Post on 01-Jan-2016
Chapter 9-Human MemoryChapter 9-Human Memory
MemoryMemory
ConstructedConstructed
Flashbulb memoryFlashbulb memory Old teaching:Old teaching: New understandingNew understanding
Car Accident video
3 Questions to begin this 3 Questions to begin this chapter:chapter:
How does information get into How does information get into memory?memory?
How is information How is information maintained in memory?maintained in memory?
How is information pulled How is information pulled back out of memory?back out of memory?
EncodingEncoding
StorageStorage
RetrievalRetrieval
3 processes of memory3 processes of memory
EncodingEncoding
Requires attention
StorageStorage
Maintains encoded information in memory over time.What factors help or hinder memory storage?
Recovering information from memory stores.Why are some strategies better than others?
RetrievalRetrieval
Info about space, time and Info about space, time and frequencyfrequency Did you see me earlier today?Did you see me earlier today? What did you eat this morning?What did you eat this morning? Other examples?Other examples?
AUTOMATIC PROCESSINGEncodingEncoding
Only one of these images of a penny is correct. Which one is it?
EFFORTFUL PROCESSINGEFFORTFUL PROCESSING
AttentionAttentionfocuses awareness on a narrow focuses awareness on a narrow range of stimuli or eventsrange of stimuli or events
EncodingEncoding
Divided AttentionDivided AttentionEncodingEncoding
RehearsalRehearsal
EncodingEncodingEFFORTFUL
Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables TUV ZOF GEK WAV
the more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2
(Amount remembered depends on amount of time spent learning)
Ebbinghaus CurveEbbinghaus Curve
5 Minute University5 Minute University
EFFORTFULEFFORTFUL
Next-in-line-effectNext-in-line-effect Over learningOver learning
More rehearsal More learningMore rehearsal More learning 588-2300 _________?588-2300 _________?
SpacingSpacing 5 X in one month vs. once a month 5 X in one month vs. once a month
for 5 months?for 5 months? Implications for studying?Implications for studying?
EncodingEncoding
EffortfulEffortful
12
Percentage of words recalle
d
0
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Position of word in list
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Primacy=tendency to recall better the first items in a list
Recency=tendency to recall better last items in list
Serial Position EffectSerial Position Effect
EncodingEncoding
WHAT WE ENCODEWHAT WE ENCODE
MeaningMeaning—Visual—Visual
DroodlesDroodles
EncodingEncoding
WHAT WE ENCODEWHAT WE ENCODE
Use visual imageryUse visual imagery
It’s easier to do with some words than with It’s easier to do with some words than with othersothers
Juggler Truth
‘Dual coding theory’-memory enhanced by forming semantic and visual codes, since either can lead to recall
WHAT WE ENCODEWHAT WE ENCODE
MeaningMeaning—Acoustic—Acoustic
““Sounds like….”Sounds like….” ““Rhymes with…”Rhymes with…”
EncodingEncoding
WHAT WE ENCODEWHAT WE ENCODE
MeaningMeaning—Semantic—Semantic
O T T F F S S E N TO T T F F S S E N T
ThunstofamThunstofam
EncodingEncoding
Try to recall this description Try to recall this description of an activityof an activity
http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/en/http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/en/daniel_kahneman_the_riddle_of_experiedaniel_kahneman_the_riddle_of_experience_vs_memory.htmlnce_vs_memory.html
WHAT WE ENCODEWHAT WE ENCODE
““How is information personally How is information personally relevant?”relevant?”
This seems to create additional This seems to create additional elaboration and better elaboration and better
organization of informationorganization of information
WHAT WE ENCODEWHAT WE ENCODE
Linking a Linking a stimulus to stimulus to other other information at information at the time of the time of encodingencoding
Self-generated examples are the best
WHAT WE ENCODEWHAT WE ENCODE
Mnemonic devices enhance Mnemonic devices enhance encodingencoding
EncodingEncoding
Method of LociMethod of Loci ““Yo Sacramento”Yo Sacramento” Acronym (Roy G. Biv)Acronym (Roy G. Biv)
HOMES--HOMES--HHuron, uron, OOntario, ntario, MMichigan,ichigan, E Erie, rie, SSuperioruperior
Link system (dog, envelope, Link system (dog, envelope, thirteen, yarn, window)thirteen, yarn, window)
StorageStorage
ORGANIZATION-ChunkingORGANIZATION-Chunking organizing items into familiar, organizing items into familiar,
manageable unitsmanageable units like horizontal organization—like horizontal organization—
17761492181219411776149218121941 RA INHE LPSF ARM ERSG RO WCRO PSRA INHE LPSF ARM ERSG RO WCRO PS
Phone numbersPhone numbers often occurs automaticallyoften occurs automatically
Giraffe, Parsnip, Zebra, Radish, Diver, Giraffe, Parsnip, Zebra, Radish, Diver, Broker, Spinach, Baker, Woodchuck, Broker, Spinach, Baker, Woodchuck, Dancer, Weasel, Pumpkin, Amos, Typist, Dancer, Weasel, Pumpkin, Amos, Typist, Byron, Plumber, Moses, Cabbage, Byron, Plumber, Moses, Cabbage, Sherman, Waiter, Bernard, Carrot, Leopard, Sherman, Waiter, Bernard, Carrot, Leopard, Printer, Otto, Noah, Chipmunk, Adam, Printer, Otto, Noah, Chipmunk, Adam, Chemist, Turnip, Simon, Howard, Milkman, Chemist, Turnip, Simon, Howard, Milkman, Gerard, Panther, Oswald, Druggist, Gerard, Panther, Oswald, Druggist, Reindeer, Owen, Parsley, Otter, Grocer, Reindeer, Owen, Parsley, Otter, Grocer, Badger, Camel , Baboon, Florist, Rhubarb, Badger, Camel , Baboon, Florist, Rhubarb, Melon, Mustard , Wallace, Dentist, Muskrat, Melon, Mustard , Wallace, Dentist, Muskrat, Mushroom, Lettuce, Donkey, Blacksmith, Mushroom, Lettuce, Donkey, Blacksmith, Eggplant, Garlic, Wildcat, Jason.Eggplant, Garlic, Wildcat, Jason.
WHAT WE ENCODEWHAT WE ENCODE
OrganizationOrganization—Hierarchies—Hierarchies
Inspiration softwareInspiration software
EncodingEncoding
STORAGE-Maintaining STORAGE-Maintaining information in memoryinformation in memory
Information processing theoriesInformation processing theories are are metaphorsmetaphors for functionally for functionally distinct types of memorydistinct types of memory
Sensory memory Short term memory
Long term memory
Sensory input Attention
rehearsal
Storage
retrieval
STORAGESTORAGE
Preserves information in it’s original Preserves information in it’s original sensory sensory form for a brief time. form for a brief time.
PSYCHSIM 5-Sperling experiment
Sensory input
Sensory memory
STORAGESTORAGE
Preserves information in it’s original Preserves information in it’s original sensory sensory form for a brief time. form for a brief time.
Sensory input
Sensory memory
1-Iconic
2-echoic
STORAGESTORAGE
Short-term memory-A limited Short-term memory-A limited capacity store that can capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed maintain unrehearsed information for about 20 information for about 20 secondsseconds
Short term memory
Attention
STORAGESTORAGE
Short-termShort-term
““Magic Number” = Simon?Magic Number” = Simon?
Short term memory
Attention
STORAGESTORAGE
working memory working memory Central executive: controls our Central executive: controls our
attention and coordinates working attention and coordinates working memory for a specific taskmemory for a specific task
Phonological loop: stores and utilizes Phonological loop: stores and utilizes semantic (word) information semantic (word) information
Visuo-spatial sketchpad: stores and Visuo-spatial sketchpad: stores and utilizes speech based information utilizes speech based information
STORAGESTORAGE
You can maintain information in You can maintain information in STM indefinitely by STM indefinitely by rehearsalrehearsal
Attention
rehearsal
Short term memory
Until you get distracted…..
Storage:Storage:Long-Term MemoryLong-Term Memory
How does storage work?How does storage work? Synaptic changesSynaptic changes
Long-term PotentiationLong-term Potentiation increase in synapse’s firing potential after increase in synapse’s firing potential after
brief, rapid stimulationbrief, rapid stimulation
Strong emotions make for stronger Strong emotions make for stronger memoriesmemories some stress hormones boost learning some stress hormones boost learning
and retentionand retention
Storage:Storage:Long-Term MemoryLong-Term Memory MRI scan of hippocampus (in red)MRI scan of hippocampus (in red)
Hippocampus
Storage:Storage:Long-Term MemoryLong-Term Memory
AmnesiaAmnesia--the loss of memory Clive Wearing--the loss of memory Clive Wearing Explicit Memory Clive wearing 2Explicit Memory Clive wearing 2
memory of facts and experiences that one memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declarecan consciously know and declare
also called declarative memoryalso called declarative memory hippocampushippocampus--neural center in limbic system --neural center in limbic system
that helps process explicit memories for that helps process explicit memories for storagestorage
Implicit MemoryImplicit Memory retention independent of conscious retention independent of conscious
recollectionrecollection also called procedural memoryalso called procedural memory
Storage: Long-Term Storage: Long-Term Memory SubsystemsMemory Subsystems
Types oflong-termmemories
Explicit(declarative)
With consciousrecall
Implicit(nondeclarative)
Without conscious recall
Facts-generalknowledge(“semanticmemory”)
Personally experienced
events(“episodic memory”)
Skills-motorand cognitive
Dispositions-classical and
operant conditioning
effects
Retrieval: Getting Retrieval: Getting Information OutInformation Out
RecallRecall measure of memory in which the person must measure of memory in which the person must
retrieve information learned earlier retrieve information learned earlier as on a fill-in-the blank testas on a fill-in-the blank test
RecognitionRecognition Measure of memory in which the person has only Measure of memory in which the person has only
to identify items previously learned to identify items previously learned as on a multiple-choice testas on a multiple-choice test
RelearningRelearning memory measure that assesses the amount of memory measure that assesses the amount of
time saved when learning material a second timetime saved when learning material a second time
Retrieval CuesRetrieval Cues Deja Vu (French)--already seenDeja Vu (French)--already seen
cues from the current situation may subconsciously cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experiencetrigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience
"I've experienced this before.""I've experienced this before." Mood-congruent MemoryMood-congruent Memory
tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood one’s current mood
memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cuesmemory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues State-dependent MemoryState-dependent Memory
what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, or depressed) can more easily be remembered when or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same statein same state
RetrievalRetrieval Cues Cues
0
10
20
30
40
Water/land
Land/water
Water/water
Different contexts for hearing and recall
Same contexts for hearing and recall
Land/land
Percentage ofwords recalled
Tip-of-the-tongue Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenonphenomenon
Forgotten information feels like it’s ‘right there’, but you can’t quite get it
RetrievalRetrieval
Ultimate puzzle:Ultimate puzzle:
Why do people forget??Why do people forget??The woman who couldn’t forgetThe woman who couldn’t forget
ForgettingForgetting
Forgetting as encoding Forgetting as encoding failurefailure
Information never enters the Information never enters the long-term memory long-term memory
Externalevents
Sensorymemory
Short-term
memory
Long-term
memory
Attention
Encoding
Encoding
Encodingfailure leadsto forgetting
RetrievalRetrieval Forgetting can result from failure Forgetting can result from failure
to retrieve information from long-to retrieve information from long-term memoryterm memory
Externalevents
Attention
Encoding
Encoding
Retrieval failureleads to forgetting
Retrieval
Sensorymemory
Short-termmemory
Long-termmemory
Forgetting as Forgetting as InterferenceInterference
Learning some items may disrupt retrieval Learning some items may disrupt retrieval of other informationof other information Proactive (forward acting) InterferenceProactive (forward acting) Interference
disruptive effect of prior learning on disruptive effect of prior learning on recall of new informationrecall of new information
Retroactive (backwards acting) Retroactive (backwards acting) InterferenceInterference disruptive effect of new learning on disruptive effect of new learning on
recall of old informationrecall of old information
Forgetting as Forgetting as InterferenceInterference
ForgettingForgetting
Retroactive InterferenceRetroactive Interference
Without interferingevents, recall isbetter
After sleep
After remaining awake
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8Hours elapsed after learning syllables
90%
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Percentageof syllables
recalled
ForgettingForgetting
Forgetting Forgetting can occur at can occur at any memory any memory stagestage
As we process As we process information, information, we filter, we filter, alter, or lose alter, or lose much of itmuch of it
Memory ConstructionMemory Construction
We filter information and fill in missing We filter information and fill in missing piecespieces
Misinformation EffectMisinformation Effect incorporating misleading information incorporating misleading information
into one's memory of an eventinto one's memory of an event Source AmnesiaSource Amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined about, read about, or imagined (misattribution)(misattribution)
Eyewitness testimonyEyewitness testimony
Memory ConstructionMemory Construction
Eyewitnesses Eyewitnesses reconstruct reconstruct memories when memories when questionedquestioned
Depiction of actual accident
Leading question:“About how fast were the carsgoing when they smashed intoeach other?”
Memoryconstruction
Memory ConstructionMemory Construction
Memories of AbuseMemories of Abuse Repressed or Constructed?Repressed or Constructed?
Child sexual abuse does occurChild sexual abuse does occur Some adults do actually forget such episodesSome adults do actually forget such episodes
False Memory SyndromeFalse Memory Syndrome condition in which a person’s identity and condition in which a person’s identity and
relationships center around a false but strongly relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experiencebelieved memory of traumatic experience
sometimes induced by well-meaning therapistssometimes induced by well-meaning therapists
Memory ConstructionMemory Construction
Most people can agree on the following:Most people can agree on the following: Injustice happensInjustice happens Incest happensIncest happens Forgetting happensForgetting happens Recovered memories are commonplaceRecovered memories are commonplace Memories recovered under hypnosis or drugs Memories recovered under hypnosis or drugs
are especially unreliableare especially unreliable Memories of things happening before age 3 are Memories of things happening before age 3 are
unreliableunreliable Memories, whether false or real, are upsettingMemories, whether false or real, are upsetting
Improve Your MemoryImprove Your Memory
Study repeatedly to boost recallStudy repeatedly to boost recall Spend more time rehearsing or actively Spend more time rehearsing or actively
thinking about the materialthinking about the material Make material personally meaningfulMake material personally meaningful Use mnemonic devices Use mnemonic devices
associate with peg words--something associate with peg words--something already storedalready stored
make up storymake up story chunk--acronymschunk--acronyms
Improve Your MemoryImprove Your Memory
Activate retrieval cues--mentally Activate retrieval cues--mentally recreate situation and moodrecreate situation and mood
Recall events while they are Recall events while they are fresh-- before you encounter fresh-- before you encounter misinformationmisinformation
Minimize interference Minimize interference Test your own knowledgeTest your own knowledge
rehearserehearse determine what you do not yet determine what you do not yet
knowknow