Post on 31-Dec-2015
Conducting Research: The Conducting Research: The Scientific MethodsScientific Methods
Hyde, A. (2007). Adapted from Henlsin, J. (2005) Hyde, A. (2007). Adapted from Henlsin, J. (2005) Sociology: A Down to Earth Approach 7/e. New York: Sociology: A Down to Earth Approach 7/e. New York: Allyn & Bacon and by Ozan Akkus, Ph.D., Fordham Allyn & Bacon and by Ozan Akkus, Ph.D., Fordham University, August 2005University, August 2005
Definitions of ScienceDefinitions of Science
►The observation, identification, description, The observation, identification, description, experimental investigation, and theoretical experimental investigation, and theoretical explanation of phenomena. explanation of phenomena.
►The systematic and organized inquiry into The systematic and organized inquiry into the natural world and its phenomena. the natural world and its phenomena.
►The systematic observation of natural The systematic observation of natural events and conditions in order to discover events and conditions in order to discover facts about them and to formulate laws facts about them and to formulate laws and principles based on these facts. and principles based on these facts.
Understand Understand (philosophical inquiry; (philosophical inquiry;
social and natural sciences)social and natural sciences)
Predict Predict (social and natural sciences)(social and natural sciences)
Control Control (social and natural sciences)(social and natural sciences)
The Goals of ScienceThe Goals of Science
The Natural Sciences—Explain and Predict Events in Natural The Natural Sciences—Explain and Predict Events in Natural
Environment Environment
The Social Sciences—Examine Human RelationshipsThe Social Sciences—Examine Human Relationships
Political Science—Studies How People Govern Themselves/Use PowerPolitical Science—Studies How People Govern Themselves/Use Power
Economics—Studies the Production and Distribution of Goods and Economics—Studies the Production and Distribution of Goods and
ServicesServices
Anthropology—The Study of CultureAnthropology—The Study of Culture
Psychology—The Study of Processes Within IndividualsPsychology—The Study of Processes Within Individuals
Sociology – The Study of Groups, Individuals and EnvironmentsSociology – The Study of Groups, Individuals and Environments
The Natural Sciences & The Social SciencesThe Natural Sciences & The Social Sciences
What Makes a Method Scientific?What Makes a Method Scientific?
►A scientific method is any process by A scientific method is any process by which researchers, collectively and over which researchers, collectively and over time, endeavor to construct an accurate time, endeavor to construct an accurate (that is, reliable, consistent and non-(that is, reliable, consistent and non-arbitrary) representation of some arbitrary) representation of some phenomenon. phenomenon.
►The Scientific MethodThe Scientific Method usually refers to usually refers to of the testing of an hypothesis via of the testing of an hypothesis via experimental design to generate experimental design to generate quantifiable data. quantifiable data.
The Scientific Method: ScopeThe Scientific Method: Scope
Can be applied to anything within Can be applied to anything within the range of our experiencesthe range of our experiences
Can offer useful explanations and Can offer useful explanations and predictions (technological advances; predictions (technological advances; medical cures)medical cures)
Aims to falsify more than to proveAims to falsify more than to prove Does not aim to give an ultimate Does not aim to give an ultimate
answer. iterative and recursive answer. iterative and recursive nature nature always tentative always tentative
Does not establish GOODNESS, Does not establish GOODNESS, BEAUTY, or TRUTHBEAUTY, or TRUTH
Macro—Broad MattersMacro—Broad Matters
Micro—Individualistic MattersMicro—Individualistic Matters
Basic-Constructing TheoryBasic-Constructing Theory
Applied-Implementing SolutionsApplied-Implementing Solutions
Levels of Analysis & Types of ResearchLevels of Analysis & Types of Research
1.1. Selecting a TopicSelecting a Topic
2.2. Defining a ProblemDefining a Problem
3.3. Reviewing the Reviewing the
Literature
4.4. Formulating a Formulating a
HypothesisHypothesis
Steps in the Research ProcessSteps in the Research Process
5.5. Choosing a Research MethodChoosing a Research Method
6.6. Collecting DataCollecting Data
7.7. Analyzing ResultsAnalyzing Results
8.8. Sharing ResultsSharing Results
Steps in the Research Process
Source: Modification of Fig. 2.2 of Schaefer 1989
Available ResourcesAvailable Resources
Access to SubjectsAccess to Subjects
Purpose of ResearchPurpose of Research
Researcher’s Background and Researcher’s Background and
TrainingTraining
Deciding Which Method to UseDeciding Which Method to Use
Quantitative Research MethodsQuantitative Research MethodsEmphasis on Precise MeasurementEmphasis on Precise Measurement
Uses Statistics and NumbersUses Statistics and Numbers
Qualitative Research MethodsQualitative Research MethodsEmphasis on Observing, Describing, and Emphasis on Observing, Describing, and
Interpreting BehaviorInterpreting Behavior
Deciding Which Method to UseDeciding Which Method to Use
Openness, Honesty, and TruthfulnessOpenness, Honesty, and TruthfulnessForbids Falsifying ResultsForbids Falsifying Results
Condemns PlagiarismCondemns Plagiarism
Subjects’ Informed ConsentSubjects’ Informed Consent
Subjects’ AnonymitySubjects’ Anonymity
Protecting Subjects: The Brajuha ResearchProtecting Subjects: The Brajuha Research
Misleading Subjects: The Humphreys Misleading Subjects: The Humphreys
ResearchResearch
Ethics in Social ResearchEthics in Social Research
Choose PopulationChoose Population
Select a SampleSelect a Sample Random SampleRandom Sample
Stratified Random SampleStratified Random Sample
Choose Neutral QuestionsChoose Neutral Questions
Research Methods: SurveyResearch Methods: Survey
InterviewsInterviewsMore Researcher ControlMore Researcher Control
Time ConsumingTime Consuming
Interviewer BiasInterviewer Bias
Structured InterviewsStructured Interviews
Open-Ended QuestionsOpen-Ended Questions
Establish RapportEstablish Rapport
Two Types of SurveysTwo Types of Surveys
QuestionnairesQuestionnaires
Self-AdministeredSelf-Administered
Allow the Largest Allow the Largest
SampleSample
Low CostLow Cost
Loss of Researcher Loss of Researcher
ControlControl
““Fieldwork”Fieldwork”
Researcher ParticipatesResearcher Participates
Exploratory Work or EthnographyExploratory Work or Ethnography
Generates Hypotheses Generates Hypotheses
Problems with GeneralizabilityProblems with Generalizability
Research Methods: Participant Observation Research Methods: Participant Observation
Analyze Data Collected by OthersAnalyze Data Collected by Others
Researcher Cannot Be Sure of Data QualityResearcher Cannot Be Sure of Data Quality
Research Methods: Secondary AnalysisResearch Methods: Secondary Analysis
Research Methods: Document AnalysisResearch Methods: Document Analysis
Examine Books, Newspapers, Diaries, etc.Examine Books, Newspapers, Diaries, etc.
Limited ScopeLimited Scope
Cannot Study Topic Unless Access is Cannot Study Topic Unless Access is
GrantedGranted
Observe People Without Them KnowingObserve People Without Them Knowing
Question of EthicsQuestion of Ethics
Research Methods: Unobtrusive MeasuresResearch Methods: Unobtrusive Measures
Research Methods: ExperimentsResearch Methods: Experiments
Experimental Group – Random AssignmentExperimental Group – Random Assignment
Control Group – Random AssignmentControl Group – Random Assignment
Dependent VariablesDependent Variables
Independent VariablesIndependent Variables
Control of Outside VariablesControl of Outside Variables
Dependent vs. Independent Dependent vs. Independent VariablesVariables
►Dependent VariableDependent Variable = what you are = what you are measuring (Test Scores)measuring (Test Scores)
► Independent VariableIndependent Variable = what are in = what are in control of or what you manipulate (Big control of or what you manipulate (Big Bird)Bird)
►Measure the Measure the Dependent VariableDependent Variable Twice Twice (Pre- and Post – Test)(Pre- and Post – Test)
►How does the How does the Independent VariableIndependent Variable affect the affect the Dependent VariableDependent Variable??
Figure 5.2 The Experiment
Scientific Theory Scientific Theory Building/TestingBuilding/Testing