecentlydiscoveredevidencethatsupportsaconventionalinterpretationofahistoricalperiod

B. describehowreinterpretationsofavailableevidencehavereinvigoratedaonce-discreditedscholarlyposition

C. explainwhysomehistorianshavetendedtoemphasizechangeratherthancontinuityindiscussingaparticularperiod

D. explorehowchangesinaparticularoccupationservetocountertheprevailingviewofahistoricalperiod

E. examineaparticularareaofhistoricalresearchinordertoexemplifyageneralscholarlytrend

Mainidea

Thisquestionasksaboutthepassage’smainpurpose.Thefirstparagraphinitiallydescribesawayinwhichhistoriographyischanging:theideaofaconsistent,monolithicdeclineinwomen’sstatusisbeingcomplicatedbyrecentresearch.TherestofthepassageusestheexampleofPinchbeck’sinterpretationofwomen’sworkinEnglishcheesemakingtoshowthelimitsofearlierideasaboutwomen’sstatus:Pinchbeck’sworkillustratestheideaofconsistentdecline,butrecentscholarshiphascalledthatworkintoquestion.

A. ThefirstparagraphsuggeststhatPinchbeck’sworkrepresentstheconventionalpositionthatwomen’sstatusdeclinedconsistentlywiththeadventofcapitalism;accordingtothepassage,recentevidenceundermines,ratherthansupports,thatposition.

B. Accordingtothepassage,reinterpretationsofevidencehaveinspirednewinterpretations;theyhavenotreinvigoratedadiscreditedposition.

C. Thepassageisconcernedwithnotingbothchangeandcontinuity,asstatedinthefirstsentence.

D. Inthepassage,continuity,notchange,inaparticularoccupation—Englishfarmhousecheesemaking—helpstocountertheprevailingview.

E. Correct.Thepassage’smainpurposeistoexaminewomen’sworkin

Englishfarmhousecheesemakingsoastoillustrateatrendinhistoriographyofwomen’sstatusundercapitalismandindustrialization.

103. RegardingEnglishlocalmarketsandfairs,whichofthefollowingcanbeinferredfromthepassage?

A. Bothbeforeandaftertheagriculturalrevolution,thesellersofagriculturalproductsatthesevenuesweremen.

B. Knowingwhotheactivesellerswereatthesevenuesmaynotgiveareliableindicationofwhocontrolledtherevenuefromthesales.

C. TherewerenoparallelinstitutionsatwhichAmericancheesemakerscouldselltheirownproducts.

D. Priortotheagriculturalrevolution,thesellersofagriculturalproductsatthesevenuesweregenerallytheproducersthemselves.

E. Priortotheagriculturalrevolution,womensoldnotonlycheesebutalsoproductsofarableagricultureatthesevenues.

Inference

ThepassagediscussesEnglishlocalmarketsandfairsinthefirstandsecondparagraphs:thefirstparagraphstatesthatbeforetheagriculturalrevolution,womenhadsoldcheeseinsuchvenuesbutthatafterthat,factors,whoweremen,soldthecheese.ThesecondparagrapharguesthateventhoughEnglishwomeninprecapitalist,preindustrialtimesmayhaveatonepointsoldcheeseatfairs,evidenceindicatesthatinatleastonecase,amanappropriatedmostofthemoneyhiswifemadefromhersales.

A. Thefirstparagraphstatesthatpriortotheagriculturalrevolution,womensoldcheeseatlocalmarketsandfairs.

B. Correct.Asthesecondparagraphindicates,womenmayhavesoldthecheese,butthereisevidencetosuggestthattheydidnotnecessarilycontroltherevenuefromitssale.

C. ThepassagedoesnotprovideevidenceregardinganyinstitutionsatwhichAmericancheesemakerssoldtheirproducts.

D. WhilethepassageindicatesthattheproducersofEnglishfarmhousecheesemayhavebeentheoneswhosoldthatcheeseatlocalmarkets

andfairs,thereisnoevidencetosuggestthatthiswasnecessarilythecaseforotheragriculturalproducts.

E. Thepassageprovidesnoinformationregardingwhetherwomensoldproductsofarableagricultureinanyvenue.

104. ThepassagedescribestheworkofPinchbeckprimarilyinorderto

A. demonstratethatsomeoftheconclusionsreachedbyrecenthistorianswereanticipatedinearlierscholarship

B. provideaninstanceoftheviewpointthat,accordingtothepassage’sauthor,isbeingsuperseded

C. illustratethewaysinwhichrecenthistorianshavebuiltontheworkoftheirpredecessors

D. provideapointofreferenceforsubsequentscholarshiponwomen’sworkduringtheagriculturalrevolution

E. showtheeffectthatthespecializationintroducedintheagriculturalandindustrialrevolutionshadonwomen’swork

Evaluation

ThisquestionfocusesonthefunctionofPinchbeck’sworkinthepassage.Pinchbeck’sstudyofwomen’sworkincheeseproductionis,accordingtothepassage,anillustrationoftheviewthatwomen’sstatusdeclinedconsistentlywiththeadventofindustrialization.Thatview,theauthorclaims,isbeingchallengedbycurrenthistoriography.

A. ThepassageindicatesthattheconclusionsofPinchbeck,whorepresentsearlierscholarship,didnotanticipaterecentwork,butratherthatrecentworkarguesagainstthoseconclusions.

B. Correct.Pinchbeck’sworkillustratesearliertrendsinhistoriography,trendsthattheauthorsuggestsarenowgivingwaytonewerideas.

C. ThepassagedoesnotfocusonanywaysinwhichrecenthistorianshavebuiltonPinchbeck’swork;instead,itdiscusseshowtheyhavearguedagainstitsconclusions.

D. Pinchbeck’sworkprovidesapointofreferenceonlyinsofarassubsequentscholarshipisarguingagainstit.

E. Pinchbeckmakestheargumentthatspecializationcausedwomen’sstatustodecline,butthepassageisconcernedwithunderminingthisargument.

105. Itcanbeinferredfromthepassagethatwomendidworkin

A. Americancheesemakingatsomepointpriortoindustrialization

B. arableagricultureinnorthernEnglandbothbeforeandaftertheagriculturalrevolution

C. arableagricultureinsoutheastEnglandaftertheagriculturalrevolution,inthoselocalesinwhichculturalvaluessupportedtheirparticipation

D. thesaleofcheeseatlocalmarketsinEnglandevenaftertheagriculturalrevolution

E. someareasofAmericancheesedairyingafterindustrialization

Inference

Thisquestionfocusesmainlyonthefinalparagraphofthepassage,inwhichwomen’scontinuedworkinEnglishcheesedairyingiscontrastedwithwhatthepassagecallstheirdisappearancefromarableagricultureinsoutheastEnglandandfromAmericancheesedairying,presumablyduringtheperiodofindustrialization.Thecorrectanswerwillbeaconclusionthatcanbedrawnfromthisinformation.

A. Correct.Thatwomen“disappeared”fromAmericancheesedairyingduringindustrializationprovidesgroundsforinferringthattheydidsuchdairyingworkatsomepointpriortoindustrialization.

B. ThepassagesaysthatwomendisappearedfromarableagricultureinsoutheastEngland,butitgivesnoinformationabouttheirparticipationinarableagricultureinnorthernEngland.

C. Thepassagemakesablanketstatementaboutwomen’sdisappearancefromarableagricultureinsoutheastEngland,sothereisnoreasontoinferthatanylocalessupportedwomen’sparticipationinagriculture.

D. Thefirstparagraphstatesthatfactors,whoweremen,soldcheeseaftertheagriculturalrevolution.

E. Thefinalparagraphexplicitlystatesthatwomendisappearedfrom

Americancheesedairying;thus,thereisnobasisforinferringthatwomenworkedinanyareasofthatfieldafterindustrialization.

4.0CriticalReasoning

4.0CriticalReasoningCriticalreasoningquestionsappearintheVerbalsectionoftheGMAT®exam.TheVerbalsectionusesmultiple-choicequestionstomeasureyourabilitytoreadandcomprehendwrittenmaterial,toreasonandtoevaluatearguments,andtocorrectwrittenmaterialtoconformtostandardwrittenEnglish.BecausetheVerbalsectionincludescontentfromavarietyoftopics,youmaybegenerallyfamiliarwithsomeofthematerial;however,neitherthepassagesnorthequestionsassumeknowledgeofthetopicsdiscussed.CriticalreasoningquestionsareintermingledwithreadingcomprehensionandsentencecorrectionquestionsthroughouttheVerbalsectionofthetest.

Youwillhave75minutestocompletetheVerbalsection,orabout1¾minutestoanswereachquestion.Althoughcriticalreasoningquestionsarebasedonwrittenpassages,thesepassagesareshorterthanreadingcomprehensionpassages.Theytendtobelessthan100wordsinlengthandgenerallyarefollowedbyoneortwoquestions.Forthesequestions,youwillseeasplitcomputerscreen.Thewrittenpassagewillremainvisibleatthetopofthescreen.Inturn,eachassociatedquestionwillappearbelowtherelevantpassage.

Criticalreasoningquestionsaredesignedtotestthereasoningskillsinvolvedin(1)makingarguments,(2)evaluatingarguments,and(3)formulatingorevaluatingaplanofaction.Thematerialsonwhichquestionsarebasedaredrawnfromavarietyofsources.TheGMATexamdoesnotexpectanyfamiliaritywiththesubjectmatterofthosematerials.

Inthesequestions,youaretoanalyzethesituationonwhicheachquestionisbased,andthenselecttheanswerchoicethatmostappropriatelyanswersthequestion.Beginbyreadingthepassagescarefully,thenreadingthefiveanswerchoices.Ifthecorrectanswerisnotimmediatelyobvioustoyou,seewhetheryoucaneliminatesomeofthewronganswers.Readingthepassageasecondtimemaybehelpfulinilluminatingsubtletiesthatwerenotimmediatelyevident.

Answeringcriticalreasoningquestionsrequiresnospecializedknowledgeofanyparticularfield;youdon’thavetohaveknowledgeoftheterminologyandconventionsofformallogic.Thesamplecriticalreasoningquestionsinthischapterillustratethevarietyoftopicsthetestmaycover,thekindsofquestionsitmayask,andthelevelofanalysisitrequires.

itmayask,andthelevelofanalysisitrequires.

Thefollowingpagesdescribewhatcriticalreasoningquestionsaredesignedtomeasureandpresentthedirectionsthatwillprecedequestionsofthistype.Samplequestionsandexplanationsofthecorrectanswersfollow.

4.1WhatIsMeasuredCriticalreasoningquestionsaredesignedtoprovideonemeasureofyourabilitytoreasoneffectivelyinthefollowingareas:

Argumentconstruction

Questionsinthiscategorymayaskyoutorecognizesuchthingsasthebasicstructureofanargument,properlydrawnconclusions,underlyingassumptions,well-supportedexplanatoryhypotheses,andparallelsbetweenstructurallysimilararguments.

Argumentevaluation

Thesequestionsmayaskyoutoanalyzeagivenargumentandtorecognizesuchthingsasfactorsthatwouldstrengthenorweakenthegivenargument;reasoningerrorscommittedinmakingthatargument;andaspectsofthemethodbywhichtheargumentproceeds.

Formulatingandevaluatingaplanofaction

Thistypeofquestionmayaskyoutorecognizesuchthingsastherelativeappropriateness,effectiveness,orefficiencyofdifferentplansofaction,factorsthatwouldstrengthenorweakentheprospectsofsuccessofaproposedplanofaction,andassumptionsunderlyingaproposedplanofaction.

4.2Test-TakingStrategies1. Readverycarefullythesetofstatementsonwhichaquestionisbased.

Paycloseattentionto

whatisputforwardasfactualinformation

whatisnotsaidbutnecessarilyfollowsfromwhatissaid

whatisclaimedtofollowfromfactsthathavebeenputforward

howwellsubstantiatedareanyclaimsthataparticularconclusion

followsfromthefactsthathavebeenputforward

Inreadingthearguments,itisimportanttopayattentiontothelogicalreasoningused;theactualtruthofstatementsportrayedasfactisnotimportant.

2. Identifytheconclusion.

Theconclusiondoesnotnecessarilycomeattheendofthetext;itmaycomesomewhereinthemiddleorevenatthebeginning.Bealerttocluesinthetextthatanargumentfollowslogicallyfromanotherstatementorstatementsinthetext.

3. Determineexactlywhateachquestionasks.

Youmightfindithelpfultoreadthequestionfirst,beforereadingthematerialonwhichitisbased;don’tassumethatyouknowwhatyouwillbeaskedaboutanargument.Anargumentmayhaveobviousflaws,andonequestionmayaskyoutodetectthem.OtherquestionsmaydirectyoutoselecttheoneanswerchoicethatdoesNOTdescribeaflawintheargument.

4. Readalltheanswerchoicescarefully.

Donotassumethatagivenansweristhebestwithoutfirstreadingallthechoices.

4.3TheDirectionsThesearethedirectionsyouwillseeforcriticalreasoningquestionswhenyoutaketheGMATexam.Ifyoureadthemcarefullyandunderstandthemclearlybeforegoingtositforthetest,youwillnotneedtospendtoomuchtimereviewingthemwhenyouareatthetestcenterandthetestisunderway.

Forthesequestions,selectthebestoftheanswerchoicesgiven.

4.4SampleQuestionsEachofthecriticalreasoningquestionsisbasedonashortargument,asetofstatements,oraplanofaction.Foreachquestion,selectthebestanswerofthechoicesgiven.

106. PhishCorunsanumberoffarmsinthearidprovinceofNufa,dependinglargelyonirrigation.Now,aspartofaplantoefficientlyincreasethe

farms’totalproduction,itplanstodrilldowntoanaquifercontainingwarm,slightlysaltywaterthatwillbeusedtoraisefishinponds.Thewaterfromthepondswilllaterbeusedtosupplementpiped-inirrigationwaterforPhishCo’svegetablefields,andthepondsandaccompanyingvegetationshouldhelpreducetheheatintheareaofthefarms.

Whichofthefollowingwould,iftrue,moststronglysuggestthattheplan,ifimplemented,wouldincreasetheoverallefficiencyofPhishCo’sfarms?

A. MostofthevegetationtobeplacedaroundthepondsisnativetoNufa.

B. FishraisedonPhishCo’sfarmsarelikelytobesaleableinthenearesturbanareas.

C. Organicwastefromfishinthepondwaterwillhelptofertilizefieldswhereitisusedforirrigation.

D. ThegovernmentofNufawillhelptoarrangeloanfinancingtopartiallycoverthecostsofdrilling.

E. Pondswillbelocatedonlow-lyinglandnowpartiallyoccupiedbygraincrops.

107. Thesustainedmassiveuseofpesticidesinfarminghastwoeffectsthatareespeciallypernicious.First,itoftenkillsoffthepests’naturalenemiesinthearea.Second,itoftenunintentionallygivesrisetoinsecticide-resistantpests,sincethoseinsectsthatsurviveaparticularinsecticidewillbetheonesmostresistanttoit,andtheyaretheoneslefttobreed.

Fromthepassageabove,itcanbeproperlyinferredthattheeffectivenessofthesustainedmassiveuseofpesticidescanbeextendedbydoingwhichofthefollowing,assumingthateachisarealisticpossibility?

A. Usingonlychemicallystableinsecticides

B. Periodicallyswitchingthetypeofinsecticideused

C. Graduallyincreasingthequantitiesofpesticidesused

D. Leavingafewfieldsfalloweveryyear

E. Breedinghigher-yieldingvarietiesofcropplants

108. Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mostlogicallycompletestheargumentbelow?

Manufacturersarenowrequiredtomakeallcigarettelighterschild-resistantbyequippingthemwithsafetylevers.Butthischangeisunlikely

resistantbyequippingthemwithsafetylevers.Butthischangeisunlikelytoresultinasignificantreductioninthenumberoffirescausedbychildrenplayingwithlighters,becausechildrengiventheopportunitycanfigureouthowtoworkthesafetyleversand________.

A. theadditionofthesafetylevershasmadelightersmoreexpensivethantheywerebeforetherequirementwasinstituted

B. adultsaremorelikelytoleavechild-resistantlightersthannon-child-resistantlightersinplacesthatareaccessibletochildren

C. manyofthefiresstartedbyyoungchildrenarequicklydetectedandextinguishedbytheirparents

D. unlikechild-resistantlighters,lightersthatarenotchild-resistantcanbeoperatedbychildrenasyoungastwoyearsold

E. approximately5,000firesperyearhavebeenattributedtochildrenplayingwithlightersbeforethesafetyleverswererequired

109. Whichofthefollowingmostlogicallycompletesthepassage?

AbusinessanalysisoftheAppenianrailroadsystemdivideditslong-distancepassengerroutesintotwocategories:ruralroutesandinterurbanroutes.Theanalysisfoundthat,unliketheinterurbanroutes,fewruralroutescarriedahighenoughpassengervolumetobeprofitable.Closingunprofitableruralroutes,however,willnotnecessarilyenhancetheprofitabilityofthewholesystem,since________.

A. alargepartofthepassengervolumeoninterurbanroutesisaccountedforbypassengerswhobeginorendtheirjourneysonruralroutes

B. withinthelasttwodecadesseveraloftheleastusedruralrouteshavebeenclosedandtheirpassengerserviceshavebeenreplacedbybuses

C. theruralrouteswerealloriginallyconstructedatleastonehundredyearsago,whereassomeoftheinterurbanrouteswereconstructedrecentlyfornewhigh-speedexpresstrains

D. notallofAppenia’slargecitiesareequallywellservedbyinterurbanrailroadservices

E. thegreatestpassengervolume,relativetotheroutes’capacity,isnotoneithercategoryoflong-distanceroutesbutisonsuburbancommuterroutes

110. AlthoughAckerburg’ssubwaysystemiscurrentlyoperatingatadeficit,

thetransitauthoritywilllowersubwayfaresnextyear.Theauthorityprojectsthatthelowerfareswillresultinatenpercentincreaseinthenumberofsubwayriders.Sincetheadditionalincomefromthelargerridershipwillmorethanoffsetthedecreaseduetolowerfares,thetransitauthorityactuallyexpectsthefarereductiontoreduceoreliminatethesubwaysystem’soperatingdeficitfornextyear.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,providesthemostsupportforthetransitauthority’sexpectationofreducingthesubwaysystem’soperatingdeficit?

A. Throughouttheyearsthatthesubwaysystemhasoperated,fareshaveneverbeforebeenreduced.

B. Theplannedfarereductionwillnotapplytostudents,whocanalreadyridethesubwayforareducedfare.

C. Nextyear,thetransitauthoritywillhavetoundertakeseverallarge-scaletrackmaintenanceprojects.

D. Thesubwaysystemcanaccommodateatenpercentincreaseinridershipwithoutincreasingthenumberoftrainsitrunseachday.

E. ThecurrentsubwayfaresinAckerburgarehigherthansubwayfaresinothercitiesintheregion.

111. Patrickusuallyprovideschildcareforsixchildren.ParentsleavetheirchildrenatPatrick’shouseinthemorningandpickthemupafterwork.Attheendofeachworkweek,theparentspayPatrickatanhourlyrateforthechildcareprovidedthatweek.TheweeklyincomePatrickreceivesisusuallyadequatebutnotalwaysuniform,particularlyinthewinter,whenchildrenarelikelytogetsickandbeunpredictablyabsent.

Whichofthefollowingplans,ifputintoeffect,hasthebestprospectofmakingPatrick’sweeklyincomebothuniformandadequate?

A. Poolresourceswithaneighborwhoprovideschildcareundersimilararrangements,sothatthetwoofthemcooperateincaringfortwiceasmanychildrenasPatrickcurrentlydoes.

B. ReplacepaymentbyactualhoursofchildcareprovidedwithafixedweeklyfeebaseduponthenumberofhoursofchildcarethatPatrickwouldtypicallybeexpectedtoprovide.

C. Hireafull-timehelperandinvestinfacilitiesforprovidingchildcaretosickchildren.

D. IncreasethehourlyratetoalevelthatwouldprovideadequateincomeeveninaweekwhenhalfofthechildrenPatrickusuallycaresforareabsent.

E. Increasethenumberofhoursmadeavailableforchildcareeachday,sothatparentscanleavetheirchildreninPatrick’scareforalongerperiodeachdayatthecurrenthourlyrate.

112. Editorial:ConsumersinNorthAmericathinkthatbydrinkingfrozenconcentratedorangejuice,theyaresavingenergy,becauseittakesfewertruckloadstotransportitthanittakestotransportanequivalentamountofnot-from-concentratejuice.Buttheyaremistaken,fortheamountofenergyrequiredtoconcentratethejuiceisfargreaterthantheenergydifferenceinthejuices’transport.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldprovidethegreatestadditionalsupportfortheeditorial’sconclusion?

A. Freezertrucksusesubstantiallymoreenergypermiledriventhandoanyothertypesoftrucks.

B. Frozenjuicecanbestoredforseveralyears,whilenot-from-concentratejuicelastsamuchshortertime.

C. OrangesgrowninBrazilmakeupanincreasingpercentageofthefruitusedinnot-from-concentratejuiceproduction.

D. Aservingofnot-from-concentratejuicetakesuptosixtimesmorespacethanaservingoffrozenconcentratedjuice.

E. Thoughfrozenconcentratedjuicemustbekeptatalowertemperature,not-from-concentratejuiceisfarmoresensitivetosmalltemperaturefluctuations.

113. Acomputerequippedwithsignature-recognitionsoftware,whichrestrictsaccesstoacomputertothosepeoplewhosesignaturesareonfile,identifiesaperson’ssignaturebyanalyzingnotonlytheformofthesignaturebutalsosuchcharacteristicsaspenpressureandsigningspeed.Eventhemostadeptforgerscannotduplicateallofthecharacteristicstheprogramanalyzes.

Whichofthefollowingcanbelogicallyconcludedfromthepassageabove?

A. Thetimeittakestorecordandanalyzeasignaturemakesthesoftware

impracticalforeverydayuse.

B. Computersequippedwiththesoftwarewillsoonbeinstalledinmostbanks.

C. Nobodycangainaccesstoacomputerequippedwiththesoftwaresolelybyvirtueofskillatforgingsignatures.

D. Signature-recognitionsoftwarehastakenmanyyearstodevelopandperfect.

E. Inmanycasesevenauthorizedusersaredeniedlegitimateaccesstocomputersequippedwiththesoftware.

114. Therateatwhicharoadwearsdependsonvariousfactors,includingclimate,amountoftraffic,andthesizeandweightofthevehiclesusingit.TheonlylandtransportationtoRittland’sseaportisviaadividedhighway,onesidecarryingtraffictotheseaportandonecarryingtrafficawayfromit.Thesideleadingtotheseaporthaswornfaster,eventhougheachsidehascarriedvirtuallythesameamountoftraffic,consistingmainlyoflargetrucks.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mosthelpstoexplainthedifferenceintherateofwear?

A. ThevolumeoftraffictoandfromRittland’sseaporthasincreasedbeyondtheintendedcapacityofthehighwaythatservesit.

B. WearonthehighwaythatservesRittland’sseaportisconsiderablygreaterduringthecoldwintermonths.

C. WearonthesideofthehighwaythatleadstoRittland’sseaporthasencouragedpeopletotakebusestotheseaportratherthandrivingthereintheirownautomobiles.

D. AgreatertonnageofgoodsisexportedfromRittland’sseaportthanisimportedthroughit.

E. AllofRittland’sautomobilesareimportedbyship.

115. InpartsofSouthAmerica,vitamin-Adeficiencyisaserioushealthproblem,especiallyamongchildren.Inoneregion,agriculturistsareattemptingtoimprovenutritionbyencouragingfarmerstoplantanewvarietyofsweetpotatocalledSPK004thatisrichinbeta-carotene,whichthebodyconvertsintovitaminA.Theplanhasgoodchancesofsuccess,

sincesweetpotatoisastapleoftheregion’sdietandagriculture,andthevarietiescurrentlygrowncontainlittlebeta-carotene.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,moststronglysupportsthepredictionthattheplanwillsucceed?

A. ThegrowingconditionsrequiredbythevarietiesofsweetpotatocurrentlycultivatedintheregionareconditionsinwhichSPK004canflourish.

B. ThefleshofSPK004differsfromthatofthecurrentlycultivatedsweetpotatoesincolorandtexture,sotraditionalfoodswouldlooksomewhatdifferentwhenpreparedfromSPK004.

C. Therearenoothervarietiesofsweetpotatothataresignificantlyricherinbeta-carotenethanSPK004is.

D. ThevarietiesofsweetpotatocurrentlycultivatedintheregioncontainsomeimportantnutrientsthatarelackinginSPK004.

E. Thereareothervegetablescurrentlygrownintheregionthatcontainmorebeta-carotenethanthecurrentlycultivatedvarietiesofsweetpotatodo.

116. Whichofthefollowingmostlogicallycompletestheargument?

Thelastmembersofanow-extinctspeciesofaEuropeanwilddeercalledthegiantdeerlivedinIrelandabout16,000yearsago.PrehistoriccavepaintingsinFrancedepictthisanimalashavingalargehumponitsback.Fossilsofthisanimal,however,donotshowanyhump.Nevertheless,thereisnoreasontoconcludethatthecavepaintingsarethereforeinaccurateinthisregard,since__________.

A. someprehistoriccavepaintingsinFrancealsodepictotheranimalsashavingahump

B. fossilsofthegiantdeeraremuchmorecommoninIrelandthaninFrance

C. animalhumpsarecomposedoffattytissue,whichdoesnotfossilize

D. thecavepaintingsofthegiantdeerwerepaintedwellbefore16,000yearsago

E. onlyonecurrentlyexistingspeciesofdeerhasanyanatomicalfeaturethatevenremotelyresemblesahump

117. Highlevelsoffertilizerandpesticides,neededwhenfarmerstrytoproducehighyieldsofthesamecropyearafteryear,pollutewatersupplies.Expertsthereforeurgefarmerstodiversifytheircropsandtorotatetheirplantingsyearly.

Toreceivegovernmentalprice-supportbenefitsforacrop,farmersmusthaveproducedthatsamecropforthepastseveralyears.

Thestatementsabove,iftrue,bestsupportwhichofthefollowingconclusions?

A. Therulesforgovernmentalsupportoffarmpricesworkagainsteffortstoreducewaterpollution.

B. Theonlysolutiontotheproblemofwaterpollutionfromfertilizersandpesticidesistotakefarmlandoutofproduction.

C. Farmerscancontinuetomakeaprofitbyrotatingdiversecrops,thusreducingcostsforchemicals,butnotbyplantingthesamecropeachyear.

D. Newfarmingtechniqueswillbedevelopedtomakeitpossibleforfarmerstoreducetheapplicationoffertilizersandpesticides.

E. Governmentalpricesupportsforfarmproductsaresetatlevelsthatarenothighenoughtoallowfarmerstogetoutofdebt.

118. TenyearsagothenumberoftaxpayersinGreenspaceCountywasslightlygreaterthanthenumberofregisteredvoters.Thenumberoftaxpayershasdoubledoverthelasttenyears,whilethenumberofregisteredvotershasincreased,butatalowerratethanhasthenumberoftaxpayers.

WhichofthefollowingmustbetrueinGreenspaceCountyifthestatementsabovearetrue?

A. Thenumberoftaxpayersisnowsmallerthanthenumberofregisteredvoters.

B. Everyonewhoisaregisteredvoterisalsoataxpayer.

C. Theproportionofregisteredvoterstotaxpayershasincreasedoverthelasttenyears.

D. Theproportionofregisteredvoterstotaxpayershasdecreasedoverthelasttenyears.

E. Theproportionofregisteredvoterstotaxpayershasremained

unchangedoverthelasttenyears.

119. Theinterviewisanessentialpartofasuccessfulhiringprogrambecause,withit,jobapplicantswhohavepersonalitiesthatareunsuitedtotherequirementsofthejobwillbeeliminatedfromconsideration.

Theargumentabovelogicallydependsonwhichofthefollowingassumptions?

A. Ahiringprogramwillbesuccessfulifitincludesinterviews.

B. Theinterviewisamoreimportantpartofasuccessfulhiringprogramthanisthedevelopmentofajobdescription.

C. Interviewerscanaccuratelyidentifyapplicantswhosepersonalitiesareunsuitedtotherequirementsofthejob.

D. Theonlypurposeofaninterviewistoevaluatewhetherjobapplicants’personalitiesaresuitedtotherequirementsofthejob.

E. Thefitofjobapplicants’personalitiestotherequirementsofthejobwasoncethemostimportantfactorinmakinghiringdecisions.

120. Manyleadershiptheorieshaveprovidedevidencethatleadersaffectgroupsuccessratherthanthesuccessofparticularindividuals.Soitisirrelevanttoanalyzetheeffectsofsupervisortraitsontheattitudesofindividualswhomtheysupervise.Instead,assessmentofleadershipeffectivenessshouldoccuronlyatthegrouplevel.

Whichofthefollowingwoulditbemostusefultoestablishinordertoevaluatetheargument?

A. Whethersupervisors’documentationofindividualsupervisees’attitudestowardthemisusuallyaccurate

B. Whetheritispossibletoassessindividualsupervisees’attitudestowardtheirsupervisorswithouttherebychangingthoseattitudes

C. Whetheranyoftheleadershiptheoriesinquestionholdthatleadersshouldassessotherleaders’attitudes

D. Whethersometypesofgroupsdonotneedsupervisioninordertobesuccessfulintheirendeavors

E. Whetherindividuals’attitudestowardsupervisorsaffectgroupsuccess

121. AmajorhealthinsurancecompanyinLagoliapaysforspecialprocedures

prescribedbyphysiciansonlyiftheprocedureisfirstapprovedas“medicallynecessary”byacompany-appointedreviewpanel.Theruleisintendedtosavethecompanythemoneyitmightotherwisespendonmedicallyunnecessaryprocedures.Thecompanyhasrecentlyannouncedthatinordertoreduceitscosts,itwillabandonthisrule.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,providesthestrongestjustificationforthecompany’sdecision?

A. Patientsoftenregisterdissatisfactionwithphysicianswhoprescribenothingfortheirailments.

B. Physiciansoftenprescribespecialproceduresthatarehelpfulbutnotaltogethernecessaryforthehealthofthepatient.

C. Thereviewprocessisexpensiveandpracticallyalwaysresultsinapprovaloftheprescribedprocedure.

D. Thecompany’sreviewprocessdoesnotinterferewiththeprerogativeofphysicians,incaseswheremorethanoneeffectiveprocedureisavailable,toselecttheonetheypersonallyprefer.

E. Thenumberofmembersofthecompany-appointedreviewpanelwhoreviewagivenproceduredependsonthecostoftheprocedure.

122. Toevaluateaplantosavemoneyonoffice-spaceexpendituresbyhavingitsemployeesworkathome,XYZCompanyaskedvolunteersfromitsstafftotrythearrangementforsixmonths.Duringthisperiod,theproductivityoftheseemployeeswasashighasorhigherthanbefore.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldarguemoststronglyagainstdeciding,onthebasisofthetrialresults,toimplementthecompany’splan?

A. Theemployeeswhoagreedtoparticipateinthetestoftheplanwereamongthecompany’smostself-motivatedandindependentworkers.

B. Thesavingsthatwouldaccruefromreducedoffice-spaceexpendituresalonewouldbesufficienttojustifythearrangementforthecompany,apartfromanyproductivityincreases.

C. Othercompaniesthathaveachievedsuccessfulresultsfromwork-at-homeplanshaveworkforcesthataresubstantiallylargerthanthatofXYZ.

D. Thevolunteerswhoworkedathomewereabletocommunicatewithotheremployeesasnecessaryforperformingthework.

E. MinorchangesinthewayofficeworkisorganizedatXYZwouldyieldincreasesinemployeeproductivitysimilartothoseachievedinthetrial.

123. Consumerhealthadvocate:Yourcandycompanyaddscaffeinetoyourchocolatecandybarssothateachonedeliversaspecifiedamountofcaffeine.Sincecaffeineishighlyaddictive,thisindicatesthatyouintendtokeepyourcustomersaddicted.

Candymanufacturer:Ourmanufacturingprocessresultsintherebeinglesscaffeineineachchocolatecandybarthanintheunprocessedcacaobeansfromwhichthechocolateismade.

Thecandymanufacturer’sresponseisflawedasarefutationoftheconsumerhealthadvocate’sargumentbecauseit

A. failstoaddresstheissueofwhetherthelevelofcaffeineinthecandybarssoldbythemanufacturerisenoughtokeeppeopleaddicted

B. assumeswithoutwarrantthatallunprocessedcacaobeanscontainauniformamountofcaffeine

C. doesnotspecifyexactlyhowcaffeineislostinthemanufacturingprocess

D. treatstheconsumerhealthadvocate’sargumentasthoughitwereabouteachcandybarratherthanaboutthemanufacturer’scandyingeneral

E. merelycontradictstheconsumerhealthadvocate’sconclusionwithoutgivinganyreasontobelievethattheadvocate’sreasoningisunsound

124. Nutritionistsareadvisingpeopletoeatmorefish,sincetheomega-3fattyacidsinfishhelpcombatmanydiseases.Ifeveryonetookthisadvice,however,therewouldnotbeenoughfishinoceans,rivers,andlakestosupplythedemand;theoceansarealreadybeingoverfished.Theobviousmethodtoeasethepressureonwildfishpopulationsisforpeopletoincreasetheirconsumptionoffarmedfish.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,raisesthemostseriousdoubtconcerningtheprospectsforsuccessofthesolutionproposedabove?

A. Aquaculture,orfishfarming,raisesmorefishinagivenvolumeofwaterthanaregenerallypresentinthewild.

B. Somefishfarming,particularlyofshrimpandothershellfish,takesplaceinenclosuresintheocean.

C. Therearelargeexpansesofoceanwatersthatdonotcontainenoughnutrientstosupportsubstantialfishpopulations.

D. Thefeedforfarmedoceanfishislargelymadefromsmallwild-caughtfish,includingtheyoungofmanypopularfoodspecies.

E. Someofthespeciesthatarenowfarmedextensivelywerenotcommonlyeatenwhentheywereonlyavailableinthewild.

125. Cropscanbetradedonthefuturesmarketbeforetheyareharvested.Ifapoorcornharvestispredicted,pricesofcornfuturesrise;ifabountifulcornharvestispredicted,pricesofcornfuturesfall.Thismorningmeteorologistsarepredictingmuch-neededrainforthecorn-growingregionstartingtomorrow.Therefore,sinceadequatemoistureisessentialforthecurrentcrop’ssurvival,pricesofcornfutureswillfallsharplytoday.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mostweakenstheargumentabove?

A. Cornthatdoesnotreceiveadequatemoistureduringitscriticalpollinationstagewillnotproduceabountifulharvest.

B. Futurespricesforcornhavebeenfluctuatingmoredramaticallythisseasonthanlastseason.

C. Therainthatmeteorologistspredictedfortomorrowisexpectedtoextendwellbeyondthecorn-growingregion.

D. Agricultureexpertsannouncedtodaythatadiseasethathasdevastatedsomeofthecorncropwillspreadwidelybeforetheendofthegrowingseason.

E. Mostpeoplewhotradeincornfuturesrarelytakephysicalpossessionofthecorntheytrade.

126. Largenationalbudgetdeficitsdonotcauselargetradedeficits.Iftheydid,countrieswiththelargestbudgetdeficitswouldalsohavethelargesttradedeficits.Infact,whendeficitfiguresareadjustedsothatdifferentcountriesarereliablycomparabletoeachother,thereisnosuch

correlation.

Ifthestatementsabovearealltrue,whichofthefollowingcanproperlybeinferredonthebasisofthem?

A. Countrieswithlargenationalbudgetdeficitstendtorestrictforeigntrade.

B. Reliablecomparisonsofthedeficitfiguresofonecountrywiththoseofanotherareimpossible.

C. Reducingacountry’snationalbudgetdeficitwillnotnecessarilyresultinaloweringofanytradedeficitthatcountrymayhave.

D. Whencountriesareorderedfromlargesttosmallestintermsofpopulation,thesmallestcountriesgenerallyhavethesmallestbudgetandtradedeficits.

E. Countrieswiththelargesttradedeficitsneverhavesimilarlylargenationalbudgetdeficits.

127. Whichofthefollowingbestcompletesthepassagebelow?

Themoreworriedinvestorsareaboutlosingtheirmoney,themoretheywilldemandahighpotentialreturnontheirinvestment;greatrisksmustbeoffsetbythechanceofgreatrewards.Thisprincipleisthefundamentaloneindetermininginterestrates,anditisillustratedbythefactthat

A. successfulinvestorsaredistinguishedbyanabilitytomakeveryriskyinvestmentswithoutworryingabouttheirmoney

B. lendersreceivehigherinterestratesonunsecuredloansthanonloansbackedbycollateral

C. intimesofhighinflation,theinterestpaidtodepositorsbybankscanactuallybebelowtherateofinflation

D. atanyonetime,acommercialbankwillhaveasinglerateofinterestthatitwillexpectallofitsindividualborrowerstopay

E. thepotentialreturnoninvestmentinanewcompanyistypicallylowerthanthepotentialreturnoninvestmentinawell-establishedcompany

128. Itisoftensaidthathighratesofinflationtendtodiminishpeople’sincentivetosaveandinvest.Thisviewmustbeincorrect,however,becausepeoplegenerallysavedandinvestedmoreoftheirincomeinthe1970’swheninflationrateswerehighthantheydidinthe1980’swhen

inflationrateswerelow.

Ofthefollowing,thebestcriticismoftheargumentaboveisthatitoverlooksthepossibilitythat

A. allpeopledonotrespondinthesamewaytoagiveneconomicstimulus

B. certainfactorsoperatinginthe1980’sbutnotinthe1970’sdiminishedpeople’sincentivetosaveandinvest

C. thepopulationwaslargerinthe1980’sthanitwasinthe1970’s

D. theproponentsoftheviewcitedwouldstandtogainifinflationratesbecomelower

E. afactorthataffectspeople’ssavingsbehaviorinacertainwaycouldaffectpeople’sinvestmentbehaviorquitedifferently

129. Whichofthefollowingmostlogicallycompletestheargumentbelow?

Withintheearth’score,whichisiron,pressureincreaseswithdepth.Becausethetemperatureatwhichironmeltsincreaseswithpressure,theinnercoreissolidandtheoutercoreismolten.Physicistscandeterminethemeltingtemperatureofironatanygivenpressureandthepressureforanygivendepthintheearth.Therefore,theactualtemperatureattheboundaryoftheearth’souterandinnercores—themeltingtemperatureofironthere—canbedetermined,since__________.

A. thedepthbeneaththeearth’ssurfaceoftheboundarybetweentheouterandinnercoresisknown

B. someoftheheatfromtheearth’scoreflowstothesurfaceoftheearth

C. pressureswithintheearth’soutercorearemuchgreaterthanpressuresabovetheoutercore

D. nowhereintheearth’scorecanthetemperaturebemeasureddirectly

E. thetemperatureswithintheearth’sinnercorearehigherthanintheoutercore

130. Whichofthefollowingmostlogicallycompletesthereasoning?

Eitherfoodscarcityorexcessivehuntingcanthreatenapopulationofanimals.Ifthegroupfacesfoodscarcity,individualsinthegroupwillreachreproductivematuritylaterthanotherwise.Ifthegroupfacesexcessivehunting,individualsthatreachreproductivematurityearlierwill

excessivehunting,individualsthatreachreproductivematurityearlierwillcometopredominate.Therefore,itshouldbepossibletodeterminewhetherprehistoricmastodonsbecameextinctbecauseoffoodscarcityorhumanhunting,sincetherearefossilizedmastodonremainsfrombothbeforeandaftermastodonpopulationsdeclined,and__________.

A. therearemorefossilizedmastodonremainsfromtheperiodbeforemastodonpopulationsbegantodeclinethanfromafterthatperiod

B. theaverageageatwhichmastodonsfromagivenperiodreachedreproductivematuritycanbeestablishedfromtheirfossilizedremains

C. itcanbeaccuratelyestimatedfromfossilizedremainswhenmastodonsbecameextinct

D. itisnotknownwhenhumansfirstbeganhuntingmastodons

E. climatechangesmayhavegraduallyreducedthefoodavailabletomastodons

131. Unlikethewholesalepriceofrawwool,thewholesalepriceofrawcottonhasfallenconsiderablyinthelastyear.Thus,althoughtheretailpriceofcottonclothingatretailclothingstoreshasnotyetfallen,itwillinevitablyfall.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mostseriouslyweakenstheargumentabove?

A. Thecostofprocessingrawcottonforclothhasincreasedduringthelastyear.

B. Thewholesalepriceofrawwoolistypicallyhigherthanthatofthesamevolumeofrawcotton.

C. Theoperatingcostsoftheaverageretailclothingstorehaveremainedconstantduringthelastyear.

D. Changesinretailpricesalwayslagbehindchangesinwholesaleprices.

E. Thecostofharvestingrawcottonhasincreasedinthelastyear.

132. Manyofficebuildingsdesignedtopreventoutsideairfromenteringhavebeenshowntohaveelevatedlevelsofvarioustoxicsubstancescirculatingthroughtheairinside,aphenomenonknownassickbuildingsyndrome.Yettheairinotherofficebuildingsdoesnothaveelevatedlevelsofthesesubstances,eventhoughthosebuildingsarethesameageasthe“sick”

buildingsandhavesimilardesignsandventilationsystems.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mosthelpstoexplainwhynotallofficebuildingsdesignedtopreventoutsideairfromenteringhaveairthatcontainselevatedlevelsoftoxicsubstances?

A. Certainadhesivesanddryingagentsusedinparticulartypesoffurniture,carpets,andpaintcontributethebulkofthetoxicsubstancesthatcirculateintheairofofficebuildings.

B. Mostofficebuildingswithsickbuildingsyndromewerebuiltbetween1950and1990.

C. Amongbuildingsdesignedtopreventoutsideairfromentering,housesarenolesslikelythanofficebuildingstohaveairthatcontainselevatedlevelsoftoxicsubstances.

D. Thetoxicsubstancesthatarefoundintheairof“sick”officebuildingsaresubstancesthatarefoundinatleastsmallquantitiesinnearlyeverybuilding.

E. Officebuildingswithwindowsthatcanreadilybeopenedareunlikelytosufferfromsickbuildingsyndrome.

133. Newsletter:Acondominiumgenerallyoffersmorevalueforitscostthananindividualhousebecauseofeconomiesofscale.Thehomeownersinacondominiumassociationcancollectivelybuyproductsandservicesthattheycouldnotaffordontheirown.Andsinceaprofessionalmanagementcompanyhandlesmaintenanceofcommonareas,condominiumownersspendlesstimeandmoneyonmaintenancethanindividualhomeownersdo.

Thetwoportionsinboldfaceplaywhichofthefollowingrolesinthenewsletter’sargument?

A. Thefirstistheargument’smainconclusion;thesecondisanotherconclusionsupportingthefirst.

B. Thefirstisapremise,forwhichnoevidenceisprovided;thesecondistheargument’sonlyconclusion.

C. Thefirstisaconclusionsupportingthesecond;thesecondistheargument’smainconclusion.

D. Thefirstistheargument’sonlyconclusion;thesecondisapremise,

forwhichnoevidenceisprovided.

E. Botharepremises,forwhichnoevidenceisprovided,andbothsupporttheargument’sonlyconclusion.

WhenofficialsinTannersburgreleasedtheirplantowidenthecity’smainroads,environmentalistsprotestedthatwidenedroadswouldattractmoretrafficandleadtoincreasedairpollution.Inresponse,cityofficialspointedoutthattoday’spollution-controldevicesareattheirmosteffectiveinvehiclestravelingathigherspeedsandthatwideningroadswouldincreasetheaveragespeedoftraffic.However,thiseffectcanhardlybeexpectedtooffsettheeffectpointedoutbyenvironmentalists,since__________.

A. increasesintrafficvolumegenerallyproducedecreasesintheaveragespeedoftrafficunlessroadsarewidened

B. severaloftheroadsthatareslatedforwideningwillhavetobeclosedtemporarilywhileconstructionisunderway

C. mostoftheairpollutiongeneratedbyurbantrafficcomesfromvehiclesthatdonothavefunctioningpollution-controldevices

D. thenewlywidenedroadswillnothaveincreasedtrafficvolumeiftheroadsthatmustbeusedtoreachthemareinadequate

E. avehicletravelingonaroutethatgoesthroughTannersburgwillspendlesstimeonTannersburg’sroadsoncetheroadsarewidened

135. Prematurebabieswhoreceiveregularmassagesaremoreactivethanprematurebabieswhodonot.Evenwhenallthebabiesdrinkthesameamountofmilk,themassagedbabiesgainmoreweightthandotheunmassagedbabies.Thisispuzzlingbecauseamoreactivepersongenerallyrequiresagreaterfoodintaketomaintainorgainweight.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,bestreconcilestheapparentdiscrepancydescribedabove?

A. Increasedactivityleadstoincreasedlevelsofhunger,especiallywhenfoodintakeisnotalsoincreased.

B. Massageincreasesprematurebabies’curiosityabouttheirenvironment,andcuriosityleadstoincreasedactivity.

C. Increasedactivitycausestheintestinesofprematurebabiestomaturemorequickly,enablingthebabiestodigestandabsorbmoreofthenutrientsinthemilktheydrink.

D. Massagedoesnotincreasethegrowthrateofbabiesoveroneyearold,ifthebabieshadnotbeenpreviouslymassaged.

E. Prematurebabiesrequireadailyintakeofnutrientsthatissignificantlyhigherthanthatrequiredbybabieswhowerenotbornprematurely.

136. Aneyeglassmanufacturertriedtoboostsalesforthesummerquarterbyofferingitsdistributorsaspecialdiscountiftheirordersforthatquarterexceededthoseforlastyear’ssummerquarterbyatleast20percent.Manydistributorsqualifiedforthisdiscount.Evenwithmuchmerchandisediscounted,salesincreasedenoughtoproduceahealthygaininnetprofits.Themanufacturerplanstorepeatthissuccessbyofferingthesamesortofdiscountforthefallquarter.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mostclearlypointstoaflawinthemanufacturer’splantorepeatthesuccessfulperformanceofthesummerquarter?

A. Ingeneral,adistributor’sordersforthesummerquarterarenohigherthanthoseforthespringquarter.

B. Alongwithofferingspecialdiscountstoqualifyingdistributors,themanufacturerincreasednewspaperandradioadvertisinginthosedistributors’salesareas.

C. Thedistributorsmostlikelytoqualifyforthemanufacturer’sspecialdiscountarethosewhoseorderswereunusuallylowayearearlier.

D. Thedistributorswhoqualifiedforthemanufacturer’sspecialdiscountwerefreetodecidehowmuchofthatdiscounttopassontotheirowncustomers.

E. Thedistributors’orderingmoregoodsinthesummerquarterleftthemoverstockedforthefallquarter.

137. Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mostlogicallycompletestheargument?

SomedairyfarmersintheprovinceofTakandiawanttogivetheircowsasynthetichormonethatincreasesmilkproduction.ManyTakandians,however,donotwanttobuymilkfromcowsgiventhesynthetichormone.ForthisreasonTakandia’slegislatureisconsideringameasurerequiringmilkfromcowsgiventhehormonetobelabeledassuch.Evenifthe

milkfromcowsgiventhehormonetobelabeledassuch.Evenifthemeasureisdefeated,dairyfarmerswhousethehormonewillprobablylosecustomers,since__________.

A. ithasnotbeenproventhatanytraceofthesynthetichormoneexistsinthemilkofcowsgiventhehormone

B. somefarmersinTakandiawhoplantousethesynthetichormonewillprobablynotdosoifthemeasurewerepassed

C. milkfromcowsthathavenotbeengiventhesynthetichormonecanbelabeledassuchwithoutanylegislativeaction

D. thelegislature’sconsiderationofthebillhasbeenwidelypublicized

E. milkthatcomesfromcowsgiventhesynthetichormonelooksandtastesthesameasmilkfromcowsthathavenotreceivedthehormone

138. Budgetconstraintshavemadepoliceofficialsconsiderreassigningaconsiderablenumberofofficersfromtrafficenforcementtoworkonhigher-priority,seriouscrimes.Reducingtrafficenforcementforthisreasonwouldbecounterproductive,however,inlightofthetendencyofcriminalstousecarswhenengagedinthecommissionofseriouscrimes.Anofficerstoppingacarforatrafficviolationcanmakeasearchthatturnsupevidenceofseriouscrime.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,moststrengthenstheargumentgiven?

A. Anofficerwhostopsacarcontainingevidenceofthecommissionofaseriouscrimerisksaviolentconfrontation,evenifthevehiclewasstoppedonlyforatrafficviolation.

B. Whenthepublicbecomesawarethattrafficenforcementhaslessened,ittypicallybecomeslaxinobeyingtrafficrules.

C. Thosewillingtobreakthelawtocommitseriouscrimesareoftenincommittingsuchcrimesunwillingtoobservewhattheyregardasthelesserconstraintsoftrafficlaw.

D. Theoffenderscommittingseriouscrimeswhowouldbecaughtbecauseoftrafficviolationsarenotthesamegroupofindividualsasthosewhowouldbecaughtifthearrestingofficerswerereassignedfromtrafficenforcement.

E. Thegreatmajorityofpersonswhoarestoppedbyofficersfortrafficviolationsarenotguiltyofanyseriouscrimes.

139. Conventionalwisdomsuggestsvaccinatingelderlypeoplefirstinfluseason,becausetheyareatgreatestriskofdyingiftheycontractthevirus.Thisyear’sfluvirusposesparticularrisktoelderlypeopleandalmostnoneatalltoyoungerpeople,particularlychildren.Nevertheless,healthprofessionalsarerecommendingvaccinatingchildrenfirstagainstthevirusratherthanelderlypeople.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,providesthestrongestreasonforthehealthprofessionals’recommendation?

A. Childrenarevulnerabletodangerousinfectionswhentheirimmunesystemsareseverelyweakenedbyotherdiseases.

B. Childrenareparticularlyunconcernedwithhygieneandthereforearethegroupmostresponsibleforspreadingthefluvirustoothers.

C. Thevaccinationsreceivedlastyearwillconfernoimmunitytothisyear’sfluvirus.

D. Childrenwhocatchonestrainofthefluvirusandthenrecoverarelikelytodevelopimmunitytoatleastsomestrainswithwhichtheyhavenotyetcomeincontact.

E. Childrenarenomorelikelythanadultstohaveimmunitytoaparticularfluvirusiftheyhaveneverlivedthroughapreviousepidemicofthesamevirus.

140. ProTectInsuranceCompanyhasrecentlybeenpayingoutmoreoncar-theftclaimsthanitexpected.Carswithspecialantitheftdevicesoralarmsystemsaremuchlesslikelytobestolenthanareothercars.ConsequentlyProTect,aspartofanefforttoreduceitsannualpayouts,willofferadiscounttoholdersofcar-theftpoliciesiftheircarshaveantitheftdevicesoralarmsystems.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,providesthestrongestindicationthattheplanislikelytoachieveitsgoal?

A. Thedecreaseintheriskofcartheftconferredbyhavingacaralarmisgreatestwhenonlyafewcarshavesuchalarms.

B. ThenumberofpolicyholderswhohavefiledaclaiminthepastyearishigherforProTectthanforotherinsurancecompanies.

C. Inoneortwoyears,thediscountthatProTectisofferingwillamounttomorethanthecostofbuyingcertainhighlyeffectiveantitheft

devices.

D. Currently,ProTectcannotlegallyraisethepremiumsitchargesforagivenamountofinsuranceagainstcartheft.

E. TheamountProTecthasbeenpayingoutoncar-theftclaimshasbeengreaterforsomemodelsofcarthanforothers.

141. WhilethetotalenrollmentofpublicelementaryandsecondaryschoolsinSondlandisonepercenthigherthisacademicyearthanlastacademicyear,thenumberofteachersthereincreasedbythreepercent.Thus,theSondlandEducationCommission’spredictionofateachershortageasearlyasnextacademicyearisunfounded.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mostseriouslyweakenstheclaimthatthepredictionofateachershortageasearlyasnextacademicyearisunfounded?

A. FundingforpublicelementaryschoolsinSondlandisexpectedtoincreaseoverthenexttenyears.

B. AveragesalariesforSondland’steachersincreasedattherateofinflationfromlastacademicyeartothisacademicyear.

C. AnewlawhasmandatedthattherebetenpercentmoreteachersperpupilinSondland’spublicschoolsnextacademicyearthantherewerethisacademicyear.

D. Inthepast,increasesinenrollmentsinpublicelementaryandsecondaryschoolsinSondlandhavegenerallybeensmallerthanincreasesinthenumberofteachers.

E. Becauseofreductionsinfunding,thenumberofstudentsenrollinginteacher-trainingprogramsinSondlandisexpectedtodeclinebeginninginthenextacademicyear.

142. ArtrestorerswhohavebeenstudyingthefactorsthatcauseRenaissanceoilpaintingstodeterioratephysicallywhensubjecttoclimaticchangeshavefoundthattheoilpaintusedinthesepaintingsactuallyadjuststothesechangeswell.Therestorersthereforehypothesizethatitisalayerofmaterialcalledgesso,whichisunderthepaint,thatcausesthedeterioration.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,moststronglysupportstherestorers’hypothesis?

A. Renaissanceoilpaintingswithathinlayerofgessoarelesslikelytoshowdeteriorationinresponsetoclimaticchangesthanthosewithathickerlayer.

B. Renaissanceoilpaintingsareoftenpaintedonwoodenpanels,whichswellwhenhumidityincreasesandcontractwhenitdeclines.

C. Oilpaintexpandsandcontractsreadilyinresponsetochangesintemperature,butitabsorbslittlewaterandsoislittleaffectedbychangesinhumidity.

D. AnespeciallyhardandnonabsorbenttypeofgessowastherawmaterialformoldingsontheframesofRenaissanceoilpaintings.

E. GessolayersappliedbyRenaissancepainterstypicallyconsistedofacoarsebaselayerontowhichseveralincreasinglyfine-grainedlayerswereapplied.

143. AutomobileDealer’sAdvertisement:TheHighwayTrafficSafetyInstitutereportsthatthePZ1000hasthefewestinjuriesperaccidentofanycarinitsclass.ThisshowsthatthePZ1000isoneofthesafestcarsavailabletoday.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mostseriouslyweakenstheargumentintheadvertisement?

A. TheHighwayTrafficSafetyInstitutereportlistedmanycarsinotherclassesthathadmoreinjuriesperaccidentthandidthePZ1000.

B. InrecentyearsmanymorePZ1000shavebeensoldthanhaveanyotherkindofcarinitsclass.

C. CarsintheclasstowhichthePZ1000belongsaremorelikelytobeinvolvedinaccidentsthanareothertypesofcars.

D. ThedifferencebetweenthenumberofinjuriesperaccidentforthePZ1000andthatforothercarsinitsclassisquitepronounced.

E. TheHighwayTrafficSafetyInstituteissuesreportsonlyonceayear.

144. ArchaeologistsworkingintheAndesMountainsrecentlyexcavatedaburied4,000-year-oldtemplecontainingstructuresthatalignwithastonecarvingonadistanthilltoindicatethedirectionoftherisingsunatthesummersolstice.Alignmentsinthetemplewerealsofoundtopointtowardtheposition,atthesummersolstice,ofaconstellationknownin

AndeancultureastheFox.Sincethelocalmythologyrepresentsthefoxasteachingpeoplehowtocultivateandirrigateplants,theancientAndeansmayhavebuiltthetempleasareligiousrepresentationofthefox.

Whichofthefollowingisanassumptiononwhichtheargumentisbased?

A. TheconstellationknownastheFoxhasthesamepositionatthesummersolsticeasitdid4,000yearsago.

B. Intheregionaroundthetemple,thesummersolsticemarksthetimeforplanting.

C. Thetemplewasprotectedfromlootersbydirtanddebrisbuiltupoverthousandsofyears.

D. Otherstructuralalignmentsatthetemplepointtofurtherconstellationswithagriculturalsignificance.

E. Thesitecontainingthetemplewasoccupiedforasignificantamountoftimebeforeabandonment.

Itisgenerallybelievedthatpeoplereceivingfrequentmedicalcheckupsarelikelytoneedhospitalizationlessfrequentlythantheywouldotherwise;afterall,manythingscanbedonefollowingacheckuptopreventproblemsthat,ifignored,mightbecomeacuteandthenrequirehospitalization.Butforpeoplewithchronicillnesses,frequentmedicalcheckupsarelikelytoleadtomorefrequenthospitalizationsince__________.

A. therecommendedtreatmentsforcomplicationsofmanychronicillnessesinvolvehospitalizationevenifthosecomplicationsaredetectedwhilebarelynoticeable

B. medicalcheckupssometimesdonotrevealearlysymptomsofthosechronicillnessesthatarebesttreatedinahospital

C. theaveragelengthofahospitalstayisthesameforthosewhoreceivefrequentcheckupsasforthosewhodonot

D. peoplewithchronicillnessesgenerallyreceivemedicalcheckupsmorefrequentlythanpeoplewhoarenotchronicallyill

E. theaveragelengthofahospitalstayforpeoplewithachronicillnesstendstoincreaseastheillnessprogresses

146. Meatfromchickenscontaminatedwithsalmonellabacteriacancauseseriousfoodpoisoning.Capsaicin,thechemicalthatgiveschilipepperstheirhotflavor,hasantibacterialproperties.Chickensdonothavetastereceptorsforcapsaicinandwillreadilyeatfeedlacedwithcapsaicin.Whenchickenswerefedsuchfeedandthenexposedtosalmonellabacteria,relativelyfewofthembecamecontaminatedwithsalmonella.

Indecidingwhetherthefeedwouldbeusefulinraisingsalmonella-freechickenforretailsale,itwouldbemosthelpfultodeterminewhichofthefollowing?

A. Whetherfeedingcapsaicintochickensaffectsthetasteoftheirmeat

B. Whethereatingcapsaicinreducestheriskofsalmonellapoisoningforhumans

C. Whetherchickenismorepronetosalmonellacontaminationthanotherkindsofmeat

D. Whetherappropriatecookingofchickencontaminatedwithsalmonellacanalwayspreventfoodpoisoning

E. Whethercapsaicincanbeobtainedonlyfromchilipeppers

147. Lawsrequiringtheuseofheadlightsduringdaylighthourscanpreventautomobilecollisions.However,sincedaylightvisibilityisworseincountriesfartherfromtheequator,anysuchlawswouldobviouslybemoreeffectiveinpreventingcollisionsinthosecountries.Infact,theonlycountriesthatactuallyhavesuchlawsarefartherfromtheequatorthanisthecontinentalUnitedStates.

Whichofthefollowingconclusionscouldbemostproperlydrawnfromtheinformationgivenabove?

A. DriversinthecontinentalUnitedStateswhousedtheirheadlightsduringthedaywouldbejustaslikelytobecomeinvolvedinacollisionaswoulddriverswhodidnotusetheirheadlights.

B. InmanycountriesthatarefartherfromtheequatorthanisthecontinentalUnitedStates,poordaylightvisibilityisthesinglemostimportantfactorinautomobilecollisions.

C. TheproportionofautomobilecollisionsthatoccurinthedaytimeisgreaterinthecontinentalUnitedStatesthaninthecountriesthathavedaytimeheadlightlaws.

D. FewerautomobilecollisionsprobablyoccureachyearincountriesthathavedaytimeheadlightlawsthanoccurwithinthecontinentalUnitedStates.

E. DaytimeheadlightlawswouldprobablydolesstopreventautomobilecollisionsinthecontinentalUnitedStatesthantheydointhecountriesthathavethelaws.

Whenmercury-vaporstreetlightsareusedinareasinhabitedbyinsect-eatingbats,thebatsfeedalmostexclusivelyaroundthelights,becausethelightsattractflyinginsects.InGreenville,themercury-vaporstreetlightsareabouttobereplacedwithenergy-savingsodiumstreetlights,whichdonotattractinsects.Thischangeislikelytoresultinadropinthepopulationofinsect-eatingbatsinGreenville,since__________.

A. thebatsdonotbegintohuntuntilaftersundown

B. thebatsareunlikelytofeedoninsectsthatdonotfly

C. thehighwaydepartmentwillbeabletoreplacemercury-vaporstreetlightswithsodiumstreetlightswithinarelativelyshorttimeandwithoutdisruptingthecontinuityoflightingatthelocationsofthestreetlights

D. intheabsenceoflocalconcentrationsoftheflyinginsectsonwhichbatsfeed,thebatsexpendmuchmoreenergyonhuntingforfood,requiringmuchlargerquantitiesofinsectstosustaineachbat

E. batsuseecholocationtocatchinsectsandthereforegainnoadvantagefromthefactthatinsectsflyinginthevicinityofstreetlightsarevisibleatnight

149. Ratsinjectedwithmorphineexhibitdecreasedactivityoftheimmunesystem,thebodilysystemthatfightsoffinfections.Thesesameratsexhibitedheightenedbloodlevelsofcorticosteroids,chemicalssecretedbytheadrenalglands.Sincecorticosteroidscaninterferewithimmune-systemactivity,scientistshypothesizedthatthewaymorphinereducesimmuneresponsesinratsisbystimulatingtheadrenalglandstosecreteadditionalcorticosteroidsintothebloodstream.

Whichofthefollowingexperimentswouldyieldthemostusefulresultsforevaluatingthescientists’hypothesis?

A. Injectingmorphineintoratsthatalreadyhaveheightenedbloodlevelsofcorticosteroidsandthenobservingtheirnewbloodlevelsofcorticosteroids

B. Testingthelevelofimmune-systemactivityofrats,removingtheiradrenalglands,andthentestingtherats’immune-systemactivitylevelsagain

C. Injectingratswithcorticosteroidsandthenobservinghowmanyoftheratscontractedinfections

D. Removingtheadrenalglandsofrats,injectingtheratswithmorphine,andthentestingtheleveloftherats’immune-systemresponses

E. Injectingratswithadrugthatstimulatesimmune-systemactivityandthenobservingthelevelofcorticosteroidsintheirbloodstreams

150. Curator:IfourmuseumlendsVenustotheHartInstitutefortheirshowthisspring,theywilllendustheirRembrandtetchingsforourprintexhibitionnextfall.Havingthoseetchingswillincreaseattendancetotheexhibitionandhenceincreaserevenuefromourgeneraladmissionfee.

MuseumAdministrator:ButVenusisourbiggestattraction.MoreovertheHart’sshowwillrunfortwiceaslongasourexhibition.Soonbalancethenumberofpatronsmaydecrease.

Thepointoftheadministrator’sresponsetothecuratoristoquestion

A. whethergettingtheRembrandtetchingsfromtheHartInstituteislikelytoincreaseattendanceattheprintexhibition

B. whethertheHartInstitute’sRembrandtetchingswillbeappreciatedbythosepatronsofthecurator’smuseumforwhomthemuseum’sbiggestattractionisVenus

C. whetherthenumberofpatronsattractedbytheHartInstitute’sRembrandtetchingswillbelargerthanthenumberofpatronswhodonotcomeinthespringbecauseVenusisonloan

D. whether,ifVenusislent,themuseum’srevenuefromgeneraladmissionfeesduringtheprintexhibitionwillexceeditsrevenuefromgeneraladmissionfeesduringtheHartInstitute’sexhibition

E. whethertheHartInstituteorthecurator’smuseumwillhavethegreaterfinancialgainfromtheproposedexchangeofartworks

Leafbeetlesdamagewillowtreesbystrippingawaytheirleaves,butacombinationofparasitesandpredatorsgenerallykeepspopulationsofthesebeetlesincheck.Researchershavefoundthatsevereairpollutionresultsinreducedpredatorpopulations.Theparasites,bycontrast,arenotadverselyaffectedbypollution;nevertheless,theresearchers’discoveryprobablydoesexplainwhyleafbeetlescauseparticularlyseveredamagetowillowsinareaswithsevereairpollution,since__________.

A. neitherthepredatorsnortheparasitesofleafbeetlesthemselvesattackwillowtrees

B. theparasitesthatattackleafbeetlesactuallytendtobemoreprevalentinareaswithsevereairpollutionthantheyareelsewhere

C. thedamagecausedbyleafbeetlesisusuallynotenoughtokillawillowtreeoutright

D. whereairpollutionisnotespeciallysevere,predatorshavemuchmoreimpactonleaf-beetlepopulationsthanparasitesdo

E. willowsoftengrowinareaswhereairpollutionisespeciallysevere

AtarecentconferenceonenvironmentalthreatstotheNorthSea,mostparticipatingcountriesfavoreduniformcontrolsonthequalityofeffluents,whetherornotspecificenvironmentaldamagecouldbeattributedtoaparticularsourceofeffluent.Whatmust,ofcourse,beshown,inordertoavoidexcessivelyrestrictivecontrols,isthat__________.

A. anyuniformcontrolsthatareadoptedarelikelytobeimplementedwithoutdelay

B. anysubstancetobemadesubjecttocontrolscanactuallycauseenvironmentaldamage

C. thecountriesfavoringuniformcontrolsarethosegeneratingthelargestquantitiesofeffluents

D. allofanygivenpollutantthatistobecontrolledactuallyreachestheNorthSeaatpresent

E. environmentaldamagealreadyinflictedontheNorthSeaisreversible

153. OnMayfirst,inordertoreducethenumberofoverduebooks,achildren’slibraryinstitutedapolicyofforgivingfinesandgivingbookmarkstochildrenreturningalloftheiroverduebooks.OnJulyfirstthereweretwiceasmanyoverduebooksastherehadbeenonMayfirst,althougharecordnumberofbookshadbeenreturnedduringtheinterim.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mosthelpstoexplaintheapparentinconsistencyintheresultsofthelibrary’spolicy?

A. Thelibrariansdidnotkeepaccuraterecordsofhowmanychildrentookadvantageofthegraceperiod,andsomeofthechildrenreturningoverduebooksdidnotreturnalloftheiroverduebooks.

B. Althoughthegraceperiodenticedsomechildrentoreturnalloftheiroverduebooks,itdidnotconvinceallofthechildrenwithoverduebookstoreturnalloftheirbooks.

C. Thebookmarksbecamepopularamongthechildren,soinordertocollectthebookmarks,manychildrenborrowedmanymorebooksthantheyusuallydidandkeptthempasttheirduedate.

D. Thechildrenwereallowedtoborrowamaximumoffivebooksforatwo-weekperiod,andhenceeachchildcouldkeepamaximumoffifteenbooksbeyondtheirduedatewithinatwo-monthperiod.

E. Althoughthelibraryforgaveoverduefinesduringthegraceperiod,theamountpreviouslychargedthechildrenwasminimal;hence,theforgivenessofthefinesdidnotprovideenoughincentiveforthemtoreturntheiroverduebooks.

154. Acertainspeciesofdesertlizarddigstunnelsinwhichtolayitseggs.Theeggsmustincubateinsidethetunnelforseveralweeksbeforehatching,andtheyfailtohatchiftheyaredisturbedatanytimeduringthisincubationperiod.Yettheselizardsguardtheirtunnelsforonlyafewdaysafterlayingtheireggs.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mosthelpsexplainwhythereisnoneedforlizardstoguardtheirtunnelsformorethanafewdays?

A. Theeggsareatriskofbeingdisturbedonlyduringthebriefegg-layingseasonwhenmanylizardsaredigginginarelativelysmallarea.

B. Thelengthoftheincubationperiodvariessomewhatfromonetunneltoanother.

C. Eachfemalelizardlaysfrom15to20eggs,onlyabout10ofwhichhatcheveniftheeggsarenotdisturbedatanytimeduringtheincubationperiod.

D. Thetemperatureandhumiditywithinthetunnelswillnotbesuitablefortheincubatingeggsunlessthetunnelsarepluggedwithsandimmediatelyaftertheeggsarelaid.

E. Theonlywaytodisturbtheeggsofthislizardspeciesisbyopeninguponeofthetunnelsinwhichtheyarelaid.

155. Oftenpatientswithanklefracturesthatarestable,andthusdonotrequiresurgery,aregivenfollow-upx-raysbecausetheirorthopedistsareconcernedaboutpossiblyhavingmisjudgedthestabilityofthefracture.Whenanumberoffollow-upx-rayswerereviewed,however,allthefracturesthathadinitiallybeenjudgedstablewerefoundtohavehealedcorrectly.Therefore,itisawasteofmoneytoorderfollow-upx-raysofanklefracturesinitiallyjudgedstable.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,moststrengthenstheargument?

A. Doctorswhoaregeneralpractitionersratherthanorthopedistsarelesslikelythanorthopediststojudgethestabilityofananklefracturecorrectly.

B. Manyankleinjuriesforwhichaninitialx-rayisorderedarerevealedbythex-raynottoinvolveanyfractureoftheankle.

C. X-raysofpatientsofmanydifferentorthopedistsworkinginseveralhospitalswerereviewed.

D. Thehealingofanklefracturesthathavebeensurgicallyrepairedisalwayscheckedbymeansofafollow-upx-ray.

E. Orthopedistsroutinelyorderfollow-upx-raysforfracturesofbonesotherthananklebones.

156. Insettingenvironmentalstandardsforindustryandotherstomeet,itisinadvisabletorequirethebestresultsthatstate-of-the-arttechnologycanachieve.Currenttechnologyisabletodetectandeliminateevenextremelyminuteamountsofcontaminants,butatacostthatisexorbitantrelativetotheimprovementachieved.Soitwouldbereasonableinsteadtosetstandardsbytakingintoaccountallofthecurrentandfuturerisksinvolved.

Theargumentgivenconcerningthereasonablewaytosetstandards

Theargumentgivenconcerningthereasonablewaytosetstandardspresupposesthat

A. industrycurrentlymeetsthestandardsthathavebeensetbyenvironmentalauthorities

B. thereareeffectivewaystotakeintoaccountalloftherelevantrisksposedbyallowingdifferentlevelsofcontaminants

C. theonlycontaminantsworthmeasuringaregeneratedbyindustry

D. itisnotcostlytopreventlargeamountsofcontaminantsfromenteringtheenvironment

E. minuteamountsofsomecontaminantscanbepoisonous

157. MostscholarsagreethatKingAlfred(A.D.849–899)personallytranslatedanumberofLatintextsintoOldEnglish.OnehistoriancontendsthatAlfredalsopersonallypennedhisownlawcode,arguingthatthenumerousdifferencesbetweenthelanguageofthelawcodeandAlfred’stranslationsofLatintextsareoutweighedbytheevenmorenumeroussimilarities.Linguisticsimilarities,however,arewhatoneexpectsintextsfromthesamelanguage,thesametime,andthesameregion.ApartfromAlfred’ssurvivingtranslationsandlawcode,thereareonlytwootherextantworksfromthesamedialectandmilieu,soitisriskytoassumeherethatlinguisticsimilaritiespointtocommonauthorship.

Thepassageaboveproceedsby

A. providingexamplesthatunderscoreanotherargument’sconclusion

B. questioningtheplausibilityofanassumptiononwhichanotherargumentdepends

C. showingthataprincipleifgenerallyappliedwouldhaveanomalousconsequences

D. showingthatthepremisesofanotherargumentaremutuallyinconsistent

E. usingargumentbyanalogytoundermineaprincipleimplicitinanotherargument

158. Acompanyplanstodevelopaprototypeweedingmachinethatusescuttingbladeswithopticalsensorsandmicroprocessorsthatdistinguishweedsfromcropplantsbydifferencesinshadeofcolor.Theinventorof

themachineclaimsthatitwillreducelaborcostsbyvirtuallyeliminatingtheneedformanualweeding.

Whichofthefollowingisaconsiderationinfavorofthecompany’simplementingitsplantodeveloptheprototype?

A. Thereisaconsiderabledegreeofvariationinshadeofcolorbetweenweedsofdifferentspecies.

B. Theshadeofcolorofsomeplantstendstochangeappreciablyoverthecourseoftheirgrowingseason.

C. Whencropsareweededmanually,overallsizeandleafshapearetakenintoaccountindistinguishingcropplantsfromweeds.

D. Selectionandgeneticmanipulationallowplantsofvirtuallyanyspeciestobeeconomicallybredtohaveadistinctiveshadeofcolorwithoutalteringtheirothercharacteristics.

E. Farmlaborerswhoareresponsibleforthemanualweedingofcropscarryoutotheragriculturaldutiesattimesinthegrowingseasonwhenextensiveweedingisnotnecessary.

159. Acertainmayorhasproposedafeeoffivedollarsperdayonprivatevehiclesenteringthecity,claimingthatthefeewillalleviatethecity’strafficcongestion.Themayorreasonsthat,sincethefeewillexceedthecostofround-tripbusfarefrommanynearbypoints,manypeoplewillswitchfromusingtheircarstousingthebus.

Whichofthefollowingstatements,iftrue,providesthebestevidencethatthemayor’sreasoningisflawed?

A. Projectedincreasesinthepriceofgasolinewillincreasethecostoftakingaprivatevehicleintothecity.

B. Thecostofparkingfeesalreadymakesitconsiderablymoreexpensiveformostpeopletotakeaprivatevehicleintothecitythantotakeabus.

C. Mostofthepeoplecurrentlyridingthebusdonotownprivatevehicles.

D. Manycommutersopposingthemayor’splanhaveindicatedthattheywouldratherenduretrafficcongestionthanpayafive-dollar-per-dayfee.

E. Duringtheaverageworkday,privatevehiclesownedandoperatedbypeoplelivingwithinthecityaccountfor20percentofthecity’strafficcongestion.

160. ArocaCitycurrentlyfundsitspublicschoolsthroughtaxesonproperty.Inplaceofthissystem,thecityplanstointroduceasalestaxof3percentonallretailsalesinthecity.Criticsprotestthat3percentofcurrentretailsalesfallsshortoftheamountraisedforschoolsbypropertytaxes.Thecriticsarecorrectonthispoint.Nevertheless,implementingtheplanwillprobablynotreducethemoneygoingtoAroca’sschools.SeverallargeretailershaveselectedArocaCityasthesiteforhugenewstores,andthesearecertaintodrawlargenumbersofshoppersfromneighboringmunicipalities,wheresalesaretaxedatratesof6percentandmore.Inconsequence,retailsalesinArocaCityareboundtoincreasesubstantially.

Intheargumentgiven,thetwoportionsinboldfaceplaywhichofthefollowingroles?

A. Thefirstpresentsaplanthattheargumentconcludesisunlikelytoachieveitsgoal;thesecondexpressesthatconclusion.

B. Thefirstpresentsaplanthattheargumentconcludesisunlikelytoachieveitsgoal;thesecondpresentsevidenceinsupportofthatconclusion.

C. Thefirstpresentsaplanthattheargumentcontendsisthebestavailable;thesecondisaconclusiondrawnbytheargumenttojustifythatcontention.

D. Thefirstpresentsaplanoneofwhoseconsequencesisatissueintheargument;thesecondistheargument’sconclusionaboutthatconsequence.

E. Thefirstpresentsaplanthattheargumentseekstodefendagainstacertaincriticism;thesecondisthatcriticism.

Aphotographofthenightskywastakenwiththecamerashutteropenforanextendedperiod.Thenormalmotionofstarsacrosstheskycausedtheimagesofthestarsinthephotographtoappearasstreaks.However,onebrightspotwasnotstreaked.Evenifthespotwerecaused,asastronomersbelieve,byacelestialobject,thatobjectcouldstillhavebeenmovingacrosstheskyduringthetimetheshutterwasopen,since__________.

A. thespotwasnotthebrightestobjectinthephotograph

B. thephotographcontainsmanystreaksthatastronomerscanidentifyascausedbynoncelestialobjects

C. starsinthenightskydonotappeartoshiftpositionrelativetoeachother

D. thespotcouldhavebeencausedbyanobjectthatemittedaflashthatlastedforonlyafractionofthetimethatthecamerashutterwasopen

E. ifthecamerashutterhadnotbeenopenforanextendedperiod,itwouldhaverecordedsubstantiallyfewercelestialobjects

162. Economist:Payingextraforfair-tradecoffee—coffeelabeledwiththeFairtradelogo—isintendedtohelppoorfarmers,becausetheyreceiveahigherpriceforthefair-tradecoffeetheygrow.Butthispracticemayhurtmorefarmersindevelopingnationsthanithelps.Byraisingaveragepricesforcoffee,itencouragesmorecoffeetobeproducedthanconsumerswanttobuy.Thislowerspricesfornon-fair-tradecoffeeandthuslowersprofitsfornon-fair-tradecoffeefarmers.

Toevaluatethestrengthoftheeconomist’sargument,itwouldbemosthelpfultoknowwhichofthefollowing?

A. Whetherthereisawayofalleviatingtheimpactoftheincreasedaveragepricesforcoffeeonnon-fair-tradecoffeefarmers’profits

B. Whatproportionofcoffeefarmersindevelopingnationsproducefair-tradecoffee

C. Whethermanycoffeefarmersindevelopingnationsalsoderiveincomefromotherkindsoffarming

D. Whetherconsumersshouldpayextraforfair-tradecoffeeifdoingsolowersprofitsfornon-fair-tradecoffeefarmers

E. Howfair-tradecoffeefarmersindevelopingnationscouldbehelpedwithoutloweringprofitsfornon-fair-tradecoffeefarmers

163. Tanco,aleathermanufacturer,useslargequantitiesofcommonsalttopreserveanimalhides.Newenvironmentalregulationshavesignificantlyincreasedthecostofdisposingofsaltwaterthatresultsfromthisuse,and,inconsequence,Tancoisconsideringaplantousepotassiumchlorideinplaceofcommonsalt.ResearchhasshownthatTancocouldreprocessthe

by-productofpotassiumchlorideusetoyieldacropfertilizer,leavingarelativelysmallvolumeofwastefordisposal.

Indeterminingtheimpactoncompanyprofitsofusingpotassiumchlorideinplaceofcommonsalt,itwouldbeimportantforTancotoresearchallofthefollowingEXCEPT:

A. Whatdifference,ifany,istherebetweenthecostofthecommonsaltneededtopreserveagivenquantityofanimalhidesandthecostofthepotassiumchlorideneededtopreservethesamequantityofhides?

B. Towhatextentistheequipmentinvolvedinpreservinganimalhidesusingcommonsaltsuitableforpreservinganimalhidesusingpotassiumchloride?

C. Whatenvironmentalregulations,ifany,constrainthedisposalofthewastegeneratedinreprocessingtheby-productofpotassiumchloride?

D. Howcloselydoesleatherthatresultswhencommonsaltisusedtopreservehidesresemblethatwhichresultswhenpotassiumchlorideisused?

E. Arethechemicalpropertiesthatmakepotassiumchlorideaneffectivemeansforpreservinganimalhidesthesameasthosethatmakecommonsaltaneffectivemeansfordoingso?

164. Colorlessdiamondscancommandhighpricesasgemstones.Atypeoflessvaluablediamondscanbetreatedtoremoveallcolor.Onlysophisticatedtestscandistinguishsuchtreateddiamondsfromnaturallycolorlessones.However,only2percentofdiamondsminedareofthecoloredtypethatcanbesuccessfullytreated,andmanyofthoseareofinsufficientqualitytomakethetreatmentworthwhile.Surely,therefore,thevastmajorityofcolorlessdiamondssoldbyjewelersarenaturallycolorless.

Aseriousflawinthereasoningoftheargumentisthat

A. comparisonsbetweenthepricediamondscommandasgemstonesandtheirvalueforotherusesareomitted

B. informationabouttherarityoftreateddiamondsisnotcombinedwithinformationabouttherarityofnaturallycolorless,gemstonediamonds

C. thepossibilitythatcoloreddiamondsmightbeusedasgemstones,evenwithouthavingbeentreated,isignored

D. thecurrentlyavailablemethodformakingcolorlessdiamondsfromcoloredonesistreatedasthoughitweretheonlypossiblemethodfordoingso

E. thedifficultythatacustomerofajewelerwouldhaveindistinguishinganaturallycolorlessdiamondfromatreatedoneisnottakenintoaccount

165. TheSumptontowncouncilrecentlyvotedtopayaprominentartisttocreateanabstractsculptureforthetownsquare.Criticsofthisdecisionprotestedthattownresidentstendtodislikemostabstractart,andanyartinthetownsquareshouldreflecttheirtastes.Butatowncouncilspokespersondismissedthiscriticism,pointingoutthatotherpublicabstractsculpturesthatthesamesculptorhasinstalledinothercitieshavebeenextremelypopularwiththosecities’localresidents.

Thestatementsabovemoststronglysuggestthatthemainpointofdisagreementbetweenthecriticsandthespokespersoniswhether

A. itwouldhavebeenreasonabletoconsulttownresidentsonthedecision

B. mostSumptonresidentswillfindthenewsculpturetotheirtaste

C. abstractsculpturesbythesamesculptorhavetrulybeenpopularinothercities

D. amoretraditionalsculptureinthetownsquarewouldbepopularamonglocalresidents

E. publicartthattheresidentsofSumptonwouldfinddesirablewouldprobablybefounddesirablebytheresidentsofothercities

166. Jay:Ofcoursetherearemanygoodreasonstosupporttheexpansionofpreventivemedicalcare,butargumentsclaimingthatitwillleadtogreatersocietaleconomicgainsaremisguided.Someofthegreatestsocietalexpensesarisefromfrequenturgent-careneedsforpeoplewhohaveattainedalonglifeduetopreventivecare.

Sunil:Yourargumentfailsbecauseyouneglecteconomicgainsoutsidethehealthcaresystem:societysuffersaneconomiclosswhenanyofitsproductivememberssufferpreventableillnesses.

Sunil’sresponsetoJaymakeswhichofthefollowingassumptions?

A. Thosewhoreceivepreventivecarearenotmorelikelytoneedurgentcarethanarethosewhodonotreceivepreventivecare.

B. Jayintendsthephrase“economicgains”toreferonlytogainsaccruingtoinstitutionswithinthehealthcaresystem.

C. Productivemembersofsocietyaremorelikelythanotherstosufferpreventableillnesses.

D. Theeconomiccontributionsofthosewhoreceivepreventivemedicalcaremayoutweightheeconomiclossescausedbypreventivecare.

E. Jayisincorrectinstatingthatpatientswhoreceivepreventivemedicalcarearelong-lived.

167. Borealowlsrangeoveramuchlargerareathandootherowlsofsimilarsize.Thereasonforthisbehaviorisprobablythatthesmallmammalsonwhichowlsfeedareespeciallyscarceintheforestswhereborealowlslive,andtherelativescarcityofpreyrequirestheowlstorangemoreextensivelytofindsufficientfood.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mosthelpstoconfirmtheexplanationabove?

A. Someborealowlsrangeoveranareaeighttimeslargerthantheareaoverwhichanyotherowlofsimilarsizeranges.

B. Borealowlsrangeoverlargerareasinregionswherefoodofthesorteatenbysmallmammalsissparsethantheydoinregionswheresuchfoodisabundant.

C. Aftertheiryounghatch,borealowlsmusthuntmoreoftenthanbeforeinordertofeedboththemselvesandtheirnewlyhatchedyoung.

D. Sometimesindividualborealowlshuntnearasinglelocationformanyweeksatatimeanddonotrangefartherthanafewhundredyards.

E. Theborealowlrequireslessfood,relativetoitsweight,thanisrequiredbymembersofotherowlspecies.

168. Microbiologist:AlethalstrainofsalmonellarecentlyshowedupinaEuropeancountry,causinganoutbreakofillnessthatkilledtwopeopleandinfectedtwenty-sevenothers.Investigatorsblametheseverityoftheoutbreakontheoveruseofantibiotics,sincethesalmonellabacteriatestedwereshowntobedrug-resistant.Butthisisunlikelybecausepatientsin

thecountrywheretheoutbreakoccurredcannotobtainantibioticstotreatillnesswithoutaprescription,andthecountry’sdoctorsprescribeantibioticslessreadilythandodoctorsinanyotherEuropeancountry.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldmostweakenthemicrobiologist’sreasoning?

A. Physiciansinthecountrywheretheoutbreakoccurredhavebecomehesitanttoprescribeantibioticssincetheyarefrequentlyinshortsupply.

B. Peopleinthecountrywheretheoutbreakoccurredoftenconsumefoodsproducedfromanimalsthateatantibiotics-ladenlivestockfeed.

C. Useofantibioticsintwocountriesthatneighborthecountrywheretheoutbreakoccurredhasrisenoverthepastdecade.

D. Drug-resistantstrainsofsalmonellahavenotbeenfoundincountriesinwhichantibioticsarenotgenerallyavailable.

E. Salmonellahasbeenshowntospreadeasilyalongthedistributionchainsofcertainvegetables,suchasrawtomatoes.

169. Historian:Newtondevelopedmathematicalconceptsandtechniquesthatarefundamentaltomoderncalculus.Leibnizdevelopedcloselyanalogousconceptsandtechniques.Ithastraditionallybeenthoughtthatthesediscoverieswereindependent.Researchershave,however,recentlydiscoverednotesofLeibniz’sthatdiscussoneofNewton’sbooksonmathematics.SeveralscholarshavearguedthatsincethebookincludesapresentationofNewton’scalculusconceptsandtechniques,andsincethenoteswerewrittenbeforeLeibniz’sowndevelopmentofcalculusconceptsandtechniques,itisvirtuallycertainthatthetraditionalviewisfalse.Amorecautiousconclusionthanthisiscalledfor,however.Leibniz’snotesarelimitedtoearlysectionsofNewton’sbook,sectionsthatprecedetheonesinwhichNewton’scalculusconceptsandtechniquesarepresented.

Inthehistorian’sreasoning,thetwoportionsinboldfaceplaywhichofthefollowingroles?

A. Thefirstisaclaimthatthehistorianrejects;thesecondisapositionthatthatclaimhasbeenusedtosupport.

B. Thefirstisevidencethathasbeenusedtosupportaconclusionabout

whichthehistorianexpressesreservations;thesecondisthatconclusion.

C. Thefirstprovidesevidenceinsupportofapositionthatthehistoriandefends;thesecondisthatposition.

D. Thefirstandthesecondeachprovideevidenceinsupportofapositionthatthehistoriandefends.

E. Thefirsthasbeenusedinsupportofapositionthatthehistorianrejects;thesecondisaconclusionthatthehistoriandrawsfromthatposition.

170. Forovertwocenturies,noonehadbeenabletomakeDamascusblades—bladeswithadistinctiveserpentinesurfacepattern—butacontemporaryswordmakermayjusthaverediscoveredhow.UsingironwithtraceimpuritiesthatpreciselymatchedthosepresentintheironusedinhistoricDamascusblades,thiscontemporaryswordmakerseemstohavefinallyhitonanintricateprocessbywhichhecanproduceabladeindistinguishablefromatrueDamascusblade.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,providesthestrongestsupportforthehypothesisthattraceimpuritiesintheironareessentialfortheproductionofDamascusblades?

A. TherearesurfacefeaturesofeveryDamascusblade—includingthebladesproducedbythecontemporaryswordmaker—thatareuniquetothatblade.

B. TheironwithwhichthecontemporaryswordmakermadeDamascusbladescamefromasourceofironthatwasunknowntwocenturiesago.

C. Almostallthetoolsusedbythecontemporaryswordmakerwereupdatedversionsoftoolsthatwereusedbyswordmakersovertwocenturiesago.

D. ProductionofDamascusbladesbyswordmakersofthepastceasedabruptlyafterthoseswordmakers’originalsourceofironbecameexhausted.

E. AlthoughDamascusbladeswererenownedformaintainingasharpedge,theblademadebythecontemporaryswordmakersuggeststhattheymayhavemaintainedtheiredgelesswellthanbladesmadeusing

whatisnowthestandardprocessformakingblades.

171. Imagesfromground-basedtelescopesareinvariablydistortedbytheEarth’satmosphere.Orbitingspacetelescopes,however,operatingaboveEarth’satmosphere,shouldprovidesuperblydetailedimages.Therefore,ground-basedtelescopeswillsoonbecomeobsoleteforadvancedastronomicalresearchpurposes.

Whichofthefollowingstatements,iftrue,wouldcastthemostdoubtontheconclusiondrawnabove?

A. Anorbitingspacetelescopeduetobelaunchedthisyearisfarbehindscheduleandoverbudget,whereasthelargestground-basedtelescopewasbothwithinbudgetandonschedule.

B. Ground-basedtelescopeslocatedonmountainsummitsarenotsubjecttothekindsofatmosphericdistortionwhich,atlowaltitudes,makestarsappeartotwinkle.

C. Bycarefulchoiceofobservatorylocation,itispossibleforlarge-aperturetelescopestoavoidmostofthekindofwindturbulencethatcandistortimagequality.

D. Whenlarge-aperturetelescopesarelocatedathighaltitudesneartheequator,theypermitthebestEarth-basedobservationsofthecenteroftheMilkyWayGalaxy,aprimetargetofastronomicalresearch.

E. Detailedspectralanalyses,uponwhichastronomersrelyfordeterminingthechemicalcompositionandevolutionaryhistoryofstars,requiretelescopeswithmorelight-gatheringcapacitythanspacetelescopescanprovide.

172. Generallyscientistsentertheirfieldwiththegoalofdoingimportantnewresearchandacceptastheircolleaguesthosewithsimilarmotivation.Therefore,whenanyscientistwinsrenownasanexpounderofsciencetogeneralaudiences,mostotherscientistsconcludethatthispopularizershouldnolongerberegardedasatruecolleague.

Theexplanationofferedaboveforthelowesteeminwhichscientificpopularizersareheldbyresearchscientistsassumesthat

A. seriousscientificresearchisnotasolitaryactivity,butreliesonactivecooperationamongagroupofcolleagues

B. researchscientiststendnottoregardascolleaguesthosescientists

whoserenowntheyenvy

C. ascientistcanbecomeafamouspopularizerwithouthavingcompletedanyimportantresearch

D. researchscientistsbelievethatthosewhoarewellknownaspopularizersofsciencearenotmotivatedtodoimportantnewresearch

E. noimportantnewresearchcanbeaccessibletooraccuratelyassessedbythosewhoarenotthemselvesscientists

173. Urbanplanner:Whenacitylosespopulationduetomigration,propertytaxesinthatcitytendtorise.Thisisbecausetherearethenfewerresidentspayingtomaintainaninfrastructurethatwasdesignedtosupportmorepeople.Risingpropertytaxes,inturn,drivemoreresidentsaway,compoundingtheproblem.SincethecityofStonebridgeisstartingtolosepopulation,thecitygovernmentshouldthereforerefrainfromraisingpropertytaxes.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldmostweakentheurbanplanner’sargument?

A. IfStonebridgedoesnotraisetaxesonitsresidentstomaintainitsinfrastructure,thecitywillbecomemuchlessattractivetoliveinasthatinfrastructuredecays.

B. Stonebridgeatpresentbenefitsfromgrantsprovidedbythenationalgovernmenttohelpmaintaincertainpartsofitsinfrastructure.

C. IfthereisasmallincreaseinpropertytaxesinStonebridgeandaslightlylargerproportionoftotalrevenuethanatpresentisallocatedtoinfrastructuremaintenance,thefundingwillbeadequateforthatpurpose.

D. DemographersprojectthatthepopulationofaregionthatincludesStonebridgewillstarttoincreasesubstantiallywithinthenextseveralyears.

E. ThepropertytaxesinStonebridgearesignificantlylowerthanthoseinmanylargercities.

Utraniawasformerlyamajorpetroleumexporter,butinrecentdecadeseconomicstagnationandrestrictiveregulationsinhibitedinvestmentinnewoilfields.Inconsequence,Utranianoilexportsdroppedsteadilyas

newoilfields.Inconsequence,Utranianoilexportsdroppedsteadilyasoldfieldsbecamedepleted.Utrania’scurrentlyimprovingeconomicsituation,togetherwithless-restrictiveregulations,willundoubtedlyresultintherapiddevelopmentofnewfields.However,itwouldbeprematuretoconcludethattherapiddevelopmentofnewfieldswillresultinhigheroilexports,because__________.

A. thepriceofoilisexpectedtoremainrelativelystableoverthenextseveralyears

B. theimprovementintheeconomicsituationinUtraniaisexpectedtoresultinadramaticincreaseintheproportionofUtranianswhoownautomobiles

C. mostoftheinvestmentinnewoilfieldsinUtraniaisexpectedtocomefromforeignsources

D. newtechnologyisavailabletorecoveroilfromoldoilfieldsformerlyregardedasdepleted

E. manyofthenewoilfieldsinUtraniaarelikelytobeasproductiveasthosethatweredevelopedduringtheperiodwhenUtraniawasamajoroilexporter

175. Theuseofgrowth-promotingantibioticsinhogfarmingcanweakentheireffectivenessintreatinghumansbecausesuchusecanspreadresistancetothoseantibioticsamongmicroorganisms.ButnowtheSmeeCompany,oneofthelargestporkmarketers,maystopbuyingporkraisedonfeedcontainingtheseantibiotics.Smeehas60percentoftheporkmarket,andfarmerswhoselltoSmeewouldcertainlystopusingantibioticsinordertoavoidjeopardizingtheirsales.SoifSmeemakesthischange,itwillprobablysignificantlyslowthedeclineinantibiotics’effectivenessforhumans.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldmoststrengthentheargumentabove?

A. Othermajorporkmarketerswillprobablystopbuyingporkraisedonfeedcontaininggrowth-promotingantibioticsifSmeenolongerbuyssuchpork.

B. Thedeclineinhoggrowthduetodiscontinuationofantibioticscanbeoffsetbyimprovedhygiene.

C. Authoritiesarepromotingtheuseofantibioticstowhich

microorganismshavenotyetdevelopedresistance.

D. Aphaseoutofuseofantibioticsforhogsinonecountryreducedusagebyover50percentoverfiveyears.

E. IfSmeestopsbuyingporkraisedwithantibiotics,thefirm’scostswillprobablyincrease.

176. Inanexperiment,volunteerswalkedindividuallythroughadark,abandonedtheater.Halfofthevolunteershadbeentoldthatthetheaterwashauntedandtheotherhalfthatitwasunderrenovation.Thefirsthalfreportedsignificantlymoreunusualexperiencesthantheseconddid.Theresearchersconcludedthatreportsofencounterswithghostsandothersupernaturalentitiesgenerallyresultfrompriorexpectationsofsuchexperiences.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldmostseriouslyweakentheresearchers’reasoning?

A. Noneofthevolunteersinthesecondhalfbelievedthattheunusualexperiencestheyreportedweresupernatural.

B. Allofthevolunteersinthefirsthalfbelievedthattheresearchers’statementthatthetheaterwashauntedwasalie.

C. Beforebeingtoldaboutthetheater,thevolunteerswithineachgroupvariedconsiderablyintheirpriorbeliefsaboutsupernaturalexperiences.

D. Eachunusualexperiencereportedbythevolunteershadacausethatdidnotinvolvethesupernatural.

E. Theresearchersdidnotbelievethatthetheaterwashaunted.

177. Inordertoreducedependenceonimportedoil,thegovernmentofJalicahasimposedminimumfuel-efficiencyrequirementsonallnewcars,beginningthisyear.Themorefuel-efficientacar,thelesspollutionitproducespermiledriven.AsJalicansreplacetheiroldcarswithcarsthatmeetthenewrequirements,annualpollutionfromcartrafficislikelytodecreaseinJalica.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mostseriouslyweakenstheargument?

A. InJalica,domesticallyproducedoilismoreexpensivethanimportedoil.

B. TheJalicangovernmentdidnotintendthenewfuel-efficiencyrequirementtobeapollution-reductionmeasure.

C. Somepollution-controldevicesmandatedinJalicamakecarslessfuel-efficientthantheywouldbewithoutthosedevices.

D. ThenewregulationrequiresnochangeinthechemicalformulationoffuelforcarsinJalica.

E. Jalicanswhogetcarsthataremorefuel-efficienttendtodomoredrivingthanbefore.

178. Plantingsofcottonbioengineeredtoproduceitsowninsecticideagainstbollworms,amajorcauseofcropfailure,sustainedlittlebollwormdamageuntilthisyear.Thisyeartheplantingsarebeingseriouslydamagedbybollworms.Bollworms,however,arenotnecessarilydevelopingresistancetothecotton’sinsecticide.Bollwormsbreedoncorn,andlastyearmorecornthanusualwasplantedthroughoutcotton-growingregions.Soitislikelythatthecottonissimplybeingoverwhelmedbycorn-bredbollworms.

Inevaluatingtheargument,whichofthefollowingwoulditbemostusefultoestablish?

A. Whethercorncouldbebioengineeredtoproducetheinsecticide

B. Whetherplantingsofcottonthatdoesnotproducetheinsecticidearesufferingunusuallyextensivedamagefrombollwormsthisyear

C. Whetherothercropsthathavebeenbioengineeredtoproducetheirowninsecticidesuccessfullyresistthepestsagainstwhichtheinsecticidewastoprotectthem

D. Whetherplantingsofbioengineeredcottonarefrequentlydamagedbyinsectpestsotherthanbollworms

E. Whetherthereareinsecticidesthatcanbeusedagainstbollwormsthathavedevelopedresistancetotheinsecticideproducedbythebioengineeredcotton

179. Typicallyduringthunderstormsmostlightningstrikescarryanegativeelectriccharge;onlyafewcarryapositivecharge.Thunderstormswithunusuallyhighproportionsofpositive-chargestrikestendtooccurinsmokyareasnearforestfires.Thefactthatsmokecarriespositivelychargedsmokeparticlesintotheairaboveafiresuggeststhehypothesis

thattheextrapositivestrikesoccurbecauseofthepresenceofsuchparticlesinthestormclouds.

Whichofthefollowing,ifdiscoveredtobetrue,mostseriouslyunderminesthehypothesis?

A. Otherkindsofrarelightningalsooccurwithunusuallyhighfrequencyinthevicinityofforestfires.

B. Thepositive-chargestrikesthatoccurnearforestfirestendtobenomorepowerfulthanpositivestrikesnormallyare.

C. Apositive-chargestrikeisaslikelytostartaforestfireasanegative-chargestrikeis.

D. Thunderstormsthatoccurindriftingcloudsofsmokehaveextrapositive-chargestrikesweeksafterthechargeofthesmokeparticleshasdissipated.

E. Thetotalnumberoflightningstrikesduringathunderstormisusuallywithinthenormalrangeinthevicinityofaforestfire.

180. ManygardenersbelievethatthevarietyofclematisvinethatismostpopularamonggardenersinNorthAmericaisjackmanii.Thisbeliefisapparentlycorrectsince,oftheonemillionclematisplantssoldperyearbythelargestclematisnurseryinNorthAmerica,tenpercentarejackmanii.

Whichofthefollowingisanassumptiononwhichtheargumentdepends?

A. Thenurserysellsmorethantendifferentvarietiesofclematis.

B. ThelargestclematisnurseryinNorthAmericasellsnothingbutclematisplants.

C. SomeofthejackmaniisoldbythenurseryaresoldtogardenersoutsideNorthAmerica.

D. MostNorthAmericangardenersgrowclematisintheirgardens.

E. ForallnurseriesinNorthAmericathatspecializeinclematis,atleasttenpercentoftheclematisplantstheysellarejackmanii.

181. Since1990thepercentageofbacterialsinusinfectionsinAqadestanthatareresistanttotheantibioticperxicillinhasincreasedsubstantially.Bacteriacanquicklydevelopresistancetoanantibioticwhenitisprescribedindiscriminatelyorwhenpatientsfailtotakeitasprescribed.

Sinceperxicillinhasnotbeenindiscriminatelyprescribed,healthofficialshypothesizethattheincreaseinperxicillin-resistantsinusinfectionsislargelyduetopatients’failuretotakethismedicationasprescribed.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrueofAqadestan,providesmostsupportforthehealthofficials’hypothesis?

A. Resistancetoseveralothercommonlyprescribedantibioticshasnotincreasedsince1990inAqadestan.

B. AlargenumberofAqadestanisneverseekmedicalhelpwhentheyhaveasinusinfection.

C. Whenitfirstbecameavailable,perxicillinwasmuchmoreeffectiveintreatingbacterialsinusinfectionsthananyotherantibioticusedforsuchinfectionsatthetime.

D. Manypatientswhotakeperxicillinexperienceseveresideeffectswithinthefirstfewdaysoftheirprescribedregimen.

E. Aqadestanihealthclinicsprovideantibioticstotheirpatientsatcost.

182. Psychologist:Inastudy,researchersgave100volunteersapsychologicalquestionnairedesignedtomeasuretheirself-esteem.Theresearchersthenaskedeachvolunteertoratethestrengthofhisorherownsocialskills.Thevolunteerswiththehighestlevelsofself-esteemconsistentlyratedthemselvesashavingmuchbettersocialskillsthandidthevolunteerswithmoderatelevels.Thissuggeststhatattaininganexceptionallyhighlevelofself-esteemgreatlyimprovesone’ssocialskills.

Thepsychologist’sargumentismostvulnerabletocriticismonwhichofthefollowinggrounds?

A. Itfailstoadequatelyaddressthepossibilitythatmanyofthevolunteersmaynothaveunderstoodwhatthepsychologicalquestionnairewasdesignedtomeasure.

B. Ittakesforgrantedthatthevolunteerswiththehighestlevelsofself-esteemhadbettersocialskillsthandidtheothervolunteers,evenbeforetheformervolunteershadattainedtheirhighlevelsofself-esteem.

C. Itoverlooksthepossibilitythatpeoplewithveryhighlevelsofself-esteemmaytendtohavealessaccurateperceptionofthestrengthoftheirownsocialskillsthandopeoplewithmoderatelevelsofself-

esteem.

D. Itreliesonevidencefromagroupofvolunteersthatistoosmalltoprovideanysupportforanyinferencesregardingpeopleingeneral.

E. Itoverlooksthepossibilitythatfactorsotherthanlevelofself-esteemmaybeofmuchgreaterimportanceindeterminingthestrengthofone’ssocialskills.

183. Aproductthatrepresentsacleartechnologicaladvanceovercompetingproductscangenerallycommandahighprice.Becausetechnologicaladvancestendtobequicklysurpassedandcompanieswanttomakelargeprofitswhiletheystillcan,manycompanieschargethemaximumpossiblepriceforsuchaproduct.Butlargeprofitsonthenewproductwillgivecompetitorsastrongincentivetoquicklymatchthenewproduct’scapabilities.Consequently,thestrategytomaximizeoverallprofitfromanewproductistochargelessthanthegreatestpossibleprice.

Intheargumentabove,thetwoportionsinboldfaceplaywhichofthefollowingroles?

A. Thefirstisaconsiderationraisedtoarguethatacertainstrategyiscounterproductive;thesecondpresentsthatstrategy.

B. Thefirstisaconsiderationraisedtosupportthestrategythattheargumentrecommends;thesecondpresentsthatstrategy.

C. Thefirstisaconsiderationraisedtohelpexplainthepopularityofacertainstrategy;thesecondpresentsthatstrategy.

D. Thefirstisanassumption,rejectedbytheargument,thathasbeenusedtojustifyacourseofaction;thesecondpresentsthatcourseofaction.

E. Thefirstisaconsiderationthathasbeenusedtojustifyadoptingacertainstrategy;thesecondpresentstheintendedoutcomeofthatstrategy.

184. Gortlandhaslongbeennarrowlyself-sufficientinbothgrainandmeat.However,aspercapitaincomeinGortlandhasrisentowardtheworldaverage,percapitaconsumptionofmeathasalsorisentowardtheworldaverage,andittakesseveralpoundsofgraintoproduceonepoundofmeat.Therefore,sincepercapitaincomecontinuestorise,whereasdomesticgrainproductionwillnotincrease,Gortlandwillsoonhaveto

importeithergrainormeatorboth.

A. ThetotalacreagedevotedtograinproductioninGortlandwillnotdecreasesubstantially.

B. ThepopulationofGortlandhasremainedrelativelyconstantduringthecountry’syearsofgrowingprosperity.

C. ThepercapitaconsumptionofmeatinGortlandisroughlythesameacrossallincomelevels.

D. InGortland,neithermeatnorgrainissubjecttogovernmentpricecontrols.

E. PeopleinGortlandwhoincreasetheirconsumptionofmeatwillnotradicallydecreasetheirconsumptionofgrain.

185. PoliticalAdvertisement:

MayorDelmont’scriticscomplainaboutthejobsthatwerelostinthecityunderDelmont’sleadership.Yetthefactisthatnotonlyweremorejobscreatedthanwereeliminated,buteachyearsinceDelmonttookofficetheaveragepayforthenewjobscreatedhasbeenhigherthanthatyear’saveragepayforjobscitywide.SoitstandstoreasonthatthroughoutDelmont’stenuretheaveragepaycheckinthiscityhasbeengettingsteadilybigger.

A. TheunemploymentrateinthecityishighertodaythanitwaswhenMayorDelmonttookoffice.

B. Theaveragepayforjobsinthecitywasataten-yearlowwhenMayorDelmonttookoffice.

C. EachyearduringMayorDelmont’stenure,theaveragepayforjobsthatwereeliminatedhasbeenhigherthantheaveragepayforjobscitywide.

D. MostofthejobseliminatedduringMayorDelmont’stenurewereindecliningindustries.

E. Theaveragepayforjobsinthecityiscurrentlylowerthanitisforjobsinthesuburbssurroundingthecity.

186. TopreventanewlybuiltdamontheChiffRiverfromblockingtherouteoffishmigratingtobreedinggroundsupstream,thedamincludesafishpass,amechanismdesignedtoallowfishthroughthedam.Beforetheconstructionofthedamandfishpass,severalthousandfishadayswamupriverduringspawningseason.Butinthefirstseasonaftertheproject’scompletion,only300perdaymadethejourney.Clearly,thefishpassisdefective.

A. FishthathavemigratedtotheupstreambreedinggroundsdonotreturndowntheChiffRiveragain.

B. Onotherriversintheregion,theconstructionofdamswithfishpasseshasledtoonlysmalldecreasesinthenumberoffishmigratingupstream.

C. Theconstructionofthedamstirreduppotentiallytoxicriversedimentsthatwerecarrieddownstream.

D. PopulationsofmigratoryfishintheChiffRiverhavebeendecliningslightlyoverthelast20years.

E. Duringspawningseason,thedamreleasessufficientwaterformigratoryfishbelowthedamtoswimupstream.

187. Musiccritic:Fewerandfewermusiciansarestudyingclassicalmusic,decreasingthelikelihoodthatthosewithrealaptitudeforsuchmusicwillbeperformingit.Audienceswhoheartheseperformanceswillnotappreciateclassicalmusic’sgreatnessandwillthusdecamptoothergenres.Sotomaintainclassicalmusic’scurrentmeagerpopularity,wemustencouragemoreyoungmusicianstoenterthefield.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mostweakensthemusiccritic’sreasoning?

A. Musicianswhochoosetostudyclassicalmusicdosobecausetheybelievetheyhaveanaptitudeforthemusic.

B. Classicalmusic’scurrentmeagerpopularityisattributabletotheprofusionofothergenresofmusicavailabletolisteners.

C. Mostpeoplewhoappreciateclassicalmusiccometodosothrougholdrecordingsratherthanliveperformances.

D. Itispossibletoenjoythemusicinaparticulargenreevenwhenitisperformedbymusicianswhoarenotideallysuitedforthatgenre.

E. Thecontinuedpopularityofagivengenreofmusicdependsinpartontheaudiencesbeingabletounderstandwhythatgenreattaineditsoriginalpopularity.

188. CommemorativeplaquescastfrombrassareacharacteristicartformoftheBenincultureofWestAfrica.Somescholars,notingthattheoldestsurvivingplaquesdatetothe1400s,hypothesizethatbrass-castingtechniqueswereintroducedbythePortuguese,whocametoBeninin1485A.D.ButPortugueserecordsofthatexpeditionmentioncast-brassjewelrysenttoBenin’skingfromneighboringIfe.SoitisunlikelythatBenin’sknowledgeofbrasscastingderivedfromthePortuguese.

A. ThePortugueserecordsdonotindicatewhethertheirexpeditionof1485includedmetalworkers.

B. ThePortuguesehadnocontactwithIfeuntilthe1500s.

C. Inthe1400sthePortuguesedidnotusecastbrassforcommemorativeplaques.

D. Asearlyas1500A.D.,BeninartistsweremakingbrassplaquesincorporatingdepictionsofEuropeans.

E. Copper,whichisrequiredformakingbrass,canbefoundthroughoutBeninterritory.

4.5AnswerKey106. C

107. B

108. B

109. A

110. D

111. B

112. A

113. C

114. D

115. A

116. C

117. A

118. D

119. C

120. E

121. C

122. A

123. A

124. D

125. D

126. C

127. B

128. B

129. A

130. B

131. A

132. A

133. A

134. C

135. C

136. E

137. C

138. C

139. B

140. C

141. C

142. A

143. C

144. A

145. A

146. A

147. E

148. D

149. D

150. C

151. D

152. B

153. C

154. A

155. C

156. B

157. B

158. D

159. B

160. D

161. D

162. B

163. E

164. B

165. B

166. D

167. B

168. B

169. B

170. D

171. E

172. D

173. A

174. B

175. A

176. B

177. E

178. B

179. D

180. A

181. D

182. C

183. C

184. E

185. C

186. C

187. C

188. B

4.6AnswerExplanationsThefollowingdiscussionisintendedtofamiliarizeyouwiththemostefficientandeffectiveapproachestocriticalreasoningquestions.TheparticularquestionsinthischapteraregenerallyrepresentativeofthekindsofcriticalreasoningquestionsyouwillencounterontheGMAT.Rememberthatitistheproblemsolvingstrategythatisimportant,notthespecificdetailsofaparticularquestion.

solvingstrategythatisimportant,notthespecificdetailsofaparticularquestion.

106. PhishCorunsanumberoffarmsinthearidprovinceofNufa,dependinglargelyonirrigation.Now,aspartofaplantoefficientlyincreasethefarms’totalproduction,itplanstodrilldowntoanaquifercontainingwarm,slightlysaltywaterthatwillbeusedtoraisefishinponds.Thewaterfromthepondswilllaterbeusedtosupplementpiped-inirrigationwaterforPhishCo’svegetablefields,andthepondsandaccompanyingvegetationshouldhelpreducetheheatintheareaofthefarms.

Whichofthefollowingwould,iftrue,moststronglysuggestthattheplan,ifimplemented,wouldincreasetheoverallefficiencyofPhishCo’sfarms?

A. MostofthevegetationtobeplacedaroundthepondsisnativetoNufa.

B. FishraisedonPhishCo’sfarmsarelikelytobesaleableinthenearesturbanareas.

C. Organicwastefromfishinthepondwaterwillhelptofertilizefieldswhereitisusedforirrigation.

D. ThegovernmentofNufawillhelptoarrangeloanfinancingtopartiallycoverthecostsofdrilling.

E. Pondswillbelocatedonlow-lyinglandnowpartiallyoccupiedbygraincrops.

EvaluationofaPlan

Situation Acompanyplanstoincreasethetotalefficiencyofitsfarmsinanaridregionbydrillingdowntoanaquiferwhosewaterwillbeusedtoraisefishinpondsandtohelpirrigatethefarms’vegetablefields.Thepondsandaccompanyingvegetationshouldhelpreducetheheataroundthefarms.

Reasoning Whatwouldmakeitmostlikelythatimplementingtheplanwouldincreasethefarms’overallefficiency?Thefarmswillbecomemoreefficientiftheplansignificantlyincreasestheirproductionforlittleornoaddedcost.

A. Vegetationnativetoanaridregionmaybenomorelikelytothrivearoundpondsthannon-nativevegetationwouldbe,andinanycasewouldnotclearlyincreasethefarms’totalcropproductionorefficiency.

B. Thismakesitslightlymorelikelythattheplanwouldincreasethefarms’profitability,nottheirefficiencyorproductivity.

C. CorrectFertilizingthefieldswiththewastewhileirrigatingthecropsmightsignificantlyimprovecropproduction.Butitwouldcostlittleornothingextra,sincethewastewouldalreadybeintheirrigationwater.Thus,thisfeatureoftheplanwouldlikelyenhancethefarms’efficiencybyincreasingtheirproductivityfornosignificantextracost.

D. Thisgovernmentassistancemightslightlyreducetheworkthecompanyhastodotoprocurealoan.Butprobablyitwouldneitherincreasethefarms’productionnorreducetheoverallexpenseofimplementingtheplan(includingtheexpenseincurredbythegovernment).

E. Ifanything,thissuggeststhattheplanmightreducethefarms’efficiencybyeliminatingproductivecropland.

107. Thesustainedmassiveuseofpesticidesinfarminghastwoeffectsthatareespeciallypernicious.First,itoftenkillsoffthepests’naturalenemiesinthearea.Second,itoftenunintentionallygivesrisetoinsecticide-resistantpests,sincethoseinsectsthatsurviveaparticularinsecticidewillbetheonesmostresistanttoit,andtheyaretheoneslefttobreed.

Fromthepassageabove,itcanbeproperlyinferredthattheeffectivenessofthesustainedmassiveuseofpesticidescanbeextendedbydoingwhichofthefollowing,assumingthateachisarealisticpossibility?

A. Usingonlychemicallystableinsecticides

B. Periodicallyswitchingthetypeofinsecticideused

C. Graduallyincreasingthequantitiesofpesticidesused

D. Leavingafewfieldsfalloweveryyear

E. Breedinghigher-yieldingvarietiesofcropplants

EvaluationofaPlan

Situation Continuedhigh-levelpesticideuseoftenkillsoffthetargetedpests’naturalenemies.Inaddition,thepeststhatsurvivetheapplicationofthepesticidemaybecomeresistanttoit,andthesepesticide-resistantpestswillcontinuebreeding.

Reasoning Whatcanbedonetoprolongtheeffectivenessofpesticideuse?Itcanbeinferredthattheongoinguseofaparticularpesticidewillnotcontinuetobeeffectiveagainstthefuturegenerationsofpestswithaninherentresistancetothatpesticide.Whatwouldbeeffectiveagainstthesefuturegenerations?Iffarmersperiodicallychangetheparticularpesticidetheyuse,thenpestsresistanttoonekindofpesticidemightbekilledbyanother.Thiswouldcontinue,withpestsbeingkilledoffincyclesasthepesticidesarechanged.Itisalsopossiblethatthisrotationmightallowsomeofthepests’naturalenemiestosurvive,atleastuntilthenextcycle.

A. Notenoughinformationaboutchemicallystableinsecticidesisgiventomakeasoundinference.

B. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesanactionthatcouldextendtheeffectivenessofpesticideuse.

C. Graduallyincreasingtheamountofthepesticidesbeingusedwillnothelpthesituationsincethepestsarealreadyresistanttoit.

D. Continueduseofpesticidesisassumedaspartoftheargument.Sincepesticideswouldbeunnecessaryforfallowfields,thissuggestionisirrelevant.

E. Breedinghigher-yieldingvarietiesofcropsdoesnothingtoextendtheeffectivenessoftheuseofpesticides.

108. Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mostlogicallycompletestheargumentbelow?

Manufacturersarenowrequiredtomakeallcigarettelighterschild-resistantbyequippingthemwithsafetylevers.Butthischangeisunlikelytoresultinasignificantreductioninthenumberoffirescausedbychildrenplayingwithlighters,becausechildrengiventheopportunitycanfigureouthowtoworkthesafetyleversand________.

A. theadditionofthesafetylevershasmadelightersmoreexpensivethantheywerebeforetherequirementwasinstituted

B. adultsaremorelikelytoleavechild-resistantlightersthannon-child-resistantlightersinplacesthatareaccessibletochildren

C. manyofthefiresstartedbyyoungchildrenarequicklydetectedandextinguishedbytheirparents

D. unlikechild-resistantlighters,lightersthatarenotchild-resistantcanbeoperatedbychildrenasyoungastwoyearsold

E. approximately5,000firesperyearhavebeenattributedtochildrenplayingwithlightersbeforethesafetyleverswererequired.

ArgumentConstruction

Situation Manufacturersmustequipallcigarettelighterswithchild-resistantsafetylevers,butchildrencanfigureouthowtocircumventthesafetyleversandtherebyoftenstartfires.

Reasoning Whatpointwouldmostlogicallycompletetheargument?Whatwouldmakeitlikelythatthenumberoffirescausedbychildrenplayingwithlighterswouldremainthesame?Inorderforchildrentostartfiresusinglightersequippedwithsafetylevers,theymustbegiventheopportunitytofigureouthowthesafetyleversworkandthentousethem.Theymust,thatis,haveaccesstothelighters.

A. Ifsafety-lever-equippedlightersaremoreexpensivethanlightersthatarenotsoequipped,fewerlightersmightbesold.Thiswouldmostlikelyaffordchildrenlessaccesstolighters,thusgivingthemlessopportunitytostartfireswiththem.

B. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesapointthatlogicallycompletestheargument:itexplainswhychildrenarelikelytohaveaccesstolightersequippedwithsafetylevers.

C. Thespeedwithwhichfiresareextinguisheddoesnothaveanybearingonthenumberoffiresthatarestarted.

D. Thisprovidesareasontobelievethatthenumberoffiresstartedbychildrenwillmostlikelydecrease,ratherthanstaythesame:fewerchildrenwillbeabletooperatethelighters,andthusfewerfiresarelikelytobestarted.

E. Thisinformationabouthowmanyfireswerestartedbychildrenbefore

safetyleverswererequireddoesnothaveanybearingonthequestionofhowmanyfiresarelikelytobestartedbychildrennowthatthesafetyleversarerequired.

AbusinessanalysisoftheAppenianrailroadsystemdivideditslong-distancepassengerroutesintotwocategories:ruralroutesandinterurbanroutes.Theanalysisfoundthat,unliketheinterurbanroutes,fewruralroutescarriedahighenoughpassengervolumetobeprofitable.Closingunprofitableruralroutes,however,willnotnecessarilyenhancetheprofitabilityofthewholesystem,since________.

A. alargepartofthepassengervolumeoninterurbanroutesisaccountedforbypassengerswhobeginorendtheirjourneysonruralroutes

B. withinthelasttwodecadesseveraloftheleastusedruralrouteshavebeenclosedandtheirpassengerserviceshavebeenreplacedbybuses

C. theruralrouteswerealloriginallyconstructedatleastonehundredyearsago,whereassomeoftheinterurbanrouteswereconstructedrecentlyfornewhigh-speedexpresstrains

D. notallofAppenia’slargecitiesareequallywellservedbyinterurbanrailroadservices

E. thegreatestpassengervolume,relativetotheroutes’capacity,isnotoneithercategoryoflong-distanceroutesbutisonsuburbancommuterroutes

Situation IntheAppenianrailroadsystem,interurbanroutesgenerallycarryenoughpassengerstobeprofitable,butfewruralroutesdo.

Reasoning Whatwouldsuggestthatclosingunprofitableruralrouteswouldnotenhancetherailroadsystem’sprofitability?Anyevidencethatclosingtheunprofitableruralrouteswouldindirectlyreducetheprofitabilityofothercomponentsoftherailroadsystemwouldsupporttheconclusionthatclosing

thoseruralrouteswillnotenhancethesystem’sprofitability.Thus,astatementprovidingsuchevidencewouldlogicallycompletethepassage.

A. Correct.Thissuggeststhatclosingtheruralroutescoulddiscouragemanypassengersfromtravelingontheprofitableinterurbanroutesaswell,thusreducingtheprofitabilityoftherailroadsystemasawhole.

B. Evenifsomeoftheleastusedruralrouteshavealreadybeenclosed,itremainstruethatmostoftheremainingruralroutesaretoolittleusedtobeprofitable.

C. Closingveryoldrouteswouldbeatleastaslikelytoenhancetherailroadsystem’sprofitabilityasclosingnewerrouteswouldbe.

D. Evenifthereisbetterrailroadservicetosomelargecitiesthanothers,closingunprofitableruralroutescouldstillenhancethesystem’sprofitability.

E. Evenifsuburbanroutesarethemostheavilyusedandprofitable,closingunderused,unprofitableruralroutescouldstillenhancethesystem’sprofitability.

110. AlthoughAckerburg’ssubwaysystemiscurrentlyoperatingatadeficit,thetransitauthoritywilllowersubwayfaresnextyear.Theauthorityprojectsthatthelowerfareswillresultinatenpercentincreaseinthenumberofsubwayriders.Sincetheadditionalincomefromthelargerridershipwillmorethanoffsetthedecreaseduetolowerfares,thetransitauthorityactuallyexpectsthefarereductiontoreduceoreliminatethesubwaysystem’soperatingdeficitfornextyear.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,providesthemostsupportforthetransitauthority’sexpectationofreducingthesubwaysystem’soperatingdeficit?

A. Throughouttheyearsthatthesubwaysystemhasoperated,fareshaveneverbeforebeenreduced.

B. Theplannedfarereductionwillnotapplytostudents,whocanalreadyridethesubwayforareducedfare.

C. Nextyear,thetransitauthoritywillhavetoundertakeseverallarge-scaletrackmaintenanceprojects.

D. Thesubwaysystemcanaccommodateatenpercentincreaseinridershipwithoutincreasingthenumberoftrainsitrunseachday.

E. ThecurrentsubwayfaresinAckerburgarehigherthansubwayfaresinothercitiesintheregion.

ArgumentEvaluation

Situation Ackerburg’stransitauthorityplanstolowersubwayfares,projectingthatthiswillincreaseridershipby10percentandtherebyreduceoreliminatethesubwaysystem’soperatingdeficit.

Reasoning Whatevidencewouldsupporttheexpectationthatloweringsubwayfareswillreducetheoperatingdeficit?Thepassagesaystheadditionalincomefromtheprojectedincreaseinridershipwillmorethanoffsetthedecreaseduetotheloweredfares.Theclaimthatloweringfareswillreducetheoperatingdeficitcouldbesupportedeitherbyadditionalevidencethatloweringthefareswillincreaseridershipatleastasmuchasprojectedorbyevidencethattheplanwillnotincreaseoveralloperatingexpenses.

A. Thefactthatfareshaveneverbeenreducedprovidesnoevidenceaboutwhatwouldhappeniftheywerereduced.

B. Thissuggeststhattheplannedfarereductionwouldnotaffectrevenuefromstudentriders,butitdoesnotsuggesthowitwouldaffectrevenuefromallotherriders.

C. Thesemaintenanceprojectswillprobablyincreasetheoperatingdeficit,makingitlesslikelythatthefarereductionwillreduceoreliminatethatdeficit.

D. Correct.Thisindicatesthattheplanwillnotinvolveextraoperatingexpensesforrunningtrainsandthusincreasesthelikelihoodthattheplanwillreducetheoperatingdeficit.

E. AckerburgmaydifferfromothercitiesintheregioninwaysthatmakethehigherfaresoptimalforAckerburg’ssubwaysystem.

111. Patrickusuallyprovideschildcareforsixchildren.ParentsleavetheirchildrenatPatrick’shouseinthemorningandpickthemupafterwork.Attheendofeachworkweek,theparentspayPatrickatanhourlyrateforthechildcareprovidedthatweek.TheweeklyincomePatrickreceivesisusuallyadequatebutnotalwaysuniform,particularlyinthewinter,whenchildrenarelikelytogetsickandbeunpredictablyabsent.

Whichofthefollowingplans,ifputintoeffect,hasthebestprospectofmakingPatrick’sweeklyincomebothuniformandadequate?

A. Poolresourceswithaneighborwhoprovideschildcareundersimilararrangements,sothatthetwoofthemcooperateincaringfortwiceasmanychildrenasPatrickcurrentlydoes.

B. ReplacepaymentbyactualhoursofchildcareprovidedwithafixedweeklyfeebaseduponthenumberofhoursofchildcarethatPatrickwouldtypicallybeexpectedtoprovide.

C. Hireafull-timehelperandinvestinfacilitiesforprovidingchildcaretosickchildren.

D. IncreasethehourlyratetoalevelthatwouldprovideadequateincomeeveninaweekwhenhalfofthechildrenPatrickusuallycaresforareabsent.

E. Increasethenumberofhoursmadeavailableforchildcareeachday,sothatparentscanleavetheirchildreninPatrick’scareforalongerperiodeachdayatthecurrenthourlyrate.

EvaluationofaPlan

Situation Attheendoftheworkweek,Patrickispaidacertainamountforeachhourofchildcarehehasprovided.Patrickusuallyreceivesadequateweeklyincomeunderthisarrangement,butinthewinterPatrick’sincomefluctuates,becausechildrenareunpredictablyabsentduetoillness.

Reasoning Whichplanwouldbemostlikelytomeetthetwogoalsofuniformweeklyincomeandadequateweeklyincome?Patrickmustfindawaytoensurethathisweeklyincomeisbothadequate—thatis,notreducedsignificantlyfromcurrentlevels—anduniform—thatis,notsubjecttoseasonalorother

fluctuations.AsuccessfulplanwouldthusmostlikelybeonethatdoesnotincreasePatrick’scosts.Further,theplanneednotincreasePatrick’sweeklyincome;itmustmerelyensurethatthatincomeismorereliable.Itshouldthereforealsoprovidesomewaytomitigatetheunexpectedlossofincomefromchildren’sabsences.

A. ThisplanmightraisePatrick’sincomeslightly,becauseheandtheneighbormightpayoutlessincostsiftheypooltheirresources.ButthisplanwouldhavenoeffectontheproblemthatunpredictableabsencesposeforPatrick’sweeklyincome.

B. Correct.ThisstatementproperlyidentifiesaplanthatwouldmostlikelykeepPatrick’sincomeadequate(hewouldprobablyreceiveapproximatelythesameamountofmoneyperchildashedoesnow)anduniform(hewouldreceivethemoneyregardlessofwhetherachildwaspresentorabsent).

C. WhilethisplanmightsomewhatmitigatetheunpredictabilityinPatrick’sincomethatresultsfromsickchildren’sabsences—becauseparentswouldbelesslikelytokeepsickchildrenathome—itwouldincreasePatrick’scosts.PayingahelperandinvestingindifferentfacilitieswouldreducePatrick’sincomeandmightthusresultinthatincomebeinginadequate.

D. Underthisplan,ifweassumethatparentsdidnotbalkattheincreaseinPatrick’shourlyrateandfindalternativechildcare,Patrick’sincomewouldmostlikelybeadequate.ButthisplanwouldnothelpmakePatrick’sweeklyincomeuniform.Hisincomewouldcontinuetofluctuatewhenchildrenareabsent.Remember,therearetwogoalswithregardtoPatrick’sincome:adequacyanduniformity.

E. ThisplanmightincreasePatrick’sincome,inthathemightbepaidformorehoursofchildcareeachweek.Thegoalshere,however,aretomakePatrick’sweeklyincomebothadequateanduniform,andthisplandoesnotaddresstheissueofuniformity.

112. Editorial:ConsumersinNorthAmericathinkthatbydrinkingfrozenconcentratedorangejuice,theyaresavingenergy,becauseittakesfewertruckloadstotransportitthanittakestotransportanequivalentamountofnot-from-concentratejuice.Buttheyaremistaken,fortheamountofenergyrequiredtoconcentratethejuiceisfargreaterthantheenergy

differenceinthejuices’transport.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldprovidethegreatestadditionalsupportfortheeditorial’sconclusion?

A. Freezertrucksusesubstantiallymoreenergypermiledriventhandoanyothertypesoftrucks.

B. Frozenjuicecanbestoredforseveralyears,whilenot-from-concentratejuicelastsamuchshortertime.

C. OrangesgrowninBrazilmakeupanincreasingpercentageofthefruitusedinnot-from-concentratejuiceproduction.

D. Aservingofnot-from-concentratejuicetakesuptosixtimesmorespacethanaservingoffrozenconcentratedjuice.

E. Thoughfrozenconcentratedjuicemustbekeptatalowertemperature,not-from-concentratejuiceisfarmoresensitivetosmalltemperaturefluctuations.

ArgumentEvaluation

Situation NorthAmericanconsumersthinkthatdrinkingfrozenconcentratedorangejuicesavesenergybecausetheconcentratedjuicecanbetransportedinfewertruckloadsthananequivalentamountofnot-from-concentratejuice.Butmoreenergyisrequiredtoconcentratethejuicethanissavedbythisreductioninthenumberoftruckloadsusedfortransportation.

Reasoning Whatadditionalevidencewouldmosthelptosupporttheconclusionthatdrinkingfrozenconcentratedorangejuiceratherthannot-from-concentratejuicedoesnotsaveenergy?Factorsotherthantheconcentrationprocessandthenumberoftruckloadsusedfortransportationmayalsoaffecttheamountsofenergyusedtoprovidethetwotypesofjuice.Evidenceofanysuchfactorthatincreasestheamountofenergyneededtoprovidefrozenconcentratedjuicemorethanitincreasestheamountneededtoprovidethesameamountofnot-from-concentratejuicewouldhelptosupporttheeditorial’sconclusion.

A. Correct.Thissuggeststhatittakesmuchmoreenergypertruckloadtotransportfrozenconcentratedjuicethantotransportnot-from-concentratejuice,whichisnotfrozen.

B. Ifanything,thissuggeststhatahigherproportionofnot-from-concentratejuicegoesbadandisdiscardedratherthanbeingdrunk.Thiswastewouldincreasetheamountofenergyusedtoprovideeachglassofnot-from-concentratejuicethatisdrunk.

C. SinceBrazilisfarfromNorthAmerica,thissuggeststhattheaverageamountofenergyusedtotransporteachservingofnot-from-concentratejuicemaybeincreasing.

D. Sincebothtypesofjuicemustbekeptcolduntilreadytodrink,thissuggeststhatamuchlargeramountofspacemustberefrigeratedtoprovideeachservingofnot-from-concentratejuice.Thatmaymeanthatmoreenergyneedstobeusedtokeepeachservingofnot-from-concentratejuicecold.

E. Itmaytakeextraenergytokeepthetemperatureofnot-from-concentratejuicemoreconstant.Ifitdoes,thatwouldincreasetheamountofenergyusedtoprovideeachservingofnot-from-concentratejuice.

113. Acomputerequippedwithsignature-recognitionsoftware,whichrestrictsaccesstoacomputertothosepeoplewhosesignaturesareonfile,identifiesaperson’ssignaturebyanalyzingnotonlytheformofthesignaturebutalsosuchcharacteristicsaspenpressureandsigningspeed.Eventhemostadeptforgerscannotduplicateallofthecharacteristicstheprogramanalyzes.

Whichofthefollowingcanbelogicallyconcludedfromthepassageabove?

A. Thetimeittakestorecordandanalyzeasignaturemakesthesoftwareimpracticalforeverydayuse.

B. Computersequippedwiththesoftwarewillsoonbeinstalledinmostbanks.

C. Nobodycangainaccesstoacomputerequippedwiththesoftwaresolelybyvirtueofskillatforgingsignatures.

D. Signature-recognitionsoftwarehastakenmanyyearstodevelopand

perfect.

E. Inmanycasesevenauthorizedusersaredeniedlegitimateaccesstocomputersequippedwiththesoftware.

Situation Forgerscannotduplicateallthecharacteristicsthatsignature-recognitionsoftwareanalyzes,includingtheformofasignature,penpressure,andsigningspeed.Computersequippedwiththissoftwarerestrictaccesstothosewhosesignaturesareonfile.

Reasoning Whatconclusioncanbereachedaboutcomputersequippedwiththissoftware?Thepassagestatesthatthesoftwaredetectsmorecharacteristicsinasignaturethanthemostaccomplishedforgercanpossiblyreproduce.Thus,skillatforgingsignaturesisnotenoughtoallowsomeonetogainaccesstoacomputerequippedwiththesoftware.

A. Noinformationaboutthespeedoftheanalysisisgiven,sonosuchconclusioncanbedrawn.

B. Althoughthesoftwarewouldlikelybeofbenefittobanks,wecannotconcludethatitwillbeinstalledinmostbanksbecausethepassagedoesn’truleout,e.g.,thatthesoftwaremaybetoocostlyorthattheremaybeproprietaryconstraints.

C. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesaconclusionthatcanbedrawnfromthepassage.

D. Althoughitseemsreasonabletothinkthatthesoftwaretookalongtimetodevelop,nothinginthepassagejustifiestheclaimthatittookyears.

E. Nothinginthepassagerulesoutthepossibilitythatthesoftwarefunctionssowellthatauthorizeduserswillneverbedeniedlegitimateaccesstocomputersequippedwiththesoftware.

114. Therateatwhicharoadwearsdependsonvariousfactors,includingclimate,amountoftraffic,andthesizeandweightofthevehiclesusingit.

TheonlylandtransportationtoRittland’sseaportisviaadividedhighway,onesidecarryingtraffictotheseaportandonecarryingtrafficawayfromit.Thesideleadingtotheseaporthaswornfaster,eventhougheachsidehascarriedvirtuallythesameamountoftraffic,consistingmainlyoflargetrucks.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,mosthelpstoexplainthedifferenceintherateofwear?

A. ThevolumeoftraffictoandfromRittland’sseaporthasincreasedbeyondtheintendedcapacityofthehighwaythatservesit.

B. WearonthehighwaythatservesRittland’sseaportisconsiderablygreaterduringthecoldwintermonths.

C. WearonthesideofthehighwaythatleadstoRittland’sseaporthasencouragedpeopletotakebusestotheseaportratherthandrivingthereintheirownautomobiles.

D. AgreatertonnageofgoodsisexportedfromRittland’sseaportthanisimportedthroughit.

E. AllofRittland’sautomobilesareimportedbyship.

Situation Thesideofadividedhighwayleadingtoaseaporthaswornfasterthanthesideleadingawayfromtheseaport.Bothsidescarryroughlythesameamountoftraffic,mainlyconsistingoflargetrucks.

Reasoning Whatcouldexplainwhythesideofthehighwayleadingtotheseaporthaswornfasterthantheotherside?Wearetoldthatclimate,amountoftraffic,andthesizeandweightofvehiclesonaroadaffecthowquicklytheroadwears.Wearealsotoldthattheamountsoftrafficonthetwosidesofthehighwayarealmostidentical.Probablytheclimateonthetwosidesisalsoalmostidentical.Thus,themostlikelyexplanationforthedifferentratesofwearisthatthesizeorweightofthevehiclesdrivingonthetwosidesdifferssignificantly.Soanyfactorthatwouldmakethevehicles’sizeorweightgreateronthesideleadingtotheseaportthanontheothersidecouldhelp

explainthedifferenceinwearing.

A. Theincreasedtrafficvolumeaffectsbothsidesofthehighway,soitdoesnothelpexplainwhyonesideiswearingfasterthantheother.

B. Thewinterweatheraffectsbothsidesofthehighway,soitdoesnothelpexplainwhyonesideiswearingfasterthantheother.

C. Thebusesmaycontributetowearonthesideofthehighwayleadingtotheseaport,butnotnecessarilymorethanthecartraffictheyarereplacingwould(thoughtheincreaseduseofbusesinsteadofcarsmaydecreasetheamountoftraffic,buseswouldbeheavierthancarsandthusmayresultinanequalorgreateramountofwear).Furthermore,thebuseshavetocomebackontheotherside,probablycarryingthereturningtravelerswhohavenotlefttheircarsattheairport.

D. Correct.Thissuggeststhatthemanytrucksvisitingtheseaporttendtobemoreheavilyladenwithgoodswhentravelingonthesideofthehighwayleadingtotheseaportthanwhenreturningontheotherside.Theresultingdifferenceinthetrucks’weightwhentravelingonthetwosidescouldexplainthedifferentratesofwear.

E. Theseautomobileswouldbetransportedalongthesideofthehighwayleadingfromtheseaport,butnotalongthesideleadingtoit.Thiswouldlikelycreateapatternofwearoppositetotheoneobserved.

115. InpartsofSouthAmerica,vitamin-Adeficiencyisaserioushealthproblem,especiallyamongchildren.Inoneregion,agriculturistsareattemptingtoimprovenutritionbyencouragingfarmerstoplantanewvarietyofsweetpotatocalledSPK004thatisrichinbeta-carotene,whichthebodyconvertsintovitaminA.Theplanhasgoodchancesofsuccess,sincesweetpotatoisastapleoftheregion’sdietandagriculture,andthevarietiescurrentlygrowncontainlittlebeta-carotene.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,moststronglysupportsthepredictionthattheplanwillsucceed?

A. ThegrowingconditionsrequiredbythevarietiesofsweetpotatocurrentlycultivatedintheregionareconditionsinwhichSPK004canflourish.

B. ThefleshofSPK004differsfromthatofthecurrentlycultivatedsweetpotatoesincolorandtexture,sotraditionalfoodswouldlooksomewhatdifferentwhenpreparedfromSPK004.

C. Therearenoothervarietiesofsweetpotatothataresignificantlyricherinbeta-carotenethanSPK004is.

D. ThevarietiesofsweetpotatocurrentlycultivatedintheregioncontainsomeimportantnutrientsthatarelackinginSPK004.

E. Thereareothervegetablescurrentlygrownintheregionthatcontainmorebeta-carotenethanthecurrentlycultivatedvarietiesofsweetpotatodo.

EvaluationofaPlan

Situation AgriculturistsbelievethatiffarmersinaparticularSouthAmericanregionplantanewbeta-carotene-richvarietyofsweetpotato,SPK004,thevitamin-Adeficiencysufferedinthatregioncanbealleviated.Eventhoughsweetpotatoesareastapleoftheregionandthebodycanconvertasweetpotato’sbeta-caroteneintovitaminA,thevarietiescurrentlygrowntherecontainlittlebeta-carotene.

Reasoning WhatwouldmostsupportthesuccessoftheplantoimprovenutritionbyencouragingfarmerstoplantSPK004?What,thatis,wouldmakefarmersrespondpositivelytoencouragementtoplantSPK004?FarmersintheregionwouldprobablybeinclinedtosubstituteSPK004forthevarietiesofsweetpotatotheycurrentlygrowiftheycouldbeassuredthatSPK004wouldgrowaswellasthoseothervarietiesdo.ThiswouldinturnmostlikelyleadtoSPK004beingsubstitutedforcurrentvarietiesofsweetpotatoinstapledishes,andthustoanimprovementinnutritionintheregion.

A. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesafactorthatwouldsupportapredictionoftheplan’ssuccess.

B. IfdishesmadewithSPK004lookdifferentthantraditionalsweetpotatodishesintheregiondo,peoplemightbelesslikelytoeatthosedishes;insuchasituation,theplan’ssuccesswouldbelesslikely,ratherthanmore

likely.

C. ItisSPK004’sbeta-carotenecontentrelativetothebeta-carotenecontentofthesweetpotatoescurrentlygrownintheregionthatisrelevanthere,soitdoesnotmatterifthereareothervarietiesofsweetpotatothatarericherinbeta-carotenethanSPK004is.

D. ThissuggeststhatswitchingfromcurrentlygrownsweetpotatoestoSPK004couldnegativelyaffectnutritionintheregion;thisundermines,ratherthansupports,thepredictionthattheplantoimprovenutritionwillsucceed.

E. Theseothervegetables,despitetheirbeta-carotenecontentbeinghigherthanthatofthecurrentlycultivatedvarietiesofsweetpotato,areclearlynotsufficienttopreventavitamin-Adeficiencyintheregion.ThisinformationdoesnothingtosupportthepredictionthatencouragingfarmerstoplantSPK004willhelptomeetthosebeta-caroteneneeds.

Thelastmembersofanow-extinctspeciesofaEuropeanwilddeercalledthegiantdeerlivedinIrelandabout16,000yearsago.PrehistoriccavepaintingsinFrancedepictthisanimalashavingalargehumponitsback.Fossilsofthisanimal,however,donotshowanyhump.Nevertheless,thereisnoreasontoconcludethatthecavepaintingsarethereforeinaccurateinthisregard,since__________.

A. someprehistoriccavepaintingsinFrancealsodepictotheranimalsashavingahump

B. fossilsofthegiantdeeraremuchmorecommoninIrelandthaninFrance

C. animalhumpsarecomposedoffattytissue,whichdoesnotfossilize

D. thecavepaintingsofthegiantdeerwerepaintedwellbefore16,000yearsago

E. onlyonecurrentlyexistingspeciesofdeerhasanyanatomicalfeaturethatevenremotelyresemblesahump

Situation RepresentationsfoundinprehistoriccavepaintingsinFranceofthenow-extinctgiantdeerspecies—thelastmembersof

ofthenow-extinctgiantdeerspecies—thelastmembersofwhichlivedinIrelandabout16,000yearsago—depictthedeerashavingahumponitsback.Fossilsofthedeer,however,donotfeatureahump.

Reasoning Whatpointwouldmostlogicallycompletetheargument?Thatis,whatwouldshowthatthecavepaintingsarenotinaccurateeventhoughfossilsofthegiantdeershownohump?Howcoulditbethecasethatthepaintingsshowahumpwhilethefossilsdonot?Onewayinwhichthiscouldbesoisifthehumpsarenotpartofthefossils—thatis,ifthereissomereasonwhyahumpwouldnotbepreservedwiththerestofananimal’sremains.

A. Wedonotknowwhethertheseothercavepaintingsaccuratelydepicttheanimalsashavinghumps,sothisprovidesnoreasontothinkthatthedepictionsofgiantdeerareaccurate.

B. Wheregiantdeerfossilsarefoundhasnobearingonwhethercavepaintingsofgiantdeerthatshowahumpontheanimal’sbackareinaccurate.Itcouldbethatthissuggeststhatthepaintersresponsiblefortherepresentationswouldnotbeveryfamiliarwiththespecies;ifthiswereso,itwouldgivesomereasontoconcludethattherepresentationswereinaccurate.

C. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesapointthatlogicallycompletestheargument.Ahumpwouldnotbefoundaspartofagiantdeer’sfossilizedremainsifthehumpswerefattytissuethatwouldnotbefossilized.

D. Thatthecavepaintingswerepaintedwellbefore16,000yearsagoshowsthattheywereexecutedbeforethegiantdeerbecameextinct,butthisdoesnothelptoexplainthediscrepancybetweenthepaintings’depictionofahumponthedeer’sbackandthefossilrecord’slackofsuchahump.Itcouldbethateventhoughthecavepainterscoexistedwiththegiantdeer,theywerenotsufficientlyfamiliarwiththemtodepictthemaccurately.

E. Thatcurrentlyexistingspeciesofdeerlackhumps,oreventhatonespeciesdoeshaveafeatureresemblingahump,haslittlebearingonwhethercavepaintingsinFranceaccuratelydepictthegiantdeerashavingahump.

117. Highlevelsoffertilizerandpesticides,neededwhenfarmerstryto

producehighyieldsofthesamecropyearafteryear,pollutewatersupplies.Expertsthereforeurgefarmerstodiversifytheircropsandtorotatetheirplantingsyearly.

Toreceivegovernmentalprice-supportbenefitsforacrop,farmersmusthaveproducedthatsamecropforthepastseveralyears.

Thestatementsabove,iftrue,bestsupportwhichofthefollowingconclusions?

A. Therulesforgovernmentalsupportoffarmpricesworkagainsteffortstoreducewaterpollution.

B. Theonlysolutiontotheproblemofwaterpollutionfromfertilizersandpesticidesistotakefarmlandoutofproduction.

C. Farmerscancontinuetomakeaprofitbyrotatingdiversecrops,thusreducingcostsforchemicals,butnotbyplantingthesamecropeachyear.

D. Newfarmingtechniqueswillbedevelopedtomakeitpossibleforfarmerstoreducetheapplicationoffertilizersandpesticides.

E. Governmentalpricesupportsforfarmproductsaresetatlevelsthatarenothighenoughtoallowfarmerstogetoutofdebt.

Situation Farmersareurgedtorotatecropsannuallybecausethechemicalstheymustusewhencontinuingtoproducethesamecropspollutewatersupplies.Ontheotherhand,farmersmayreceivefederalprice-supportbenefitsonlyiftheyhavebeenproducingthesamecropforthepastseveralyears.

Reasoning Whatconclusioncanbedrawnfromthisinformation?Farmerswishtoreceivetheprice-supportbenefitsofferedbythegovernment,sotheygrowthesamecropforseveralyears.Inordertocontinuegettinggoodyields,theyusethehighlevelsofchemicalsnecessarywhenthesamecropisgrownfromyeartoyear.Theresultiswaterpollution.Thegovernment’srulesforprice-supportbenefitsworkagainsttheeffortstoreducewaterpollution.

A. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiestheconclusionsupportedbytheevidence.

B. Theexpertscitedinthepassagebelievethattherotationofcropsisthesolution,nottheremovaloffarmlandfromproduction.

C. Theconclusionthatfarmerscannotmakeaprofitbyproducingthesamecropyearafteryearisnotjustifiedbytheinformationgiveninthepremises.Theinformationgivensuggeststhatthisconclusionwouldactuallybefalse,sincethesefarmerswouldbenefitbyprice-supportmeasuresforsuchacrop.

D. Noinformationinthepassagesupportsaconclusionaboutfarmingtechniquesotherthancropdiversificationandrotation,whichareclearlyexistingfarmingtechniquesandnotneworyettobedeveloped.

E. Thisconclusionisunwarrantedbecausethereisnoinformationinthetwostatementsaboutthelevelsofthepricesupportsandofthefarmers’debts.

118. TenyearsagothenumberoftaxpayersinGreenspaceCountywasslightlygreaterthanthenumberofregisteredvoters.Thenumberoftaxpayershasdoubledoverthelasttenyears,whilethenumberofregisteredvotershasincreased,butatalowerratethanhasthenumberoftaxpayers.

WhichofthefollowingmustbetrueinGreenspaceCountyifthestatementsabovearetrue?

A. Thenumberoftaxpayersisnowsmallerthanthenumberofregisteredvoters.

B. Everyonewhoisaregisteredvoterisalsoataxpayer.

C. Theproportionofregisteredvoterstotaxpayershasincreasedoverthelasttenyears.

D. Theproportionofregisteredvoterstotaxpayershasdecreasedoverthelasttenyears.

E. Theproportionofregisteredvoterstotaxpayershasremainedunchangedoverthelasttenyears.

ArgumentEvaluation

Situation Tenyearsagoacountyhadslightlymoretaxpayersthanregisteredvoters.Sincethenthenumberoftaxpayershas

registeredvoters.Sincethenthenumberoftaxpayershasdoubled,whilethenumberofregisteredvotershasincreasedless.

Reasoning Whatcanbededucedfromtheinformationaboutthechangingnumbersoftaxpayersandregisteredvoters?Therewerealreadyslightlymoretaxpayersthanregisteredvoterstenyearsago,butsincethenthenumberoftaxpayershasincreasedmorethanproportionatelytothenumberofregisteredvoters.Itfollowsthattheremuststillbemoretaxpayersthanregisteredvoters,thattheabsolutenumberoftaxpayersmusthaveincreasedmorethantheabsolutenumberofregisteredvotershas,andthattheratiooftaxpayerstoregisteredvotersmusthaveincreased.

A. Sincetherewerealreadymoretaxpayersthanregisteredvoterstenyearsago,andsincethenumberoftaxpayershasincreasedmorethanthenumberofregisteredvoters,theremuststillbemoretaxpayersthanregisteredvoters.

B. Althoughtherearemoretaxpayersthanregisteredvotersoverall,therecouldstillbemanyindividualregisteredvoterswhoarenottaxpayers.

C. Sincethenumberoftaxpayershasdoubledwhilethenumberofregisteredvotershaslessthandoubled,theproportionofregisteredvoterstotaxpayersmusthavedecreased,notincreasedasthisoptionclaims.

D. Correct.Sincethenumberoftaxpayershasdoubledwhilethenumberofregisteredvotershaslessthandoubled,theproportionofregisteredvoterstotaxpayersmusthavedecreased.

E. Sincethenumberoftaxpayershasdoubledwhilethenumberofregisteredvotershaslessthandoubled,theproportionofregisteredvoterstotaxpayersmusthavedecreased,notremainedunchanged.

119. Theinterviewisanessentialpartofasuccessfulhiringprogrambecause,withit,jobapplicantswhohavepersonalitiesthatareunsuitedtotherequirementsofthejobwillbeeliminatedfromconsideration.

Theargumentabovelogicallydependsonwhichofthefollowingassumptions?

A. Ahiringprogramwillbesuccessfulifitincludesinterviews.

B. Theinterviewisamoreimportantpartofasuccessfulhiringprogramthanisthedevelopmentofajobdescription.

C. Interviewerscanaccuratelyidentifyapplicantswhosepersonalitiesareunsuitedtotherequirementsofthejob.

D. Theonlypurposeofaninterviewistoevaluatewhetherjobapplicants’personalitiesaresuitedtotherequirementsofthejob.

E. Thefitofjobapplicants’personalitiestotherequirementsofthejobwasoncethemostimportantfactorinmakinghiringdecisions.

Situation Theinterviewisanecessarypartofhiringbecausecandidateswithunsuitablepersonalitiesareeliminatedfromconsideration.

Reasoning Whatisbeingassumedinthisargument?Theargumentputsforthonereasonthattheinterviewisimportant:iteliminatescandidateswithunsuitablepersonalities.Thispresupposesthatinterviewerscan,withafairdegreeofaccuracy,ruleoutthosecandidateswhosepersonalitiesdonotfittheneedsofthejob.

A. Theargumentdoesnotgosofarastosaythatinterviewsguaranteeasuccessfulhiringprogram.

B. Theargumentdoesnotprioritizethepartsofahiringprogram.

C. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiestheassumptionunderlyingtheargument.

D. Theargumentgivesonereasonthattheinterviewisimportant,butitdoesnotsayitistheonlyreason.

E. Thisconcernspastpracticesinhiring,andisirrelevanttotheargument.

120. Manyleadershiptheorieshaveprovidedevidencethatleadersaffectgroupsuccessratherthanthesuccessofparticularindividuals.Soitisirrelevanttoanalyzetheeffectsofsupervisortraitsontheattitudesofindividuals

whomtheysupervise.Instead,assessmentofleadershipeffectivenessshouldoccuronlyatthegrouplevel.

Whichofthefollowingwoulditbemostusefultoestablishinordertoevaluatetheargument?

A. Whethersupervisors’documentationofindividualsupervisees’attitudestowardthemisusuallyaccurate

B. Whetheritispossibletoassessindividualsupervisees’attitudestowardtheirsupervisorswithouttherebychangingthoseattitudes

C. Whetheranyoftheleadershiptheoriesinquestionholdthatleadersshouldassessotherleaders’attitudes

D. Whethersometypesofgroupsdonotneedsupervisioninordertobesuccessfulintheirendeavors

E. Whetherindividuals’attitudestowardsupervisorsaffectgroupsuccess

ArgumentEvaluation

Situation Manyleadershiptheorieshaveprovidedevidencethatleadersaffectthesuccessofgroupsbutnotofindividuals.

Reasoning Whatwouldbemosthelpfultoknowinordertoevaluatehowwellthestatedfactsupportstheconclusionthatleadershipeffectivenessshouldbeassessedonlyatthegrouplevelwithoutconsideringsupervisors’influenceontheattitudesoftheindividualstheysupervise?Evenifleadersdonotaffectthesuccessoftheindividualstheylead,theymightstillaffectthoseindividuals’attitudes.Andthoseattitudesinturnmightaffectgroupsuccess.Ifso,theargumentwouldbeweak.Soanyevidenceabouttheexistenceorstrengthofthesepossibleeffectsintherelationshipbetweensupervisorsandtheirsuperviseeswouldbehelpfulinevaluatingtheargument.

A. Howaccuratelysupervisorsdocumenttheirsupervisees’attitudesisnotclearlyrelevanttohowmuchthesupervisorsaffectthoseattitudes,nortohowmuchtheattitudesaffectgroupsuccess.

B. Evenifassessingsupervisees’attitudeswouldinitselfchangethoseattitudes,thepersondoingtheassessmentmightbeabletopredictthis

changeandtakeitintoaccount.Thus,consideringindividualsupervisees’attitudesmightstillbeworthwhile.

C. Theargumentisnotaboutinteractionsamongleaders,butratheraboutinteractionsbetweensupervisorsandsupervisees.

D. Theargumentisnotaboutgroupswithoutsupervisors,orwhethercertaingroupsmightbeeffectivewithoutasupervisor,butratherabouthowtoassesstheeffectivenessofsupervisorsingroupsthatdohavethem.

E. Correct.Asexplainedabove,ifindividualsupervisees’attitudesaffectgroupsuccess,theargumentwouldbeweak.Andprobablyindividualsupervisees’attitudestowardtheirsupervisorsareinfluencedbythosesupervisors.Soknowingwhetherindividualattitudestowardsupervisorsaffectgroupsuccesswouldbehelpfulinevaluatingtheargument

121. AmajorhealthinsurancecompanyinLagoliapaysforspecialproceduresprescribedbyphysiciansonlyiftheprocedureisfirstapprovedas“medicallynecessary”byacompany-appointedreviewpanel.Theruleisintendedtosavethecompanythemoneyitmightotherwisespendonmedicallyunnecessaryprocedures.Thecompanyhasrecentlyannouncedthatinordertoreduceitscosts,itwillabandonthisrule.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,providesthestrongestjustificationforthecompany’sdecision?

A. Patientsoftenregisterdissatisfactionwithphysicianswhoprescribenothingfortheirailments.

B. Physiciansoftenprescribespecialproceduresthatarehelpfulbutnotaltogethernecessaryforthehealthofthepatient.

C. Thereviewprocessisexpensiveandpracticallyalwaysresultsinapprovaloftheprescribedprocedure.

D. Thecompany’sreviewprocessdoesnotinterferewiththeprerogativeofphysicians,incaseswheremorethanoneeffectiveprocedureisavailable,toselecttheonetheypersonallyprefer.

E. Thenumberofmembersofthecompany-appointedreviewpanelwhoreviewagivenproceduredependsonthecostoftheprocedure.

EvaluationofaPlan

Situation Inordertocutcosts,amajorhealthinsurancecompanyisabandoningarulestatingthatitwillpayforspecialproceduresonlyiftheprocedureisapprovedasmedicallynecessarybyareviewpanel.

Reasoning Whatpieceofinformationwouldmosthelptojustifythecompany’sdecision?Forthecompanytosavemoney,itwouldneedtobeinsomewaycuttingitscostsbyabandoningtherule.Underwhatcircumstancesmighttherulecost,ratherthansave,thecompanymoney?Thepanelitselfmightbeexpensivetoconvene,forexample.Further,thecostsavingsachievedbythepanelmightbeminimalifthepaneldidnotdenysignificantnumbersofprocedures.

A. Thissuggeststhatpatientsmightbepressuringtheirphysicianstoprescribecertainunnecessaryproceduresfortheirailments,whichinturnsuggeststhatthepanelisreviewingtheseproceduresanddenyingthem.Butifso,thenthepanelisprobablysavingtheinsurancecompanymoney,soabandoningthepanel’sreviewwouldnotreducethecompany’scosts.

B. Thissuggeststhatcertainproceduresthatarebeingprescribedbyphysiciansarenotmedicallynecessary,whichinturnsuggeststhatthepanelreviewingtheseproceduresmaybedenyingthem.Ifthisisthecase,thenthepanelisprobablysavingtheinsurancecompanyasignificantamountofmoney,soabandoningthepanel’sreviewmaywellincreaseratherthandecreasethecompany’scosts.

C. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesinformationthatwouldhelptojustifythecompany’sdecision.

D. Evenifthepaneldoesnotinterferewithphysicians’choiceswhenmorethanonemedicallyeffectiveprocedureisavailable,thepanelmaystillbedenyingpayformanyproceduresthatarenotmedicallynecessary.Insuchcasesthepanelmaybesavingtheinsurancecompanymoney,andabandoningthereviewprocesswouldnotreducethecompany’scosts.

E. Thissuggeststhatthemoreexpensivetheprocedureunderreview,themoreexpensivethepanelitselfis.Evenso,ifthepaneldeniespaymentforveryexpensiveprocedures,itmaynonethelesssavethecompanysignificantlymorethanthecompanyhastopaytoconvenethepanel,soabandoningthe

reviewprocesswouldnotreducethecompany’scosts.

122. Toevaluateaplantosavemoneyonoffice-spaceexpendituresbyhavingitsemployeesworkathome,XYZCompanyaskedvolunteersfromitsstafftotrythearrangementforsixmonths.Duringthisperiod,theproductivityoftheseemployeeswasashighasorhigherthanbefore.

Whichofthefollowing,iftrue,wouldarguemoststronglyagainstdeciding,onthebasisofthetrialresults,toimplementthecompany’splan?

A. Theemployeeswhoagreedtoparticipateinthetestoftheplanwereamongthecompany’smostself-motivatedandindependentworkers.

B. Thesavingsthatwouldaccruefromreducedoffice-spaceexpendituresalonewouldbesufficienttojustifythearrangementforthecompany,apartfromanyproductivityincreases.

C. Othercompaniesthathaveachievedsuccessfulresultsfromwork-at-homeplanshaveworkforcesthataresubstantiallylargerthanthatofXYZ.

D. Thevolunteerswhoworkedathomewereabletocommunicatewithotheremployeesasnecessaryforperformingthework.

E. MinorchangesinthewayofficeworkisorganizedatXYZwouldyieldincreasesinemployeeproductivitysimilartothoseachievedinthetrial.

EvaluationofaPlan

Situation Tosavemoneyonofficespaceexpenditures,acompanyconsidershavingemployeesworkathome.Asix-monthtrialwithemployeeswhohavevolunteeredtotesttheplanshowstheirproductivitytobeashighasorhigherthanbefore.

Reasoning WhywouldthetrialresultsNOTprovideagoodreasontoimplementtheplan?Generalizingfromasmallsampletothegroupdependsonhavingasamplethatisrepresentative.Inthiscase,theemployeeswhoparticipatedinthetrialarenotrepresentativeofallemployees.Theemployeeswho

volunteeredforthetrialmaybethetypeofemployeeswhowouldbemostlikelytoworksuccessfullyathome.Itwouldnotbewisetobaseageneralizationaboutallemployeesonthissample.

A. Correct.Thisstatementproperlyidentifiesaflawinthetrialthatisthebasisfortheplan.

B. Thisstatementsupportstheimplementationoftheplan.Moreover,itisnotbasedonthetrialresults,soitdoesnotanswerthequestion.

C. Thepassagegivesnoinformationabouthowcompanysizemightaffecttheimplementationoftheplanorthereliabilityofthetrialresults.

D. Ifanything,thiswouldtendtosupporttheplan.

E. Thegoaloftheplanistosavemoneyonofficespace,nottoincreaseproductivity,soanalternativeplantoincreaseproductivityisirrelevant.