Conducting Research: The Conducting Research: The Scientific MethodsScientific Methods

Hyde, A. (2007). Adapted from Henlsin, J. (2005) Hyde, A. (2007). Adapted from Henlsin, J. (2005) Sociology: A Down to Earth Approach 7/e. New York: Sociology: A Down to Earth Approach 7/e. New York: Allyn & Bacon and by Ozan Akkus, Ph.D., Fordham Allyn & Bacon and by Ozan Akkus, Ph.D., Fordham University, August 2005University, August 2005

Definitions of ScienceDefinitions of Science

►The observation, identification, description, The observation, identification, description, experimental investigation, and theoretical experimental investigation, and theoretical explanation of phenomena. explanation of phenomena.

►The systematic and organized inquiry into The systematic and organized inquiry into the natural world and its phenomena. the natural world and its phenomena.

►The systematic observation of natural The systematic observation of natural events and conditions in order to discover events and conditions in order to discover facts about them and to formulate laws facts about them and to formulate laws and principles based on these facts. and principles based on these facts.

Understand Understand (philosophical inquiry; (philosophical inquiry;

social and natural sciences)social and natural sciences)

Predict Predict (social and natural sciences)(social and natural sciences)

Control Control (social and natural sciences)(social and natural sciences)

The Goals of ScienceThe Goals of Science

The Natural Sciences—Explain and Predict Events in Natural The Natural Sciences—Explain and Predict Events in Natural

Environment Environment

The Social Sciences—Examine Human RelationshipsThe Social Sciences—Examine Human Relationships

Political Science—Studies How People Govern Themselves/Use PowerPolitical Science—Studies How People Govern Themselves/Use Power

Economics—Studies the Production and Distribution of Goods and Economics—Studies the Production and Distribution of Goods and

ServicesServices

Anthropology—The Study of CultureAnthropology—The Study of Culture

Psychology—The Study of Processes Within IndividualsPsychology—The Study of Processes Within Individuals

Sociology – The Study of Groups, Individuals and EnvironmentsSociology – The Study of Groups, Individuals and Environments

The Natural Sciences & The Social SciencesThe Natural Sciences & The Social Sciences

What Makes a Method Scientific?What Makes a Method Scientific?

►A scientific method is any process by A scientific method is any process by which researchers, collectively and over which researchers, collectively and over time, endeavor to construct an accurate time, endeavor to construct an accurate (that is, reliable, consistent and non-(that is, reliable, consistent and non-arbitrary) representation of some arbitrary) representation of some phenomenon. phenomenon.

►The Scientific MethodThe Scientific Method usually refers to usually refers to of the testing of an hypothesis via of the testing of an hypothesis via experimental design to generate experimental design to generate quantifiable data. quantifiable data.

The Scientific Method: ScopeThe Scientific Method: Scope

Can be applied to anything within Can be applied to anything within the range of our experiencesthe range of our experiences

Can offer useful explanations and Can offer useful explanations and predictions (technological advances; predictions (technological advances; medical cures)medical cures)

Aims to falsify more than to proveAims to falsify more than to prove Does not aim to give an ultimate Does not aim to give an ultimate

answer. iterative and recursive answer. iterative and recursive nature nature always tentative always tentative

Does not establish GOODNESS, Does not establish GOODNESS, BEAUTY, or TRUTHBEAUTY, or TRUTH

Macro—Broad MattersMacro—Broad Matters

Micro—Individualistic MattersMicro—Individualistic Matters

Basic-Constructing TheoryBasic-Constructing Theory

Applied-Implementing SolutionsApplied-Implementing Solutions

Levels of Analysis & Types of ResearchLevels of Analysis & Types of Research

1.1. Selecting a TopicSelecting a Topic

2.2. Defining a ProblemDefining a Problem

3.3. Reviewing the Reviewing the

Literature

4.4. Formulating a Formulating a

HypothesisHypothesis

Steps in the Research ProcessSteps in the Research Process

5.5. Choosing a Research MethodChoosing a Research Method

6.6. Collecting DataCollecting Data

7.7. Analyzing ResultsAnalyzing Results

8.8. Sharing ResultsSharing Results

Steps in the Research Process

Source: Modification of Fig. 2.2 of Schaefer 1989

Available ResourcesAvailable Resources

Access to SubjectsAccess to Subjects

Purpose of ResearchPurpose of Research

Researcher’s Background and Researcher’s Background and

TrainingTraining

Deciding Which Method to UseDeciding Which Method to Use

Quantitative Research MethodsQuantitative Research MethodsEmphasis on Precise MeasurementEmphasis on Precise Measurement

Uses Statistics and NumbersUses Statistics and Numbers

Qualitative Research MethodsQualitative Research MethodsEmphasis on Observing, Describing, and Emphasis on Observing, Describing, and

Interpreting BehaviorInterpreting Behavior

Deciding Which Method to UseDeciding Which Method to Use

Openness, Honesty, and TruthfulnessOpenness, Honesty, and TruthfulnessForbids Falsifying ResultsForbids Falsifying Results

Condemns PlagiarismCondemns Plagiarism

Subjects’ Informed ConsentSubjects’ Informed Consent

Subjects’ AnonymitySubjects’ Anonymity

Protecting Subjects: The Brajuha ResearchProtecting Subjects: The Brajuha Research

Misleading Subjects: The Humphreys Misleading Subjects: The Humphreys

ResearchResearch

Ethics in Social ResearchEthics in Social Research

Choose PopulationChoose Population

Select a SampleSelect a Sample Random SampleRandom Sample

Stratified Random SampleStratified Random Sample

Choose Neutral QuestionsChoose Neutral Questions

Research Methods: SurveyResearch Methods: Survey

InterviewsInterviewsMore Researcher ControlMore Researcher Control

Time ConsumingTime Consuming

Interviewer BiasInterviewer Bias

Structured InterviewsStructured Interviews

Open-Ended QuestionsOpen-Ended Questions

Establish RapportEstablish Rapport

Two Types of SurveysTwo Types of Surveys

QuestionnairesQuestionnaires

Self-AdministeredSelf-Administered

Allow the Largest Allow the Largest

SampleSample

Low CostLow Cost

Loss of Researcher Loss of Researcher

ControlControl

““Fieldwork”Fieldwork”

Researcher ParticipatesResearcher Participates

Exploratory Work or EthnographyExploratory Work or Ethnography

Generates Hypotheses Generates Hypotheses

Problems with GeneralizabilityProblems with Generalizability

Research Methods: Participant Observation Research Methods: Participant Observation

Analyze Data Collected by OthersAnalyze Data Collected by Others

Researcher Cannot Be Sure of Data QualityResearcher Cannot Be Sure of Data Quality

Research Methods: Secondary AnalysisResearch Methods: Secondary Analysis

Research Methods: Document AnalysisResearch Methods: Document Analysis

Examine Books, Newspapers, Diaries, etc.Examine Books, Newspapers, Diaries, etc.

Limited ScopeLimited Scope

Cannot Study Topic Unless Access is Cannot Study Topic Unless Access is

GrantedGranted

Observe People Without Them KnowingObserve People Without Them Knowing

Question of EthicsQuestion of Ethics

Research Methods: Unobtrusive MeasuresResearch Methods: Unobtrusive Measures

Research Methods: ExperimentsResearch Methods: Experiments

Experimental Group – Random AssignmentExperimental Group – Random Assignment

Control Group – Random AssignmentControl Group – Random Assignment

Dependent VariablesDependent Variables

Independent VariablesIndependent Variables

Control of Outside VariablesControl of Outside Variables

Dependent vs. Independent Dependent vs. Independent VariablesVariables

►Dependent VariableDependent Variable = what you are = what you are measuring (Test Scores)measuring (Test Scores)

► Independent VariableIndependent Variable = what are in = what are in control of or what you manipulate (Big control of or what you manipulate (Big Bird)Bird)

►Measure the Measure the Dependent VariableDependent Variable Twice Twice (Pre- and Post – Test)(Pre- and Post – Test)

►How does the How does the Independent VariableIndependent Variable affect the affect the Dependent VariableDependent Variable??

Figure 5.2 The Experiment

Scientific Theory Scientific Theory Building/TestingBuilding/Testing