Post on 06-Apr-2018
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ChesapeakeBayOysters:
PopulationDecline
To:RobertWittman,VirginiaHouseofRepresentatives
SubcommitteeonFisheries,Wildlife,OceansandInsularAffairs
From:SarahSchmitt
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TableofContents
Introduction ...............................................................................................................................................................1
HistoricDownfallsofCommercialHarvesting
CulturalValueoftheEasternOyster
EcologicalValueoftheEasternOyster ........................................................................................................ 2
EconomicValueoftheEasternOyster.........................................................................................................3
OysterDiseases...................................................................................................................................................... 4
Stakeholders ..............................................................................................................................................................5
PastPolicyandCurrentRestorationEfforts ...........................................................................................6
PastPoliciesandInitiatives
Chesapeake2000Agreement
PolicyOption1:IntroductionofNon-NativeOysters ......................................................................... 7
PositiveFacetsofthePolicyOption
NegativeFacetsofthePolicyOption ............................................................................................................8
SupportingStakeholders
OpposingStakeholders....................................................................................................................................... 9
PolicyOptionImplementation ......................................................................................................................10
PolicyOption2:ImposingaBay-wideHarvestMoratoriumonNativeOystersin
ConjunctionwithaTransitionalProgramforDisplacedOystermen ....................................11
PositiveFacetsofthePolicyOption..................................................................................................... 11,12
NegativeFacetsofthePolicyOption ..........................................................................................................13
SupportingStakeholders
OpposingStakeholders.....................................................................................................................................14
PolicyOptionImplementation ......................................................................................................................14
PolicyOption:StreamliningthePermittingProcessforPrivateAquacultureFirms ..15
PositiveFacetsofthePolicyOption
NegativeFacetsofthePolicyOption ..........................................................................................................16
SupportingStakeholders ..........................................................................................................................16,17
OpposingStakeholders.....................................................................................................................................17
PolicyOptionImplementation ............................................................................................................... 17,18
WorksCited .......................................................................................................................................................19,20
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Introduction
TheecologicalhealthoftheChesapeakeBayecosystemanditskeystonespecies,theChesapeakeBayoyster(C.virginica),hasbeenindeclinefordecades.1Together,oysterdiseasesandthecommercialharvestingtechniquescreatedinresponseto
theeconomicallyvaluableoystermarkethavecontributedtothedeclineinoysterstockintheChesapeakeBay.2Inturn,commerciallandingsinMarylandandVirginiahavesharplydeclinedoverthepastcentury.
3
Asdemonstratedbythegraph,only1%oftheoysterstockpresentinthelate1800sexistsintheBaytoday.NOAAandtheU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineershavedesignatedapproximately$7millionforthenextfiscalyeartoaccelerateoysterrestorationefforts.4Themainpurposeofthisproposalistosuggestthemostfeasiblepoliciestowhichsaidfundingshouldbeappropriated.Consequently,theoysterpopulationstockintheChesapeakeBaywillincreasetoalevelthatwouldsupportsustainablecommercialharvestsinthefuture,renewtheregionsoyster-basedculturalidentity,andallowtheoystertofulfillitskeystoneecologicalroleintheBayecosystem.
1Baker,William.2010StateoftheBay.Annapolis,Maryland:ChesapeakeBayFoundation,2010.Print.2ADwindlingCatch.Dir.MattDanzeco.Perf.OystermenAcrosstheBay.DiscoveryChannel,2008.Film.3Seltzer,Craig.FinalProgrammaticEnvironmentalImpactStatementfor.Norfolk,VA:U.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers,NorfolkDistrict,2008.Print.4Baker,William.2010StateoftheBay.Annapolis,Maryland:ChesapeakeBayFoundation,2010.Print.
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HistoricDownfallsofCommercialHarvesting
AccordingtoarecentpublicationintheChesapeakeBayJournal,commercialharvestsofBayoystersbegantodeclinesteadilyfollowingthedevelopmentofcommercialdredginginthe1820sandtherisingpopularityofsteamcanninginthe1870s.Namely,thisdeclineisattributabletotheexpeditedrateatwhich
watermencouldharvestoystersincomparisontotherateofharvestachievedbythetraditionalhandtongmethod.Commercialdredgingisalsothreateningtothephysicalintegrityofcenturyoldreefs,astheequipmentisknowntobothbreakoffshellsthatserveasthereefbottomsubstrateandtoinadvertentlykillingoystersthatweretoosmalltoharvest,therebylesseningthestockforfutureharvests.5
CulturalValueoftheEasternOyster
ThepublicationNonnativeOystersintheChesapeakeBayindicatesthattheEasternoysterwasoncesoplentifulintheBaythatitinspiredtheAlgonquiantribetonametheBaygreatshellfishbayorChesepiook.TheoysterisalsoakeypartoftheBayareaculturebecauseofitsroleasavaluablefoodresourcetotheNativeAmerican
tribesandearlyEuropeansettlersthatdevelopedintoaboomingexportcommodityinthe1800s.TherateofharvestalsoincreasedatthistimeduetotheefficiencyprovidedbythenewandpopularizedskipjacksailboatsthataretothisdaysymbolicofhistoricBayculture.ThisvestedinterestinoystersbysettlersintheBayregionledtheChesapeakeoysterfisherytobecomethemostsizableintheworldduringthistimeperiodduetotheevolvingtechnologythatwasbecomingincreasinglyavailable.Furthermore,townssuchasCrisfieldandSaintMarysontheEasternShoreofMarylandcametobeandflourishedonthepremiseofthelocaloysterabundance.TheEasternoysterhasactedasasymbolofeconomicprosperityandrichBaycultureeversince.6
EcologicalValueoftheEasternOysterTheChesapeakeBayFieldGuideassertsthattheChesapeakeBayOyster,knownasCrassotreavirginica,canbefoundinshallowareasoftheBay,from8feetto35feet.Theyarecategorizedasbivalvemollusks,whichcanbefoundinallareasoftheChesapeakeBayestuaryregardlessoftherangeofsalineconditionspresentacrosstheBay.Oystersareseededinconcentratedbenthicareas,andattachtoeachothertoformdensereefsthatserveaspecificecologicalniche,arefugeforotherbottom-dwellingorganismssuchascrabs.Theyareconsideredtobeakeystonespeciesbecauseoftheirabilitytofilterupto50gallonsofwatereachday;inthisprocessofnutrientuptakeandfiltration,theChesapeakeBayoysterallowsforreducedsedimentsuspensionandthusprogressivelyhigherwaterquality.7Theoysterplays
avitalroleintheBaysecosystem.Effortsmustbemadetorestorethenativeoyster
5Blankenship,Karl."Chesapeake'sOysterReefsHaveTakenaShellacking."ChesapeakeBayJournal1Jan.2010:n.pag.ChesapeakeBayJournal.Web.14Sept.2011.6NonnativeOystersintheChesapeakeBay.Washington,D.C.:CommitteeonNonnativeOystersintheChesapeakeBay,NationalResearchCouncil,2004.Print.7Eastern Oyster - Bay Field Guide - Chesapeake Bay Program.A Watershed Partnership.Chesapeake Bay Program, 2011.
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populationortoreplenishitthroughothermeansinorderfortheecologicalstateoftheBaytobeontheriseforthefirsttimeindecades.EconomicValueoftheEasternOysterTheChesapeakeBayFoundationpamphletOntheBrink:ChesapeakesNativeOysters
dictatesthattheharvestingofChesapeakeBayoystersisparamounttotheBayseconomichealth.Infact,theChesapeakeBayisoneoftworemainingplacesintheworldwhereanindustrybaseduponharvestingwildoystersstillexists.Historically,thepeakofshellfishharvestingintheChesapeakeBaytookplacearoundthe1880s,whenabout50,000oystermenmadealivingoffofthe120millionpounds(or17millionbushels)ofoystersthatwereharvestedeachyear.Thelast25yearsoftheoysterindustryhasbeenmarkedbyeconomicplight,asoysterharvestshavefallenby90%andthenumberofoystermenhaveseena75%decline.By2009,onlyabout1,000citizensofVirginiaandMarylandcombinedhadoysterharvestinglicenses,amere2%oftheoystermencountinthelate19thcentury.Evenmorestrikingisthatmanyofsaidlicense-holdersareinactivetodaybecauseofthedecliningoysters
availabletoharvest.OysterdeclineleadingtothedestructionoftheBaysfishingcommunityisalsoevidencedthroughthedisappearanceofoystershuckinghousesthatwereoncecommonplaceacrosstheBay.In1974,136shuckinghousesservedasarichsourceofjobstowatermenintheBayarea.Today,lessthantenremain.8
9
8Chesapeake Bay Foundation, On the Brink: Chesapeake's Native Oysters. 2010.9Chesapeake Bay Foundation, On the Brink: Chesapeake's Native Oysters. 2010.
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OysterDiseases
Inconcurrencewiththe2010StateoftheBayreport,themorerecentdeclineinoysterstockpopulationispartiallyattributabletotheoysterdiseasesDermoandMSX.BothdiseasesarecausedbyprotozoanparasitesfirstdetectedintheBayin
1949.WhilethesediseasesarefataltoEasternoysters,theyareharmlesstohumans.10
DermoiscontractedamongstEasternoystersastheyfilterwaterforfood.Infectedoystersexperienceweakeningofthemusclethatopensandclosestheshell,andeventuallydiefromstarvation.Thediseaseissoprevalentbecausediseasedoystershavethepotentialtospreadtheparasiteacrossareefbyreleasingtheparasitesintothewaterafterdeath.11Moresalinewatersallowforgreaterspreadofthedisease.12Thisinfectionposesathreattomarket-size,adultoystersinparticular,astheirgreaterrateoffiltrationincreasetheirchancesofcomingintocontactwiththeparasite.Theaverage
mortalityrateofmarket-sizeoystersacrosstheBayfrom1991-2004isapproximately5%-90%,andishighlydependentonthesalinityandprevalenceofthediseaseingivenoysterbars.13MSXisanintravenousinfectionthatcausesdifficultywithanoystersrespirationandeating,eventuallyleadingtodeath.14BelievedtohavebeenintroducedbytheillegalimportationofthePacificoyster,itposesagreaterthreattoadultoystersinthesamemannerasthatofDermis.15SimilarlytoDermis,itthrivesinhighersalinitiesandwatertemperature.16
BothdiseasescontinuetothreatenthenativeEasternoysterpopulationstock,as
theybothkilloysterspriortothetimeatwhichtheycanbeharvestedandeliminateoystersbeforetheyareattheagetoreproduce.Namely,theoysterreefsintheSouthernregionoftheBayinVirginiasufferfromthespreadofthediseases,astheyaresubjecttomoresalineconditionsandhigherwatertemperatures.17
10Baker,William.2010StateoftheBay.Annapolis,Maryland:ChesapeakeBayFoundation,2010.11NonnativeOystersintheChesapeakeBay.Washington,D.C.:CommitteeonNonnativeOystersintheChesapeakeBay,NationalResearchCouncil,2004.Print.12Mackin,J.S.1956.Dermocystidiummarinumandsalinity.ProceedingsoftheNationalShellfisheriesAssociation46:116-128.
13Barber,B.J.andR.Mann.1994.Growthandmortalityofeasternoysters,Crassostreavirginicaunderchallengefromtheparasite,Perkinsusmarinus.JournalofShellfishResearch13:109-114.14ChesapeakeBayFoundation,OntheBrink:Chesapeake'sNativeOysters .2010.15Mackin,J.S.1956.Dermocystidiummarinumandsalinity.ProceedingsoftheNationalShellfisheriesAssociation46:116-128.16ChesapeakeBayFoundation,OntheBrink:Chesapeake'sNativeOysters .2010.17Mackin,J.S.1956.Dermocystidiummarinumandsalinity.ProceedingsoftheNationalShellfisheriesAssociation46:116-128.
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Stakeholders
AllreferencedstakeholdershaveplayedvitalrolesinprioroysterrestorationeffortsintheChesapeakeBayandwouldinevitablyplayaroleinanypolicyproposed.18
GovernmentAgencies:
EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA),NationalAtmosphericandOceanicAdministration(NOAA),DepartmentoftheInterior(DOI)includingtheFishandWildlifeService(FWS),TheChesapeakeBayProgram(CBP)ScientificandTechnicalAdvisoryCommittee(STAC)andCitizensAdvisoryCommittee(CAC)Non-GovernmentalOrganizations:
ChesapeakeBayFoundation(CBF),VirginiaSeafoodCouncil,OysterReefKeepersofVirginia,VirginiaWatermensAssociation,MarylandWatermensAssociation,DefendersofWildlife,NationalWildlifeFederation
Individualswithvestedinterests/donors:
TheChesapeakeBayTrust,TheNatureConservancy,RestoreAmericasEstuaries,ButchButtMemorialFoundation,TheCabellFoundation,TheKeithCampbellFoundationfortheEnvironment,PewCharitableTrusts,VirginiaWellingtonCabotFoundation19AdvisoryCommissionsandMulti-StateCommissions:
VirginiaInstituteofMarineScience(VIMS),VirginiaandMarylandDepartmentsofEnvironmentalQuality(VADEQandMDDEQ),AtlanticStatesMarineFisheriesCommission,DelawareRiverBasinFishandWildlifeCooperative
Businesses:
Marinetics,HazelwoodOysterFarms,BevansOysterCompany,MasonSeafood,RappahannockRiverOysters,OysterKing1,Incorporated,theseafoodrestaurantindustryintheChesapeakeBayareaOystermenandShuckingHousesontheBay:
The1,000citizensofMarylandandVirginiawhopossessoysterharvestinglicensesandthe10oystershuckinghousesthatremainintheChesapeakeBayregion.20
18U.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers:OysterRestorationPlan,2010.19ChesapeakeBayFoundation,OntheBrink:Chesapeake'sNativeOysters.2010.20ChesapeakeBayFoundation,OntheBrink:Chesapeake'sNativeOysters.2010.
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PastPolicyandCurrentRestorationEfforts
PastPoliciesandInitiatives:
Historically,effortstorestoreChesapeakeBayoystershavebeenmadeinthe
patternofresearchfollowedbyexperimentalimplementation,asseeninBox6.1.21
Chesapeake2000Agreement:
Mostrecently,Section1.1.1oftheChesapeake2000Agreement(preparedbytheMarineResourcesCommission),statesthattheoysterrestorationgoalofby2010,ataminimum,atenfoldincreaseinnativeoystersoftheChesapeakeBay,basedupona1994baseline.Inreactiontosaidagreement,littleincrementalprogresshasbeenmadeasof2008inthestatesofMarylandandVirginia.Bothstateshaveallocatedagreatdealoftheirfundingtowardsartificialhabitat
construction,inwhich83reefsacrosstheBayhavebeenrestoredwiththeshellsofoystersthathavebeencommerciallyharvested.However,VirginiasBlueRibbonOysterPanelreleasedareviewin2007,criticizingthefailureofcurrentBayrestorationeffortsandurgingstatestorenewtheirfocusonaquaculture.22
21NonnativeOystersintheChesapeakeBay.Washington,D.C.:CommitteeonNonnativeOystersintheChesapeakeBay,NationalResearchCouncil,2004.Print.22"Policy:EcosystemBasedFisheriesManagementfortheChesapeakeBay."MarylandSeaGrant.N.p.,n.d.Web.10Oct.2011..
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PolicyOption#1:IntroductionofNon-NativeOysters
Introducingsterile,hatchery-producedanddisease-resistantnon-nativeoysters(Suminoeoyster,ornativeChineseC.ariakensis)inordertoincreasethenative
ChesapeakeBayoysterpopulationandpreventthecompletedemiseoftheEasternOyster(C.virginica).InlieuofintroducingreproductiveSuminoeoysterdirectlyfromAsia,thishighly-regulatedformofsterile,non-reproductiveoystersinanaquaculturesettingwouldhelptoboosttheoysterindustrywhilefurtherresearchisbeingdonetoassesstherisksofintroducingthenon-native,reproductiveformsoftheSuminoeoysterintotheChesapeakeBayecosystem.23Culturallyandhistorically,theChesapeakeBayRegionisknownforitsshellfishharvests.Restoringthepopulationinthetimeliestmannerpossiblewouldleadtothere-creationofthisidentitythatshapestheareasculture.
PositiveFacetsofthePolicyOption:
ResearchonC.ariakensishassupportedthescientificnotionthatthesenon-nativeoystersaremoreresistanttobothDMXanddermis,twoofthemostprevalentoysterdiseasesintheChesapeakeBaythathavepartiallycontributedtothedemiseofthenativeC.virginicabecausetheSuminoeoystersaremoreresilienttovariationsinwatersalinitythanisthenativeoysterpopulations.24TheSuminoeoysterhasalsobeenscientificallyproventogrowfasterthanthenativeoysterspecies.25TheintroductionofthisspeciescouldpotentiallyhelptoboosttheoysterpopulationsinthesouthernpartoftheChesapeakeBayestuaryinVirginia,wherethesalinityisknowntobehigherthanthenorthernpartoftheBayestuary.
Also,ofallotherapproachesproposedbytheU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers,thispolicyoptionwouldallowforthehighestbiomassincreaseofoystersintheChesapeakeBayintheshortesttimeframe.26InadditiontotheU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers,governmentalagenciesonboththefederalandstatelevelsuchasNOAA,theEPA,theCommonwealthsofVirginiaandMarylandwouldworkcollaborativelytofosterthispolicyimplementationplan,sothatagencyandgovernmentagendaswouldnotadverselyaffectthispolicy.
Contrastingwiththeproposedharvestmoratoriumthatwouldneedtotakeplaceto
23NonnativeOystersintheChesapeakeBay.Washington,D.C.:CommitteeonNonnativeOystersintheChesapeakeBay,NationalResearchCouncil,2004.Print.24Burreson,Eugene."AComparativeFieldStudyofCrassostreaariakensisandCrassostreavirginicainRelationtoSalinityinVirginia."AppliedMarineScienceandOceanEngineering360(2000):1-46.VirginiaInstituteofMarineScience .Web.10Oct.2011.25Wood,Pamela."'Asian'OysterStudyWillOfferFewAnswers."HometownAnnapolis8Oct.2009:C4-C5.Print.26Seltzer,Craig.FinalProgrammaticEnvironmentalImpactStatementfor.Norfolk,VA:U.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers,NorfolkDistrict,2008.Print.
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maintaincurrent(alreadylow)levels,thisactionwouldnotputthewatermenwhodependontheBaysresourcesforeconomicpurposesoutofwork.Infact,ifthispolicyweretoincreaseyields,thewatermenandtheseafoodmarketwouldexperienceanincreaseinbusiness. 27
NegativeFacetsofthisPolicyOption:
Althoughonlynon-reproductiveSuminoeoysterswouldberaisedinspecificallydesignatedaquaculture-basedareas,theeffectsofdoingsohavenotbeenfullyinvestigated,asnon-nativespeciesinteractionsinaforeignenvironmentareunpredictable.ThisscientificuncertaintyleavesroomforpotentialdamagestothefragilestateoftheChesapeakeBayecosystem
ItisalsodifficultacquiringaSection10permit,asittakesagreatdealoftime,research,andcooperationbetweentheUSArmyCorpsofEngineersandtheFishandWildlifeService(FWS).TheFWSconductshabitatsurveys,andevaluateslikely
ecologicalimpactsofproposedactions,andmakingrecommendationstotheCorpsbasedontheirfindings.TheirinputtotheCorpsisprovidedbothverballyandinwrittendocumentssuchasCoordinationActReports,PlanningAidReports,andPlanningAidLetters.28
SupportingStakeholders:
TheStateofMarylandandtheCommonwealthofVirginiaarelikelytosupportthisproposal,asbothhavevoicedsupportforsimilarpolicyproposals:
TheStateofMarylandandCommonwealthofVirginiaproposetointroducethe
nonnativeSuminoeoysterintothetidalwatersofMarylandandVirginiaforthepurposeofestablishinganaturalized,reproducing,andself-sustainingpopulationofthisAsianspecies.DiploidSuminoeoysterswouldbepropagatedfromexistingthirdor
latergenerationsoftheOregonstockofthisspecies,inaccordancewiththeICESCodeofPracticesontheIntroductionsandTransfersofMarineOrganisms1994(ICES
1995).DiploidSuminoeoystersproducedinhatcherieswouldbedeployedfirston
State-designatedsanctuaries(separatefromnativeoysterrestorationprojects),where
harvestingwouldbeprohibitedpermanently,thenonharvestreservesandspecial
managementareas,whereselectiveharvestingwouldbeallowed.TheStatesfurther
proposetocontinueeffortstorestorethenativeEasternoysterthroughouttheChesapeakeBaybyusingthebestavailablerestorationstrategiesandstock
assessmenttechniques,includingmaintainingandexpandingtheexistingnetworkofsanctuariesandharvestreserves,enhancingthebroodstock,andsupplementing
27Seltzer,Craig.FinalProgrammaticEnvironmentalImpactStatementfor.Norfolk,VA:U.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers,NorfolkDistrict,2008.Print.28U.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers."ArmyCorpsSection404/Section10."Section10Permits.N.p.,n.d.Web.11Oct.2011..
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naturalrecruitmentofthespecieswithhatchery-producedspat.29OtherpotentialsupportersofthepolicyincludetheJohnsHopkinsSchoolofPublicHealth,asitrecentlyreleasedastudysupportingtheintroductionofnon-nativeoystersandtheeconomicbenefitsthatdoingsocouldprovide.Asstatedbythe
study,SuminoeoystersaremoreeffectiveatfilteringoutalgalbloomscreatedbypollutantsthanarenativeEasternoysters.30
TheCommitteeonNon-NativeOystersintheChesapeakeBaywouldalsobeproponentsofthepolicy,asishasfoundmuchresearchinfavorofthenotionandworkedincongruencewithboththeMarylandSeaGrantandtheVirginiaSeaGrant.
PoliticiansinMarylandandVirginiawouldsupportthisnotion,asitwouldincreaseregionaljobs,fosterregionalindustriesandbooststaterevenue.
MembersoftheMarylandWatermensAssociationandMarylandSeafoodCouncil
andmembersoftheVirginiaWatermensAssociationandtheVirginiaSeafoodCouncilwouldbenefitfromthisaquaculture-basedpolicy,astheirfuturecatchesandeconomywouldhavepotentialtoincrease.
Oyster-BasedBusinessessuchas:Marinetics,HazelwoodOysterFarms,BevansOysterCompany,MasonSeafood,RappahannockRiverOysters,OysterKing1,Inc.wouldbenefitfromseeingthepotentialeconomicgainsandculturalreformationthatwouldtakeplaceintheChesapeakeBayRegionasaresultofthispolicyincreasingoysterbiomassintheBay.OpposingStakeholders:
TheChesapeakeBayFoundationwouldlikelyopposethispolicy.Ithasassertedinthepastthat,despitetheemergingevidencethatsuchaquaculturecouldbenefittheoysterpopulation,thereisnotyetenoughscientificresearchtosupportthattheSuminoeoysterwouldnotposeapotentialthreattotheBayecosystem.
EnvironmentalgroupssuchasDefendersofWildlifewouldlikelycallformoreresearchtobedonebeforeanon-nativespeciesisintroducedtotheChesapeakeBay.
TheU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineerswouldlikelybewaryoftheproposedpolicybecauseofthegovernmentalregulationsinplace,suchasArticle10,thatwouldbe
bothtime-consumingandfiscallyunsound.
29Seltzer,Craig.FinalProgrammaticEnvironmentalImpactStatementfor.Norfolk,VA:U.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers,NorfolkDistrict,2008.Print.30UniversityofMiami."MarineConservationScienceandPolicyServiceLearningProgram."MarineIssues:Non-nativeSpecies.N.p.,n.d.Web.10Oct.2011..
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NOAAmayposeanopposition,asthisprojectrequiresmoreresearchwhileimplementingacostlyaquaculturesystem.Astheprimarysourceoffundinginthepast,thisgovernmentalagencymayrequiremoreresearchbeforeeventhistrialofnon-reproductiveoystersareplacedintheBay.31
PolicyOptionImplementation:
TheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct(NEPA)wouldcertainlycallforamorethoroughinvestigationoftheproposedinitiativeandanyotheralternativesbecauseofthepotentialimpactthatcouldbehadontheBay.But,thisactandC.ariakensisintroductionwouldalsotakeplaceunderSection10oftheRiversandHarborsActof1899,whichstatesthatprojectauthorizationforin-waterstructuresnecessarytoharvestC.ariakensiswouldbeneededbytheUSArmyCorpsofEngineers.32
ThisprojectisconsistentwithSection10oftheFishandWildlifeCoordinationAct,theCorpstakeonthematterofnon-nativespeciesintroductionwouldleadthe
Corpstodevelopmoreresearchonconsideringtheecologicalconsequencesoftheproposedaction.33
Implementationoverthecourseofthe10yeartrialperiodwouldbeperformedbytheChesapeakeBayProgramsGoalImplementationTeamforSustainableFisheries,whichhasaidedtheMarylandSeaGrantontheircurrentproject,Ecosystem-BasedFisheriesManagementACooperativeProject. 34
FundingwouldbedesignatedbytheNationalAtmosphericandOceanicAdministration(NOAA),asithasbeendesignatingfundingforoysterrestorationintheChesapeakeBayinthepast.35
NOAAChesapeakeBayOfficeAnnualFundingforNativeOysterRestorationbyYear
1997 1998 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
$26K $26K $220K $1.02M $1.03M $1.06M $2.13M $1.97M $4.08M $4.0M $5.7M $2.9M $1.7M$4.6M
31
Seltzer,Craig.FinalProgrammaticEnvironmentalImpactStatementfor.Norfolk,VA:U.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers,NorfolkDistrict,2008.Print.32NonnativeOystersintheChesapeakeBay.Washington,D.C.:CommitteeonNonnativeOystersintheChesapeakeBay,NationalResearchCouncil,2004.Print.33"FishandWildlifeConservationAndWaterResourceDevelopments-Coordination."FishandWildlifeCoordinationAct.Washington,D.C.:U.S.Legislature,1934.661-667e.Print.34"Policy:EcosystemBasedFisheriesManagementfortheChesapeakeBay."MarylandSeaGrant.N.p.,n.d.Web.10Oct.2011..35"NOAAChesapeakeBayOfficeAnnualFundingforNativeOysterRestorationbyYear."NOAA:ChesapeakeBayOffice.N.p.,n.d.Web.11Oct.2011.
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PolicyOption#2:ImposingaBay-wideHarvestMoratoriumonNativeOystersinConjunctionwithaTransitionalProgramforDisplacedOystermen
TheimpositionofanativeoysterharvestmoratoriumincontinuationwithcurrentnativeoysterrestorationprojectstakingplaceacrosstheChesapeakeBaywouldpotentiallyservetooffsetthehistoricoysterlossesasdemonstratedintheproblemsection.Implementingatemporary,(10year)bay-wideoysterharvestmoratoriumcouldservetoincreasethenativeChesapeakeBayoysterpopulationwhilepreventingthecompletedemiseoftheEasternOyster(C.virginica).Suchdrasticpolicyimplementationthatwasoncecompletelyresistedbystakeholdersacrosstheboardhasrecentlygainedmediaattentionthrougharecentlyreleasedstudy.36Thisstudy,conductedbytheUniversityofMarylandCenterforEnvironmentalScience,concludedthataharvestmoratoriumwouldbetheonlywaytopotentiallyincreaseoysterbiomassintheBay.Asstatedinthefinalpublicationthatappearedinthe
academicjournalMarineEcologyProgressSeries,over99%ofthenativeChesapeakeBayoystershavebeeneliminatedfromthebaysincetheirpeakintheearly1800s.37Reversingthistrendwouldultimatelybethegoalofaharvestmoratorium,inwhichtheoysterstockmayultimatelybeabletorebuildtoalevelthatwouldsupportasustainablecommercialharvestinthefuture.
However,suchlegislationwouldeliminateoystercatchesforthelocalwatermenintheshortterm,amongstothereconomicfactors.Inresponsetothisconcern,itisproposedthattheCommonwealthofVirginiaandtheStateofMarylandcouldeachcreateaprogramunderwhichprovisionallydisplacedoystermencouldbeofferedon-waterworkincurrentoysteraquacultureandsanctuaryprogramsacrossthe
breadthoftheChesapeakeBay.Suchaproposalwouldoffsetsomeoftheanticipatedeconomicburdenthatwatermenintheoysterindustrywouldfaceinthetemporaryeliminationoftheircatches.
PositiveFacetsofthePolicyOption:
FiscalBenefitsfortheChesapeakeBayFishery-RelatedIndustries
Fromafiscalperspective,atemporaryoystermoratoriumwouldbebeneficialtothosewhodependontheBaysoysterstosupporttheirlivelihood.Fiscally,duetothefactthatthemoratoriumwouldonlybeatemporaryimposition,benefitstothe
fisherysystemoftheChesapeakeBaywouldbeclearassoonasthemoratoriumwas
36Fears, Darryl. "Study Calls for Halting Oyster Fishing in the Chesapeake Bay." TheWashington Post[Washington, D.C.] 1 Sept. 2011: D4-D6. Print.37Mansfield,Mark."EcologicalRiskAssessmentforOysterRestorationAlternatives."FinalProgrammaticOysterEnvironmentalImpactStatement.Norfolk,VA:U.S.ArmyCorpsof
Engineers,2008.ES1-435.Print.
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lifted.Increaseofprofitsforoystermen,shippers,processors,andoyster-basedbusinesswouldbeexpectedinconcurrencewiththeexpectedincreaseofoysterbiomassintheBay.Saidbiomassincreasewouldbeadirectresultofthemoratoriumsallowancesforthenativeoysterstobreed,spawnandnaturallyincreasethepopulation,sansthethreatofcommercialharvestsbyoystermen.
Increaseinprofitswouldalsobeinextricablylinkedtotheincreaseinoysterbiomassavailableinspecific,restoredregionsoftheBaybecauseoftheincreaseinindividualoystermencatchperunitofeffort.38
IncreasingtheEcologicalHealthoftheBay
AharvestmoratoriumcouldincreasetheoverallecologicalhealthoftheBaysnow-fragileecosystem.AccordingtoOysterRestorationintheChesapeakeBay:ACulturalandSocioeconomicAssessment,scientists(97%)andenvironmentalists(86%)supportamoratoriumbecausemanyfeelthateventhemostseeminglynegligibleharvestsareoffsettingcurrentrestorationefforts.39Asstatedintheintroductory
section,oystersplayakeystoneecologicalroleintheBay,servingasfiltersofthepollutedBaywatersandalsoasavitalhabitatforbottom-dwellingorganisms.Proponentsofamoratoriumclaimthattheonlywaytoincreasetheoysterpopulationsand,inturn,toincreasethecurrent,concerningstateoftheBayistoallowfornativeoysterstoincreaseinbiomassandthusalleviatesomeoftheBayslargerproblems.Saidproblemsencompass,butarenotlimitedto:pollution,sewagetreatment,residential-basedchemicalrunoff,andagriculture.40Assuagingtheseproblemswouldfurthertheunderlyinggoalofaharvestmoratorium:toimprovetheecologicalhealthoftheChesapeakeBay.
EliminationofCommercialBy-CatchandReefDamage
StudiesconductedbyLenihanandassociatesdemonstratethat,ineachharvestingevent,asignificantproportionofoysters(upto10%)areinadvertentlykilledbutnotcollectedasadirectresultofbeingcracked,brokenorpuncturedbydredgingequipmentorothercommercialmachinery.41Ashorttermcommercialhaltintheoysterindustrywouldeliminatethisissue,allowingfornativeoysterstoreproduceandthusincreaseoysterstockintheChesapeakeBay.
38Lipton, Douglas.Final Draft Economic Analysis for Oyster Restoration Alternatives.University of Maryland, College Park: Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics,
2008. Print.39Paolisso, Michael , and Nicole Dery. Oyster Restoration in the Chesapeake Bay: A Cultural andSocioeconomic Assessment. University of Maryland: Department of Anthropology, 2008.40Paolisso, Michael , and Nicole Dery. Oyster Restoration in the Chesapeake Bay: A Culturaland Socioeconomic Assessment. University of Maryland: Department of Anthropology, 2008. 41Lenihan,H.S.andC.H.Peterson.2004.Conservingoysterreefhabitatbyswitchingfromdredgingandtongingtodiver-harvesting.FisheriesBulletin102:298-305
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NegativeFacetsofthisPolicyOption:
ScientificUncertaintyofaMoratoriumsEffectiveness
UncertaintyaboutthepastandcurrentratesofexploitationoftheoysterpopulationmakesitdifficulttoforeseetheeffectthataBay-widemoratoriumwouldhaveontheoysterstockpresentintheChesapeakeBay.ThismajorconstraintarisingfromambiguityregardinghistoricalandcurrentexploitationratesisdemonstratedinastudyconductedbyJordanandCoakley,whosedataindicatedthatexploitationratesofadultoystersinMarylandfrom1986to2001variedfrom21%to73%.42
StakeholderResistance
AsagreatdealoftheChesapeakeBayregionsculturalidentitylieswithinthe
harvestandsaleoftheEasternoyster,itisincrediblylikelythatwatermen,locals,andoyster-basedbusinesseswouldnotrespondwelltoamandatedharvestmoratorium.
SupportingStakeholders:
TheStateofMarylandandtheCommonwealthofVirginiaarelikelytosupportthisproposal,asitwouldcreategreenjobsforeachstatesrespectiveconstituents.
PoliticiansinMarylandandVirginiawouldlikelyagreewiththeimpositionofaharvestmoratorium,asaprogramtosupportprovisionallydisplacedoystermenwouldbecreatedandtheecologicalandculturalvalueoftheBaywouldincreasein
theprocessaswell.
97%ofscientistsand86%ofenvironmentalistspolledintheOysterRestorationintheChesapeakeBay:ACulturalandSocioeconomicAssessmentsupportamoratoriumbecausemanyfeelthateventhemostseeminglynegligibleharvestsareoffsettingcurrentrestorationefforts.
42Jordan,S.J.andJ.M.Coakley.2004.Long-termprojectionsofeasternoysterpopulationsundervariousmanagementscenarios.JournalofShellfishResearch23:63-72.
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OpposingStakeholders:
MembersoftheMarylandandVirginiaWatermensAssociationandmembersoftheMarylandandVirginiaSeafoodCouncilwouldnotsupportahaltincommercial
harvest,astheirmemberswouldbefrustratedwiththeirjobdisplacementandresultinglossofpersonalidentity.Table5.38highlightsthisanticipatedpushbackbywatermen.43
Table5.38:DifficultyReturningtotheOysterFisheryifthereisA7+yearMoratoriumonOyster
Harvests
Oyster-BasedBusinessessuchas:MasonSeafood,RappahannockRiverOysters,andOysterKing1,Inc.wouldcertainlynotbepleasedwithaharvestmoratorium,asitwouldlikelybeviewedasanextremeconservationmeasurethatcouldputthemoutofbusinessfromthecompletehaltinfiscalgainovertheproposed10yeartime
period.PolicyOptionImplementation:
Thedurationoftheproposedharvestmoratoriumwouldbeapproximately10years.ItwouldoccurinconjunctionwithcurrentaquacultureinitiativesandoysterbarrestorationprogramsalreadyinactionacrosstheBayregion.Respectively,theMarylandandVirginiaMarineResourceCommissionsHabitatManagementDivisionwouldberesponsibleforemployingpatrolmenoftheoysterreefsduringthistime.TheEPAwouldworkincollaborationwiththeVirginiaInstituteofMarineScience(VIMS)tofurtheritseducationandoutreachprogramsconcerningoystersandtheirimportancetotheChesapeakeBaysecosystem,economyandculture.Thispartnershipwouldalsoberesponsibleforcreatingoysterrestorationjobsforthewatermenwhowillbetemporarilydisplacedfromtheirjobsduringthemoratorium.AllpartieswouldperformsaidoutreachwiththefundingdesignatedannuallyforoysterrestorationeffortsbyNOAA.Additionally,theChesapeakeBay
43Paolisso, Michael , and Nicole Dery. Oyster Restoration in the Chesapeake Bay: A Culturaland Socioeconomic Assessment. University of Maryland, College Park: Department of
Anthropology,2008.
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Foundationwouldbeencouragedtocontinueandexpanditscivicengagement/volunteerprogramsinoysterreefrestorationandgardeningefforts.
PolicyOption#3:StreamliningthePermittingProcessforPrivateAquacultureFarmers
ThispolicyoptionwouldestablishregulatedaquacultureoperationsintheStateofMarylandandtheCommonwealthofVirginia.Namely,thispolicywouldserveto
streamlinethepermittingprocessforprivateoysteraquaculturefirms,thusencouraging
moreprivatefirmstoenterthemarketontheChesapeakeBay.
Thepolicywouldallowforacitizenapplyingforanindividualpermittoeasilyobtainan
establishedgeneralpermitifheisabletoshowthathecanadequatelysatisfythe
stateandnationalregulationswhilealsoprovingthathisoperationswillposelittle
environmentalharmtotheBayareainwhichhehopestooperate.Thispolicywouldbe
asuccinctandrelativelymanageablemannerfromwhichprivatefirmscouldbe
encouragedtoparticipateinthesustainablepracticewhilereapingagenerousfiscal
benefit.Itwillalsoserveasameansbywhichoysterscouldbesoldforcommercialuse,
providinganecologicallysoundalternativetoharvestingthewild,nativeEasternoysters
inneedofpopulationstockrepletion.
PositiveFacetsofthisPolicyOption:
EncouragingaquacultureintheChesapeakewouldposemanybenefits,including:
FinancialFeasibility:
Arecentfiscalanalysisofalarge-scaleprivateaquacultureindustrywasrecently
conductedbytheU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers.Theanalysisstatedthattherewasplentyofroomforcontributiontothecommercialoysterindustrybyprivate
aquaculturefirmsbasedonthelowcurrentoysteryields,claimingthattheannual
productionofthemaximumeconomicallyviableoysteraquacultureintheBayis
estimatedtobe2.6millionbushels.44
44Lipton,Douglas.FinalDraftEconomicAnalysisforOysterRestorationAlternatives .
UniversityofMaryland,CollegePark:DepartmentofAgriculturalandResourceEconomics,2008.Print.
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SpatialAvailability
Withintheanalyticalstudy,theCorpsdesignatedninefeasiblelocationsintheBay
watershedinwhichprivateaquaculturefirmscouldflourishbaseduponpastoyster
harvestsandspatialavailabilityforsuchoperations,amongstotherfactors.
45
NegativeFacetsofthisPolicyOption:PotentialLossofAestheticValueofBaysideProperties
Thereisconcernthatperhapstheseon-wateraquacultureoperationscoulddecrease
theaestheticvalueofBaysidepropertieswithinacloseradiustothesites.
PotentialforLossofRecreationalValueofBaysideProperties
Accompanyingtheintroductionofaquaculturefarmsintheproposedlocationswould
perhapsberestrictionsonnearbyrecreationalactivitysuchasboatingandrecreational
fishing.Localsmaynotrespondwelltosuchimpositions.
SupportingStakeholders:
Localhatcheryprogramswouldfiscallybenefitfromsuchapolicy,astheuseoftheir
geneticallyalteredspatwouldbemandated.
45Seltzer,Craig.FinalProgrammaticEnvironmentalImpactStatementfor.Norfolk,VA:U.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers,
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UnitedStatesSenatorsBenCardinandBarbaraMikulski,DemocratsfromtheStateof
Maryland,wouldbeinfavorofthisoptionbecauseoftheirpriorjointappealstothe
U.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineersforsimilaractiontotakeplace.46
TheStateofVirginiawouldultimatelyvoteonbehalfofthispolicyaswell,aseffortsby
thestateoverrecentdecadeshavefocusedonthissustainableoption.
TheChesapeakeBayFoundationhasinvestedtimeandmoneyintoaquaculture
volunteerprogramsoverthepastdecade,andhaveadvocatedforaquaculture
expansioninitsmostrecentannualpublication.
TheVirginiaInstituteofMarineScience(VIMS)scientistsandaffiliateshavebeen
engagedinagreatdealofresearchinthepastregardingthepracticabilityof
aquacultureexpansionintheChesapeakeBay.Theywouldcertainlysupportthispolicy
optionforitssustainableundertonesandadoptionoftheirstatedideals.47
OpposingStakeholders:
CitizensoftheStateofMarylandandtheCommonwealthofVirginiawhoresidewithina
5-10mileradiusoftheproposedaquacultureoperationsmayopposethispolicy.Said
citizensmaycomplainofnewboatingandfishingregulationsthatmayprohibit
recreationinthesedesignatedaquaculturefarmsontheBay.Perhapsalsothecitizens
wouldpotentiallyclaimthatsaidoperationsmayhaveanegativeimpactonthe
aestheticvalueofboththeirpersonalpropertiesandtheBayitself.
PolicyOptionImplementation:
Thispolicyoptionwouldmainlyservetoincreasetheefficiencyofprivateentities
obtainingaquaculturepermitsinboththeCommonwealthofVirginiaandtheStateof
Maryland.Specifically,thepolicywouldrequireaprivateentityseekingageneralpermit
toformallyagreetosatisfyatleastthetwomainsustainabilityguidelinesbefore
receivinganofficiallicensingpermitforprivateaquacultureoperationfromtheU.S.
ArmyCorpsofEngineers:
1. Employingamixed-useaquaculturesystem(ofbothon-bottomandoff-bottomcages)thatwouldemploythemostconservativeamountoflandforgrowth.This
46"Cardin,MikulskiUrgeArmyCorpsofEngineerstoExpediteOysterAquaculturePermits."BenCardin-UnitedStatesSenatorforMaryland.N.p.,n.d.Web.1Nov.2011..
47OntheBrink:Chesapeake'sNativeOysters.Annapolis,Maryland:ChesapeakeBayFoundation,2010.
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wouldbeincontrasttosomecurrentgrowers,whoonlyemploytheuseofoff-
bottomoperationsbecauseoff-bottomoperationshavebeenprovento
generatemorethan50%greaterdiploidandtriploidoystergrowththanon-
bottomcages.48
Thiscurrent,unsustainablepracticeincreasesoperationalprofitssignificantlywhilerequiringmorelandthanisactuallynecessaryfortheaquaculturefarmsto
thrive.
2. Utilizingonlynativeoyster(C.virginica)spatproducedbylocalhatcheries.Thisoptionisreactionarytocurrentaquaculturefirmswhoutilizenon-localspatfor
production.49Spatacquiredfromforeignortransnationalfirmsisoftennot
geneticallyalteredinthesamewaythatthelocalspatisaltered,namelyfor
diseaseresistance.50Optingforlocal-onlyhatcherypurchaseswouldensurethat
therequiredquantityofoysterspatisavailabletolocalaquaculturefirms,and
wouldalsosupportthelocaleconomy.
48Taylor,Jake,MarkLuckenbach,andFrancisO'Beirn.AnIntroductiontoCulturingOystersinVirginia.NewportNews,Virginia:VirginiaMarineResourcesCommission,1999.Print.
49Taylor,Jake,MarkLuckenbach,andFrancisO'Beirn.AnIntroductiontoCulturingOystersinVirginia.NewportNews,Virginia:VirginiaMarineResourcesCommission,1999.Print.
50OntheBrink:Chesapeake'sNativeOysters.Annapolis,Maryland:ChesapeakeBayFoundation,2010.
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