Chesapeake Bay Oysters Technical Document

8/3/2019 Chesapeake Bay Oysters Technical Document

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ChesapeakeBayOysters:

PopulationDecline

To:RobertWittman,VirginiaHouseofRepresentatives

SubcommitteeonFisheries,Wildlife,OceansandInsularAffairs

From:SarahSchmitt


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TableofContents

Introduction ...............................................................................................................................................................1

HistoricDownfallsofCommercialHarvesting

CulturalValueoftheEasternOyster

EcologicalValueoftheEasternOyster ........................................................................................................ 2

EconomicValueoftheEasternOyster.........................................................................................................3

OysterDiseases...................................................................................................................................................... 4

Stakeholders ..............................................................................................................................................................5

PastPolicyandCurrentRestorationEfforts ...........................................................................................6

PastPoliciesandInitiatives

Chesapeake2000Agreement

PolicyOption1:IntroductionofNon-NativeOysters ......................................................................... 7

PositiveFacetsofthePolicyOption

NegativeFacetsofthePolicyOption ............................................................................................................8

SupportingStakeholders

OpposingStakeholders....................................................................................................................................... 9

PolicyOptionImplementation ......................................................................................................................10

PolicyOption2:ImposingaBay-wideHarvestMoratoriumonNativeOystersin

ConjunctionwithaTransitionalProgramforDisplacedOystermen ....................................11

PositiveFacetsofthePolicyOption..................................................................................................... 11,12

NegativeFacetsofthePolicyOption ..........................................................................................................13

SupportingStakeholders

OpposingStakeholders.....................................................................................................................................14

PolicyOptionImplementation ......................................................................................................................14

PolicyOption:StreamliningthePermittingProcessforPrivateAquacultureFirms ..15

PositiveFacetsofthePolicyOption

NegativeFacetsofthePolicyOption ..........................................................................................................16

SupportingStakeholders ..........................................................................................................................16,17

OpposingStakeholders.....................................................................................................................................17

PolicyOptionImplementation ............................................................................................................... 17,18

WorksCited .......................................................................................................................................................19,20


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Introduction

TheecologicalhealthoftheChesapeakeBayecosystemanditskeystonespecies,theChesapeakeBayoyster(C.virginica),hasbeenindeclinefordecades.1Together,oysterdiseasesandthecommercialharvestingtechniquescreatedinresponseto

theeconomicallyvaluableoystermarkethavecontributedtothedeclineinoysterstockintheChesapeakeBay.2Inturn,commerciallandingsinMarylandandVirginiahavesharplydeclinedoverthepastcentury.

3

Asdemonstratedbythegraph,only1%oftheoysterstockpresentinthelate1800sexistsintheBaytoday.NOAAandtheU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineershavedesignatedapproximately$7millionforthenextfiscalyeartoaccelerateoysterrestorationefforts.4Themainpurposeofthisproposalistosuggestthemostfeasiblepoliciestowhichsaidfundingshouldbeappropriated.Consequently,theoysterpopulationstockintheChesapeakeBaywillincreasetoalevelthatwouldsupportsustainablecommercialharvestsinthefuture,renewtheregionsoyster-basedculturalidentity,andallowtheoystertofulfillitskeystoneecologicalroleintheBayecosystem.

1Baker,William.2010StateoftheBay.Annapolis,Maryland:ChesapeakeBayFoundation,2010.Print.2ADwindlingCatch.Dir.MattDanzeco.Perf.OystermenAcrosstheBay.DiscoveryChannel,2008.Film.3Seltzer,Craig.FinalProgrammaticEnvironmentalImpactStatementfor.Norfolk,VA:U.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers,NorfolkDistrict,2008.Print.4Baker,William.2010StateoftheBay.Annapolis,Maryland:ChesapeakeBayFoundation,2010.Print.


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HistoricDownfallsofCommercialHarvesting

AccordingtoarecentpublicationintheChesapeakeBayJournal,commercialharvestsofBayoystersbegantodeclinesteadilyfollowingthedevelopmentofcommercialdredginginthe1820sandtherisingpopularityofsteamcanninginthe1870s.Namely,thisdeclineisattributabletotheexpeditedrateatwhich

watermencouldharvestoystersincomparisontotherateofharvestachievedbythetraditionalhandtongmethod.Commercialdredgingisalsothreateningtothephysicalintegrityofcenturyoldreefs,astheequipmentisknowntobothbreakoffshellsthatserveasthereefbottomsubstrateandtoinadvertentlykillingoystersthatweretoosmalltoharvest,therebylesseningthestockforfutureharvests.5

CulturalValueoftheEasternOyster

ThepublicationNonnativeOystersintheChesapeakeBayindicatesthattheEasternoysterwasoncesoplentifulintheBaythatitinspiredtheAlgonquiantribetonametheBaygreatshellfishbayorChesepiook.TheoysterisalsoakeypartoftheBayareaculturebecauseofitsroleasavaluablefoodresourcetotheNativeAmerican

tribesandearlyEuropeansettlersthatdevelopedintoaboomingexportcommodityinthe1800s.TherateofharvestalsoincreasedatthistimeduetotheefficiencyprovidedbythenewandpopularizedskipjacksailboatsthataretothisdaysymbolicofhistoricBayculture.ThisvestedinterestinoystersbysettlersintheBayregionledtheChesapeakeoysterfisherytobecomethemostsizableintheworldduringthistimeperiodduetotheevolvingtechnologythatwasbecomingincreasinglyavailable.Furthermore,townssuchasCrisfieldandSaintMarysontheEasternShoreofMarylandcametobeandflourishedonthepremiseofthelocaloysterabundance.TheEasternoysterhasactedasasymbolofeconomicprosperityandrichBaycultureeversince.6

EcologicalValueoftheEasternOysterTheChesapeakeBayFieldGuideassertsthattheChesapeakeBayOyster,knownasCrassotreavirginica,canbefoundinshallowareasoftheBay,from8feetto35feet.Theyarecategorizedasbivalvemollusks,whichcanbefoundinallareasoftheChesapeakeBayestuaryregardlessoftherangeofsalineconditionspresentacrosstheBay.Oystersareseededinconcentratedbenthicareas,andattachtoeachothertoformdensereefsthatserveaspecificecologicalniche,arefugeforotherbottom-dwellingorganismssuchascrabs.Theyareconsideredtobeakeystonespeciesbecauseoftheirabilitytofilterupto50gallonsofwatereachday;inthisprocessofnutrientuptakeandfiltration,theChesapeakeBayoysterallowsforreducedsedimentsuspensionandthusprogressivelyhigherwaterquality.7Theoysterplays

avitalroleintheBaysecosystem.Effortsmustbemadetorestorethenativeoyster

5Blankenship,Karl."Chesapeake'sOysterReefsHaveTakenaShellacking."ChesapeakeBayJournal1Jan.2010:n.pag.ChesapeakeBayJournal.Web.14Sept.2011.6NonnativeOystersintheChesapeakeBay.Washington,D.C.:CommitteeonNonnativeOystersintheChesapeakeBay,NationalResearchCouncil,2004.Print.7Eastern Oyster - Bay Field Guide - Chesapeake Bay Program.A Watershed Partnership.Chesapeake Bay Program, 2011.


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populationortoreplenishitthroughothermeansinorderfortheecologicalstateoftheBaytobeontheriseforthefirsttimeindecades.EconomicValueoftheEasternOysterTheChesapeakeBayFoundationpamphletOntheBrink:ChesapeakesNativeOysters

dictatesthattheharvestingofChesapeakeBayoystersisparamounttotheBayseconomichealth.Infact,theChesapeakeBayisoneoftworemainingplacesintheworldwhereanindustrybaseduponharvestingwildoystersstillexists.Historically,thepeakofshellfishharvestingintheChesapeakeBaytookplacearoundthe1880s,whenabout50,000oystermenmadealivingoffofthe120millionpounds(or17millionbushels)ofoystersthatwereharvestedeachyear.Thelast25yearsoftheoysterindustryhasbeenmarkedbyeconomicplight,asoysterharvestshavefallenby90%andthenumberofoystermenhaveseena75%decline.By2009,onlyabout1,000citizensofVirginiaandMarylandcombinedhadoysterharvestinglicenses,amere2%oftheoystermencountinthelate19thcentury.Evenmorestrikingisthatmanyofsaidlicense-holdersareinactivetodaybecauseofthedecliningoysters

availabletoharvest.OysterdeclineleadingtothedestructionoftheBaysfishingcommunityisalsoevidencedthroughthedisappearanceofoystershuckinghousesthatwereoncecommonplaceacrosstheBay.In1974,136shuckinghousesservedasarichsourceofjobstowatermenintheBayarea.Today,lessthantenremain.8

9

8Chesapeake Bay Foundation, On the Brink: Chesapeake's Native Oysters. 2010.9Chesapeake Bay Foundation, On the Brink: Chesapeake's Native Oysters. 2010.


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OysterDiseases

Inconcurrencewiththe2010StateoftheBayreport,themorerecentdeclineinoysterstockpopulationispartiallyattributabletotheoysterdiseasesDermoandMSX.BothdiseasesarecausedbyprotozoanparasitesfirstdetectedintheBayin

1949.WhilethesediseasesarefataltoEasternoysters,theyareharmlesstohumans.10

DermoiscontractedamongstEasternoystersastheyfilterwaterforfood.Infectedoystersexperienceweakeningofthemusclethatopensandclosestheshell,andeventuallydiefromstarvation.Thediseaseissoprevalentbecausediseasedoystershavethepotentialtospreadtheparasiteacrossareefbyreleasingtheparasitesintothewaterafterdeath.11Moresalinewatersallowforgreaterspreadofthedisease.12Thisinfectionposesathreattomarket-size,adultoystersinparticular,astheirgreaterrateoffiltrationincreasetheirchancesofcomingintocontactwiththeparasite.Theaverage

mortalityrateofmarket-sizeoystersacrosstheBayfrom1991-2004isapproximately5%-90%,andishighlydependentonthesalinityandprevalenceofthediseaseingivenoysterbars.13MSXisanintravenousinfectionthatcausesdifficultywithanoystersrespirationandeating,eventuallyleadingtodeath.14BelievedtohavebeenintroducedbytheillegalimportationofthePacificoyster,itposesagreaterthreattoadultoystersinthesamemannerasthatofDermis.15SimilarlytoDermis,itthrivesinhighersalinitiesandwatertemperature.16

BothdiseasescontinuetothreatenthenativeEasternoysterpopulationstock,as

theybothkilloysterspriortothetimeatwhichtheycanbeharvestedandeliminateoystersbeforetheyareattheagetoreproduce.Namely,theoysterreefsintheSouthernregionoftheBayinVirginiasufferfromthespreadofthediseases,astheyaresubjecttomoresalineconditionsandhigherwatertemperatures.17

10Baker,William.2010StateoftheBay.Annapolis,Maryland:ChesapeakeBayFoundation,2010.11NonnativeOystersintheChesapeakeBay.Washington,D.C.:CommitteeonNonnativeOystersintheChesapeakeBay,NationalResearchCouncil,2004.Print.12Mackin,J.S.1956.Dermocystidiummarinumandsalinity.ProceedingsoftheNationalShellfisheriesAssociation46:116-128.

13Barber,B.J.andR.Mann.1994.Growthandmortalityofeasternoysters,Crassostreavirginicaunderchallengefromtheparasite,Perkinsusmarinus.JournalofShellfishResearch13:109-114.14ChesapeakeBayFoundation,OntheBrink:Chesapeake'sNativeOysters .2010.15Mackin,J.S.1956.Dermocystidiummarinumandsalinity.ProceedingsoftheNationalShellfisheriesAssociation46:116-128.16ChesapeakeBayFoundation,OntheBrink:Chesapeake'sNativeOysters .2010.17Mackin,J.S.1956.Dermocystidiummarinumandsalinity.ProceedingsoftheNationalShellfisheriesAssociation46:116-128.


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Stakeholders

AllreferencedstakeholdershaveplayedvitalrolesinprioroysterrestorationeffortsintheChesapeakeBayandwouldinevitablyplayaroleinanypolicyproposed.18

GovernmentAgencies:

EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA),NationalAtmosphericandOceanicAdministration(NOAA),DepartmentoftheInterior(DOI)includingtheFishandWildlifeService(FWS),TheChesapeakeBayProgram(CBP)ScientificandTechnicalAdvisoryCommittee(STAC)andCitizensAdvisoryCommittee(CAC)Non-GovernmentalOrganizations:

ChesapeakeBayFoundation(CBF),VirginiaSeafoodCouncil,OysterReefKeepersofVirginia,VirginiaWatermensAssociation,MarylandWatermensAssociation,DefendersofWildlife,NationalWildlifeFederation

Individualswithvestedinterests/donors:

TheChesapeakeBayTrust,TheNatureConservancy,RestoreAmericasEstuaries,ButchButtMemorialFoundation,TheCabellFoundation,TheKeithCampbellFoundationfortheEnvironment,PewCharitableTrusts,VirginiaWellingtonCabotFoundation19AdvisoryCommissionsandMulti-StateCommissions:

VirginiaInstituteofMarineScience(VIMS),VirginiaandMarylandDepartmentsofEnvironmentalQuality(VADEQandMDDEQ),AtlanticStatesMarineFisheriesCommission,DelawareRiverBasinFishandWildlifeCooperative

Businesses:

Marinetics,HazelwoodOysterFarms,BevansOysterCompany,MasonSeafood,RappahannockRiverOysters,OysterKing1,Incorporated,theseafoodrestaurantindustryintheChesapeakeBayareaOystermenandShuckingHousesontheBay:

The1,000citizensofMarylandandVirginiawhopossessoysterharvestinglicensesandthe10oystershuckinghousesthatremainintheChesapeakeBayregion.20

18U.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers:OysterRestorationPlan,2010.19ChesapeakeBayFoundation,OntheBrink:Chesapeake'sNativeOysters.2010.20ChesapeakeBayFoundation,OntheBrink:Chesapeake'sNativeOysters.2010.


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PastPolicyandCurrentRestorationEfforts

PastPoliciesandInitiatives:

Historically,effortstorestoreChesapeakeBayoystershavebeenmadeinthe

patternofresearchfollowedbyexperimentalimplementation,asseeninBox6.1.21

Chesapeake2000Agreement:

Mostrecently,Section1.1.1oftheChesapeake2000Agreement(preparedbytheMarineResourcesCommission),statesthattheoysterrestorationgoalofby2010,ataminimum,atenfoldincreaseinnativeoystersoftheChesapeakeBay,basedupona1994baseline.Inreactiontosaidagreement,littleincrementalprogresshasbeenmadeasof2008inthestatesofMarylandandVirginia.Bothstateshaveallocatedagreatdealoftheirfundingtowardsartificialhabitat

construction,inwhich83reefsacrosstheBayhavebeenrestoredwiththeshellsofoystersthathavebeencommerciallyharvested.However,VirginiasBlueRibbonOysterPanelreleasedareviewin2007,criticizingthefailureofcurrentBayrestorationeffortsandurgingstatestorenewtheirfocusonaquaculture.22

21NonnativeOystersintheChesapeakeBay.Washington,D.C.:CommitteeonNonnativeOystersintheChesapeakeBay,NationalResearchCouncil,2004.Print.22"Policy:EcosystemBasedFisheriesManagementfortheChesapeakeBay."MarylandSeaGrant.N.p.,n.d.Web.10Oct.2011..


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PolicyOption#1:IntroductionofNon-NativeOysters

Introducingsterile,hatchery-producedanddisease-resistantnon-nativeoysters(Suminoeoyster,ornativeChineseC.ariakensis)inordertoincreasethenative

ChesapeakeBayoysterpopulationandpreventthecompletedemiseoftheEasternOyster(C.virginica).InlieuofintroducingreproductiveSuminoeoysterdirectlyfromAsia,thishighly-regulatedformofsterile,non-reproductiveoystersinanaquaculturesettingwouldhelptoboosttheoysterindustrywhilefurtherresearchisbeingdonetoassesstherisksofintroducingthenon-native,reproductiveformsoftheSuminoeoysterintotheChesapeakeBayecosystem.23Culturallyandhistorically,theChesapeakeBayRegionisknownforitsshellfishharvests.Restoringthepopulationinthetimeliestmannerpossiblewouldleadtothere-creationofthisidentitythatshapestheareasculture.

PositiveFacetsofthePolicyOption:

ResearchonC.ariakensishassupportedthescientificnotionthatthesenon-nativeoystersaremoreresistanttobothDMXanddermis,twoofthemostprevalentoysterdiseasesintheChesapeakeBaythathavepartiallycontributedtothedemiseofthenativeC.virginicabecausetheSuminoeoystersaremoreresilienttovariationsinwatersalinitythanisthenativeoysterpopulations.24TheSuminoeoysterhasalsobeenscientificallyproventogrowfasterthanthenativeoysterspecies.25TheintroductionofthisspeciescouldpotentiallyhelptoboosttheoysterpopulationsinthesouthernpartoftheChesapeakeBayestuaryinVirginia,wherethesalinityisknowntobehigherthanthenorthernpartoftheBayestuary.

Also,ofallotherapproachesproposedbytheU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers,thispolicyoptionwouldallowforthehighestbiomassincreaseofoystersintheChesapeakeBayintheshortesttimeframe.26InadditiontotheU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers,governmentalagenciesonboththefederalandstatelevelsuchasNOAA,theEPA,theCommonwealthsofVirginiaandMarylandwouldworkcollaborativelytofosterthispolicyimplementationplan,sothatagencyandgovernmentagendaswouldnotadverselyaffectthispolicy.

Contrastingwiththeproposedharvestmoratoriumthatwouldneedtotakeplaceto

23NonnativeOystersintheChesapeakeBay.Washington,D.C.:CommitteeonNonnativeOystersintheChesapeakeBay,NationalResearchCouncil,2004.Print.24Burreson,Eugene."AComparativeFieldStudyofCrassostreaariakensisandCrassostreavirginicainRelationtoSalinityinVirginia."AppliedMarineScienceandOceanEngineering360(2000):1-46.VirginiaInstituteofMarineScience .Web.10Oct.2011.25Wood,Pamela."'Asian'OysterStudyWillOfferFewAnswers."HometownAnnapolis8Oct.2009:C4-C5.Print.26Seltzer,Craig.FinalProgrammaticEnvironmentalImpactStatementfor.Norfolk,VA:U.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers,NorfolkDistrict,2008.Print.


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maintaincurrent(alreadylow)levels,thisactionwouldnotputthewatermenwhodependontheBaysresourcesforeconomicpurposesoutofwork.Infact,ifthispolicyweretoincreaseyields,thewatermenandtheseafoodmarketwouldexperienceanincreaseinbusiness. 27

NegativeFacetsofthisPolicyOption:

Althoughonlynon-reproductiveSuminoeoysterswouldberaisedinspecificallydesignatedaquaculture-basedareas,theeffectsofdoingsohavenotbeenfullyinvestigated,asnon-nativespeciesinteractionsinaforeignenvironmentareunpredictable.ThisscientificuncertaintyleavesroomforpotentialdamagestothefragilestateoftheChesapeakeBayecosystem

ItisalsodifficultacquiringaSection10permit,asittakesagreatdealoftime,research,andcooperationbetweentheUSArmyCorpsofEngineersandtheFishandWildlifeService(FWS).TheFWSconductshabitatsurveys,andevaluateslikely

ecologicalimpactsofproposedactions,andmakingrecommendationstotheCorpsbasedontheirfindings.TheirinputtotheCorpsisprovidedbothverballyandinwrittendocumentssuchasCoordinationActReports,PlanningAidReports,andPlanningAidLetters.28

SupportingStakeholders:

TheStateofMarylandandtheCommonwealthofVirginiaarelikelytosupportthisproposal,asbothhavevoicedsupportforsimilarpolicyproposals:

TheStateofMarylandandCommonwealthofVirginiaproposetointroducethe

nonnativeSuminoeoysterintothetidalwatersofMarylandandVirginiaforthepurposeofestablishinganaturalized,reproducing,andself-sustainingpopulationofthisAsianspecies.DiploidSuminoeoysterswouldbepropagatedfromexistingthirdor

latergenerationsoftheOregonstockofthisspecies,inaccordancewiththeICESCodeofPracticesontheIntroductionsandTransfersofMarineOrganisms1994(ICES

1995).DiploidSuminoeoystersproducedinhatcherieswouldbedeployedfirston

State-designatedsanctuaries(separatefromnativeoysterrestorationprojects),where

harvestingwouldbeprohibitedpermanently,thenonharvestreservesandspecial

managementareas,whereselectiveharvestingwouldbeallowed.TheStatesfurther

proposetocontinueeffortstorestorethenativeEasternoysterthroughouttheChesapeakeBaybyusingthebestavailablerestorationstrategiesandstock

assessmenttechniques,includingmaintainingandexpandingtheexistingnetworkofsanctuariesandharvestreserves,enhancingthebroodstock,andsupplementing

27Seltzer,Craig.FinalProgrammaticEnvironmentalImpactStatementfor.Norfolk,VA:U.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers,NorfolkDistrict,2008.Print.28U.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers."ArmyCorpsSection404/Section10."Section10Permits.N.p.,n.d.Web.11Oct.2011..


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naturalrecruitmentofthespecieswithhatchery-producedspat.29OtherpotentialsupportersofthepolicyincludetheJohnsHopkinsSchoolofPublicHealth,asitrecentlyreleasedastudysupportingtheintroductionofnon-nativeoystersandtheeconomicbenefitsthatdoingsocouldprovide.Asstatedbythe

study,SuminoeoystersaremoreeffectiveatfilteringoutalgalbloomscreatedbypollutantsthanarenativeEasternoysters.30

TheCommitteeonNon-NativeOystersintheChesapeakeBaywouldalsobeproponentsofthepolicy,asishasfoundmuchresearchinfavorofthenotionandworkedincongruencewithboththeMarylandSeaGrantandtheVirginiaSeaGrant.

PoliticiansinMarylandandVirginiawouldsupportthisnotion,asitwouldincreaseregionaljobs,fosterregionalindustriesandbooststaterevenue.

MembersoftheMarylandWatermensAssociationandMarylandSeafoodCouncil

andmembersoftheVirginiaWatermensAssociationandtheVirginiaSeafoodCouncilwouldbenefitfromthisaquaculture-basedpolicy,astheirfuturecatchesandeconomywouldhavepotentialtoincrease.

Oyster-BasedBusinessessuchas:Marinetics,HazelwoodOysterFarms,BevansOysterCompany,MasonSeafood,RappahannockRiverOysters,OysterKing1,Inc.wouldbenefitfromseeingthepotentialeconomicgainsandculturalreformationthatwouldtakeplaceintheChesapeakeBayRegionasaresultofthispolicyincreasingoysterbiomassintheBay.OpposingStakeholders:

TheChesapeakeBayFoundationwouldlikelyopposethispolicy.Ithasassertedinthepastthat,despitetheemergingevidencethatsuchaquaculturecouldbenefittheoysterpopulation,thereisnotyetenoughscientificresearchtosupportthattheSuminoeoysterwouldnotposeapotentialthreattotheBayecosystem.

EnvironmentalgroupssuchasDefendersofWildlifewouldlikelycallformoreresearchtobedonebeforeanon-nativespeciesisintroducedtotheChesapeakeBay.

TheU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineerswouldlikelybewaryoftheproposedpolicybecauseofthegovernmentalregulationsinplace,suchasArticle10,thatwouldbe

bothtime-consumingandfiscallyunsound.

29Seltzer,Craig.FinalProgrammaticEnvironmentalImpactStatementfor.Norfolk,VA:U.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers,NorfolkDistrict,2008.Print.30UniversityofMiami."MarineConservationScienceandPolicyServiceLearningProgram."MarineIssues:Non-nativeSpecies.N.p.,n.d.Web.10Oct.2011..


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NOAAmayposeanopposition,asthisprojectrequiresmoreresearchwhileimplementingacostlyaquaculturesystem.Astheprimarysourceoffundinginthepast,thisgovernmentalagencymayrequiremoreresearchbeforeeventhistrialofnon-reproductiveoystersareplacedintheBay.31

PolicyOptionImplementation:

TheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct(NEPA)wouldcertainlycallforamorethoroughinvestigationoftheproposedinitiativeandanyotheralternativesbecauseofthepotentialimpactthatcouldbehadontheBay.But,thisactandC.ariakensisintroductionwouldalsotakeplaceunderSection10oftheRiversandHarborsActof1899,whichstatesthatprojectauthorizationforin-waterstructuresnecessarytoharvestC.ariakensiswouldbeneededbytheUSArmyCorpsofEngineers.32

ThisprojectisconsistentwithSection10oftheFishandWildlifeCoordinationAct,theCorpstakeonthematterofnon-nativespeciesintroductionwouldleadthe

Corpstodevelopmoreresearchonconsideringtheecologicalconsequencesoftheproposedaction.33

Implementationoverthecourseofthe10yeartrialperiodwouldbeperformedbytheChesapeakeBayProgramsGoalImplementationTeamforSustainableFisheries,whichhasaidedtheMarylandSeaGrantontheircurrentproject,Ecosystem-BasedFisheriesManagementACooperativeProject. 34

FundingwouldbedesignatedbytheNationalAtmosphericandOceanicAdministration(NOAA),asithasbeendesignatingfundingforoysterrestorationintheChesapeakeBayinthepast.35

NOAAChesapeakeBayOfficeAnnualFundingforNativeOysterRestorationbyYear

1997 1998 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

$26K $26K $220K $1.02M $1.03M $1.06M $2.13M $1.97M $4.08M $4.0M $5.7M $2.9M $1.7M$4.6M

31

Seltzer,Craig.FinalProgrammaticEnvironmentalImpactStatementfor.Norfolk,VA:U.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers,NorfolkDistrict,2008.Print.32NonnativeOystersintheChesapeakeBay.Washington,D.C.:CommitteeonNonnativeOystersintheChesapeakeBay,NationalResearchCouncil,2004.Print.33"FishandWildlifeConservationAndWaterResourceDevelopments-Coordination."FishandWildlifeCoordinationAct.Washington,D.C.:U.S.Legislature,1934.661-667e.Print.34"Policy:EcosystemBasedFisheriesManagementfortheChesapeakeBay."MarylandSeaGrant.N.p.,n.d.Web.10Oct.2011..35"NOAAChesapeakeBayOfficeAnnualFundingforNativeOysterRestorationbyYear."NOAA:ChesapeakeBayOffice.N.p.,n.d.Web.11Oct.2011.


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PolicyOption#2:ImposingaBay-wideHarvestMoratoriumonNativeOystersinConjunctionwithaTransitionalProgramforDisplacedOystermen

TheimpositionofanativeoysterharvestmoratoriumincontinuationwithcurrentnativeoysterrestorationprojectstakingplaceacrosstheChesapeakeBaywouldpotentiallyservetooffsetthehistoricoysterlossesasdemonstratedintheproblemsection.Implementingatemporary,(10year)bay-wideoysterharvestmoratoriumcouldservetoincreasethenativeChesapeakeBayoysterpopulationwhilepreventingthecompletedemiseoftheEasternOyster(C.virginica).Suchdrasticpolicyimplementationthatwasoncecompletelyresistedbystakeholdersacrosstheboardhasrecentlygainedmediaattentionthrougharecentlyreleasedstudy.36Thisstudy,conductedbytheUniversityofMarylandCenterforEnvironmentalScience,concludedthataharvestmoratoriumwouldbetheonlywaytopotentiallyincreaseoysterbiomassintheBay.Asstatedinthefinalpublicationthatappearedinthe

academicjournalMarineEcologyProgressSeries,over99%ofthenativeChesapeakeBayoystershavebeeneliminatedfromthebaysincetheirpeakintheearly1800s.37Reversingthistrendwouldultimatelybethegoalofaharvestmoratorium,inwhichtheoysterstockmayultimatelybeabletorebuildtoalevelthatwouldsupportasustainablecommercialharvestinthefuture.

However,suchlegislationwouldeliminateoystercatchesforthelocalwatermenintheshortterm,amongstothereconomicfactors.Inresponsetothisconcern,itisproposedthattheCommonwealthofVirginiaandtheStateofMarylandcouldeachcreateaprogramunderwhichprovisionallydisplacedoystermencouldbeofferedon-waterworkincurrentoysteraquacultureandsanctuaryprogramsacrossthe

breadthoftheChesapeakeBay.Suchaproposalwouldoffsetsomeoftheanticipatedeconomicburdenthatwatermenintheoysterindustrywouldfaceinthetemporaryeliminationoftheircatches.

PositiveFacetsofthePolicyOption:

FiscalBenefitsfortheChesapeakeBayFishery-RelatedIndustries

Fromafiscalperspective,atemporaryoystermoratoriumwouldbebeneficialtothosewhodependontheBaysoysterstosupporttheirlivelihood.Fiscally,duetothefactthatthemoratoriumwouldonlybeatemporaryimposition,benefitstothe

fisherysystemoftheChesapeakeBaywouldbeclearassoonasthemoratoriumwas

36Fears, Darryl. "Study Calls for Halting Oyster Fishing in the Chesapeake Bay." TheWashington Post[Washington, D.C.] 1 Sept. 2011: D4-D6. Print.37Mansfield,Mark."EcologicalRiskAssessmentforOysterRestorationAlternatives."FinalProgrammaticOysterEnvironmentalImpactStatement.Norfolk,VA:U.S.ArmyCorpsof

Engineers,2008.ES1-435.Print.


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lifted.Increaseofprofitsforoystermen,shippers,processors,andoyster-basedbusinesswouldbeexpectedinconcurrencewiththeexpectedincreaseofoysterbiomassintheBay.Saidbiomassincreasewouldbeadirectresultofthemoratoriumsallowancesforthenativeoysterstobreed,spawnandnaturallyincreasethepopulation,sansthethreatofcommercialharvestsbyoystermen.

Increaseinprofitswouldalsobeinextricablylinkedtotheincreaseinoysterbiomassavailableinspecific,restoredregionsoftheBaybecauseoftheincreaseinindividualoystermencatchperunitofeffort.38

IncreasingtheEcologicalHealthoftheBay

AharvestmoratoriumcouldincreasetheoverallecologicalhealthoftheBaysnow-fragileecosystem.AccordingtoOysterRestorationintheChesapeakeBay:ACulturalandSocioeconomicAssessment,scientists(97%)andenvironmentalists(86%)supportamoratoriumbecausemanyfeelthateventhemostseeminglynegligibleharvestsareoffsettingcurrentrestorationefforts.39Asstatedintheintroductory

section,oystersplayakeystoneecologicalroleintheBay,servingasfiltersofthepollutedBaywatersandalsoasavitalhabitatforbottom-dwellingorganisms.Proponentsofamoratoriumclaimthattheonlywaytoincreasetheoysterpopulationsand,inturn,toincreasethecurrent,concerningstateoftheBayistoallowfornativeoysterstoincreaseinbiomassandthusalleviatesomeoftheBayslargerproblems.Saidproblemsencompass,butarenotlimitedto:pollution,sewagetreatment,residential-basedchemicalrunoff,andagriculture.40Assuagingtheseproblemswouldfurthertheunderlyinggoalofaharvestmoratorium:toimprovetheecologicalhealthoftheChesapeakeBay.

EliminationofCommercialBy-CatchandReefDamage

StudiesconductedbyLenihanandassociatesdemonstratethat,ineachharvestingevent,asignificantproportionofoysters(upto10%)areinadvertentlykilledbutnotcollectedasadirectresultofbeingcracked,brokenorpuncturedbydredgingequipmentorothercommercialmachinery.41Ashorttermcommercialhaltintheoysterindustrywouldeliminatethisissue,allowingfornativeoysterstoreproduceandthusincreaseoysterstockintheChesapeakeBay.

38Lipton, Douglas.Final Draft Economic Analysis for Oyster Restoration Alternatives.University of Maryland, College Park: Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics,

2008. Print.39Paolisso, Michael , and Nicole Dery. Oyster Restoration in the Chesapeake Bay: A Cultural andSocioeconomic Assessment. University of Maryland: Department of Anthropology, 2008.40Paolisso, Michael , and Nicole Dery. Oyster Restoration in the Chesapeake Bay: A Culturaland Socioeconomic Assessment. University of Maryland: Department of Anthropology, 2008. 41Lenihan,H.S.andC.H.Peterson.2004.Conservingoysterreefhabitatbyswitchingfromdredgingandtongingtodiver-harvesting.FisheriesBulletin102:298-305


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NegativeFacetsofthisPolicyOption:

ScientificUncertaintyofaMoratoriumsEffectiveness

UncertaintyaboutthepastandcurrentratesofexploitationoftheoysterpopulationmakesitdifficulttoforeseetheeffectthataBay-widemoratoriumwouldhaveontheoysterstockpresentintheChesapeakeBay.ThismajorconstraintarisingfromambiguityregardinghistoricalandcurrentexploitationratesisdemonstratedinastudyconductedbyJordanandCoakley,whosedataindicatedthatexploitationratesofadultoystersinMarylandfrom1986to2001variedfrom21%to73%.42

StakeholderResistance

AsagreatdealoftheChesapeakeBayregionsculturalidentitylieswithinthe

harvestandsaleoftheEasternoyster,itisincrediblylikelythatwatermen,locals,andoyster-basedbusinesseswouldnotrespondwelltoamandatedharvestmoratorium.


TheStateofMarylandandtheCommonwealthofVirginiaarelikelytosupportthisproposal,asitwouldcreategreenjobsforeachstatesrespectiveconstituents.

PoliticiansinMarylandandVirginiawouldlikelyagreewiththeimpositionofaharvestmoratorium,asaprogramtosupportprovisionallydisplacedoystermenwouldbecreatedandtheecologicalandculturalvalueoftheBaywouldincreasein

theprocessaswell.

97%ofscientistsand86%ofenvironmentalistspolledintheOysterRestorationintheChesapeakeBay:ACulturalandSocioeconomicAssessmentsupportamoratoriumbecausemanyfeelthateventhemostseeminglynegligibleharvestsareoffsettingcurrentrestorationefforts.

42Jordan,S.J.andJ.M.Coakley.2004.Long-termprojectionsofeasternoysterpopulationsundervariousmanagementscenarios.JournalofShellfishResearch23:63-72.


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OpposingStakeholders:

MembersoftheMarylandandVirginiaWatermensAssociationandmembersoftheMarylandandVirginiaSeafoodCouncilwouldnotsupportahaltincommercial

harvest,astheirmemberswouldbefrustratedwiththeirjobdisplacementandresultinglossofpersonalidentity.Table5.38highlightsthisanticipatedpushbackbywatermen.43

Table5.38:DifficultyReturningtotheOysterFisheryifthereisA7+yearMoratoriumonOyster

Harvests

Oyster-BasedBusinessessuchas:MasonSeafood,RappahannockRiverOysters,andOysterKing1,Inc.wouldcertainlynotbepleasedwithaharvestmoratorium,asitwouldlikelybeviewedasanextremeconservationmeasurethatcouldputthemoutofbusinessfromthecompletehaltinfiscalgainovertheproposed10yeartime

period.PolicyOptionImplementation:

Thedurationoftheproposedharvestmoratoriumwouldbeapproximately10years.ItwouldoccurinconjunctionwithcurrentaquacultureinitiativesandoysterbarrestorationprogramsalreadyinactionacrosstheBayregion.Respectively,theMarylandandVirginiaMarineResourceCommissionsHabitatManagementDivisionwouldberesponsibleforemployingpatrolmenoftheoysterreefsduringthistime.TheEPAwouldworkincollaborationwiththeVirginiaInstituteofMarineScience(VIMS)tofurtheritseducationandoutreachprogramsconcerningoystersandtheirimportancetotheChesapeakeBaysecosystem,economyandculture.Thispartnershipwouldalsoberesponsibleforcreatingoysterrestorationjobsforthewatermenwhowillbetemporarilydisplacedfromtheirjobsduringthemoratorium.AllpartieswouldperformsaidoutreachwiththefundingdesignatedannuallyforoysterrestorationeffortsbyNOAA.Additionally,theChesapeakeBay

43Paolisso, Michael , and Nicole Dery. Oyster Restoration in the Chesapeake Bay: A Culturaland Socioeconomic Assessment. University of Maryland, College Park: Department of

Anthropology,2008.


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Foundationwouldbeencouragedtocontinueandexpanditscivicengagement/volunteerprogramsinoysterreefrestorationandgardeningefforts.

PolicyOption#3:StreamliningthePermittingProcessforPrivateAquacultureFarmers

ThispolicyoptionwouldestablishregulatedaquacultureoperationsintheStateofMarylandandtheCommonwealthofVirginia.Namely,thispolicywouldserveto

streamlinethepermittingprocessforprivateoysteraquaculturefirms,thusencouraging

moreprivatefirmstoenterthemarketontheChesapeakeBay.

Thepolicywouldallowforacitizenapplyingforanindividualpermittoeasilyobtainan

establishedgeneralpermitifheisabletoshowthathecanadequatelysatisfythe

stateandnationalregulationswhilealsoprovingthathisoperationswillposelittle

environmentalharmtotheBayareainwhichhehopestooperate.Thispolicywouldbe

asuccinctandrelativelymanageablemannerfromwhichprivatefirmscouldbe

encouragedtoparticipateinthesustainablepracticewhilereapingagenerousfiscal

benefit.Itwillalsoserveasameansbywhichoysterscouldbesoldforcommercialuse,

providinganecologicallysoundalternativetoharvestingthewild,nativeEasternoysters

inneedofpopulationstockrepletion.

PositiveFacetsofthisPolicyOption:

EncouragingaquacultureintheChesapeakewouldposemanybenefits,including:

FinancialFeasibility:

Arecentfiscalanalysisofalarge-scaleprivateaquacultureindustrywasrecently

conductedbytheU.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers.Theanalysisstatedthattherewasplentyofroomforcontributiontothecommercialoysterindustrybyprivate

aquaculturefirmsbasedonthelowcurrentoysteryields,claimingthattheannual

productionofthemaximumeconomicallyviableoysteraquacultureintheBayis

estimatedtobe2.6millionbushels.44

44Lipton,Douglas.FinalDraftEconomicAnalysisforOysterRestorationAlternatives .

UniversityofMaryland,CollegePark:DepartmentofAgriculturalandResourceEconomics,2008.Print.


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SpatialAvailability

Withintheanalyticalstudy,theCorpsdesignatedninefeasiblelocationsintheBay

watershedinwhichprivateaquaculturefirmscouldflourishbaseduponpastoyster

harvestsandspatialavailabilityforsuchoperations,amongstotherfactors.

45

NegativeFacetsofthisPolicyOption:PotentialLossofAestheticValueofBaysideProperties

Thereisconcernthatperhapstheseon-wateraquacultureoperationscoulddecrease

theaestheticvalueofBaysidepropertieswithinacloseradiustothesites.

PotentialforLossofRecreationalValueofBaysideProperties

Accompanyingtheintroductionofaquaculturefarmsintheproposedlocationswould

perhapsberestrictionsonnearbyrecreationalactivitysuchasboatingandrecreational

fishing.Localsmaynotrespondwelltosuchimpositions.


Localhatcheryprogramswouldfiscallybenefitfromsuchapolicy,astheuseoftheir

geneticallyalteredspatwouldbemandated.

45Seltzer,Craig.FinalProgrammaticEnvironmentalImpactStatementfor.Norfolk,VA:U.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineers,


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UnitedStatesSenatorsBenCardinandBarbaraMikulski,DemocratsfromtheStateof

Maryland,wouldbeinfavorofthisoptionbecauseoftheirpriorjointappealstothe

U.S.ArmyCorpsofEngineersforsimilaractiontotakeplace.46

TheStateofVirginiawouldultimatelyvoteonbehalfofthispolicyaswell,aseffortsby

thestateoverrecentdecadeshavefocusedonthissustainableoption.

TheChesapeakeBayFoundationhasinvestedtimeandmoneyintoaquaculture

volunteerprogramsoverthepastdecade,andhaveadvocatedforaquaculture

expansioninitsmostrecentannualpublication.

TheVirginiaInstituteofMarineScience(VIMS)scientistsandaffiliateshavebeen

engagedinagreatdealofresearchinthepastregardingthepracticabilityof

aquacultureexpansionintheChesapeakeBay.Theywouldcertainlysupportthispolicy

optionforitssustainableundertonesandadoptionoftheirstatedideals.47

OpposingStakeholders:

CitizensoftheStateofMarylandandtheCommonwealthofVirginiawhoresidewithina

5-10mileradiusoftheproposedaquacultureoperationsmayopposethispolicy.Said

citizensmaycomplainofnewboatingandfishingregulationsthatmayprohibit

recreationinthesedesignatedaquaculturefarmsontheBay.Perhapsalsothecitizens

wouldpotentiallyclaimthatsaidoperationsmayhaveanegativeimpactonthe

aestheticvalueofboththeirpersonalpropertiesandtheBayitself.

PolicyOptionImplementation:

Thispolicyoptionwouldmainlyservetoincreasetheefficiencyofprivateentities

obtainingaquaculturepermitsinboththeCommonwealthofVirginiaandtheStateof

Maryland.Specifically,thepolicywouldrequireaprivateentityseekingageneralpermit

toformallyagreetosatisfyatleastthetwomainsustainabilityguidelinesbefore

receivinganofficiallicensingpermitforprivateaquacultureoperationfromtheU.S.

ArmyCorpsofEngineers:

1. Employingamixed-useaquaculturesystem(ofbothon-bottomandoff-bottomcages)thatwouldemploythemostconservativeamountoflandforgrowth.This

46"Cardin,MikulskiUrgeArmyCorpsofEngineerstoExpediteOysterAquaculturePermits."BenCardin-UnitedStatesSenatorforMaryland.N.p.,n.d.Web.1Nov.2011..

47OntheBrink:Chesapeake'sNativeOysters.Annapolis,Maryland:ChesapeakeBayFoundation,2010.


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wouldbeincontrasttosomecurrentgrowers,whoonlyemploytheuseofoff-

bottomoperationsbecauseoff-bottomoperationshavebeenprovento

generatemorethan50%greaterdiploidandtriploidoystergrowththanon-

bottomcages.48

Thiscurrent,unsustainablepracticeincreasesoperationalprofitssignificantlywhilerequiringmorelandthanisactuallynecessaryfortheaquaculturefarmsto

thrive.

2. Utilizingonlynativeoyster(C.virginica)spatproducedbylocalhatcheries.Thisoptionisreactionarytocurrentaquaculturefirmswhoutilizenon-localspatfor

production.49Spatacquiredfromforeignortransnationalfirmsisoftennot

geneticallyalteredinthesamewaythatthelocalspatisaltered,namelyfor

diseaseresistance.50Optingforlocal-onlyhatcherypurchaseswouldensurethat

therequiredquantityofoysterspatisavailabletolocalaquaculturefirms,and

wouldalsosupportthelocaleconomy.

48Taylor,Jake,MarkLuckenbach,andFrancisO'Beirn.AnIntroductiontoCulturingOystersinVirginia.NewportNews,Virginia:VirginiaMarineResourcesCommission,1999.Print.

49Taylor,Jake,MarkLuckenbach,andFrancisO'Beirn.AnIntroductiontoCulturingOystersinVirginia.NewportNews,Virginia:VirginiaMarineResourcesCommission,1999.Print.

50OntheBrink:Chesapeake'sNativeOysters.Annapolis,Maryland:ChesapeakeBayFoundation,2010.


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challengefromtheparasite,Perkinsusmarinus.JournalofShellfishResearch13:109-114.

Baker,William.2010StateoftheBay.Annapolis,Maryland:ChesapeakeBayFoundation,2010.Print.Blankenship,Karl."Chesapeake'sOysterReefsHaveTakenaShellacking."ChesapeakeBayJournal1

Jan.2010:n.pag.ChesapeakeBayJournal.Web.14Sept.2011.Burreson,Eugene."AComparativeFieldStudyofCrassostreaariakensisand CrassostreavirginicainRelationtoSalinityinVirginia."AppliedMarine ScienceandOceanEngineering360(2000):1-46.VirginiaInstituteofMarine Science.Web.10Oct.2011."Cardin,MikulskiUrgeArmyCorpsofEngineerstoExpediteOysterAquaculturePermits."BenCardin

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