Anatomy & Anatomy & Physiology IPhysiology I

Unit Two Unit Two

DefinitionsDefinitions

Matter – Matter – any thing that has any thing that has mass and takes up spacemass and takes up space

Therefore Therefore – – all organisms as all organisms as well as the visible or unseen well as the visible or unseen physical world around them physical world around them are made of matterare made of matter

DefinitionsDefinitions

Atom Atom – – the smallest particle of the smallest particle of an element that retains the an element that retains the characteristics of the elementcharacteristics of the element

Element Element – – a substance that a substance that cannot be changed into cannot be changed into another substanceanother substance

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Atom Atom AnatomyAnatomy

Proton Proton – – positivpositive e chargecharge

Neutron Neutron – – neutral neutral chargecharge

Electron Electron – – negative negative chargecharge

Periodic Chart Periodic Chart InformationInformation

Atomic Mass Atomic Mass (P# + N#)(P# + N#)

ChemicChemical al

SymbolSymbol

Atomic Atomic Number Number

(P#)(P#)66

CC12.0112.01

Atom Atom ExamplesExamples

DefinitionsDefinitions

Isotopes Isotopes –atoms of an –atoms of an element that have varying element that have varying numbers of neutronsnumbers of neutrons

DefinitionDefinitionss

Molecule Molecule – a particle made – a particle made up of two or more atoms up of two or more atoms bonded togetherbonded togetherDiatomic moleculeDiatomic molecule– – two of two of the same type of atom the same type of atom bonded together such as Obonded together such as O22 or or NN22

DefinitionsDefinitionsCompound Compound – a substance – a substance made up of two or more made up of two or more elements bonded togetherelements bonded togetherTherefore Therefore – – the smallest the smallest particle of a compound that particle of a compound that retains its characteristics is a retains its characteristics is a molecule (Hmolecule (H22O or COO or CO22))

DefinitionsDefinitionsIon Ion – an atom that has given – an atom that has given up or gained electrons to up or gained electrons to achieve stabilityachieve stabilityCation Cation – – a positively a positively charged ion that has charged ion that has given up electronsgiven up electronsAnion Anion – – a negatively a negatively charged ion that has charged ion that has gained electronsgained electrons

DefinitionsDefinitions

Electrolytes Electrolytes – salts that – salts that ionize in water and form ionize in water and form solutions capable of solutions capable of conducting electricityconducting electricityTherefore Therefore – – electrolytes electrolytes (ions) carry a positive or (ions) carry a positive or negative chargenegative charge

DefinitionDefinitionssFree radical Free radical – a chemical – a chemical

particle carrying an odd particle carrying an odd number of electrons (Onumber of electrons (O22

--))Explanation Explanation – – free radicals free radicals are formed from metabolic are formed from metabolic reactions, by radiation or reactions, by radiation or chemicalschemicals

DefinitionDefinitionssFree radical Free radical – a chemical – a chemical

particle carrying an odd particle carrying an odd number of electrons (Onumber of electrons (O22

--))Explanation Explanation – – free radicals free radicals quickly combine with other quickly combine with other molecules converting them molecules converting them into free radicals which will into free radicals which will destroy more moleculesdestroy more molecules

DefinitionDefinitionss

Antioxidant Antioxidant – a chemical that – a chemical that neutralizes free radicalsneutralizes free radicals

Explanation Explanation – – the body the body produces enzymes to convert produces enzymes to convert free radicals and antioxidants free radicals and antioxidants are obtained through the dietare obtained through the diet

Bonds formed by Bonds formed by the attraction the attraction between ions of between ions of opposite chargesopposite charges

Ionic BondsIonic Bonds

CovalenCovalent Bondst Bonds

Bonds formed by Bonds formed by the sharing of the sharing of electrons electrons between atomsbetween atoms

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- a covalently - a covalently bonded, polar bonded, polar

moleculemoleculeMolecules are Molecules are

said to be polar if said to be polar if they have slight they have slight opposite charges opposite charges

on either endon either end

The slight attraction between the negative end of one molecule and the positive end of another results in a…

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The Relative Strengths The Relative Strengths of Chemical bondsof Chemical bonds

The The weakest!weakest!

The middleweight!!The middleweight!!

The undisputed The undisputed champion!!!champion!!!

Hydrogen bondsHydrogen bonds

Ionic bondsIonic bonds

Covalent Covalent bondsbonds

DefinitionsDefinitions

Acid Acid – a compound that – a compound that releases hydrogen (Hreleases hydrogen (H++) ions ) ions in solutionin solutionBase Base – – a compound that a compound that releases hydroxide ions releases hydroxide ions (OH(OH--) in solution) in solution

DefinitionsDefinitions

Salt Salt – – an ionic compound an ionic compound that does not contain Hthat does not contain H++ or or OHOH--, obtained from an , obtained from an acid/base reactionacid/base reactionBuffer Buffer – – a chemical system a chemical system that resists large changes in that resists large changes in pH by taking up or giving off pH by taking up or giving off HH++

Acid-Base Acid-Base ReactionReaction

HClHCl ++ KOHKOH KClKCl ++ HH22OOAcidAcid BasBas

eeSaltSalt WateWate

rr

HH++

ClCl--KK++

OHOH--

DefinitionsDefinitions

pH pH – – the measurement of the measurement of the Hthe H++ concentration in a concentration in a solutionsolution

pH – pH – the the measurememeasurement of the Hnt of the H++ concentraticoncentration in on in solutionsolution

BuffersBuffers

Remember – a buffer is a Remember – a buffer is a chemical system that resists chemical system that resists large changes in pH by taking large changes in pH by taking up or giving off Hup or giving off H++ Therefore, a buffer is a Therefore, a buffer is a homeostatic mechanism that homeostatic mechanism that helps to regulate the pH of helps to regulate the pH of blood and other body fluidsblood and other body fluids

BuffersBuffers

The pH range of blood is 7.35-The pH range of blood is 7.35-7.457.45It is extremely important that It is extremely important that blood stay in this narrow blood stay in this narrow range, making buffering range, making buffering systems necessarysystems necessary

BuffersBuffers

The body has two types of The body has two types of buffering systems:buffering systems: < chemical< chemical < physiological< physiological A chemical buffer is a A chemical buffer is a substance that removes or substance that removes or releases Hreleases H++ from a system by from a system by binding to them or releasing binding to them or releasing themthem

BuffersBuffers

A physiological buffer is a A physiological buffer is a system that stabilizes pH by system that stabilizes pH by controlling the body’s output controlling the body’s output of acids, bases & COof acids, bases & CO22 The two systems that act as The two systems that act as physiological buffers are the physiological buffers are the respiratory and urinary respiratory and urinary systemssystems

COCO22 + H + H22O HO H22COCO3 3 HCOHCO33- - + H+ H++

Chemical BuffersChemical Buffers

The bicarbonate buffering The bicarbonate buffering systemsystem

HH2 2 POPO44-- HPO HPO44

2-2- + H+ H++

The phosphate buffering The phosphate buffering systemsystem

Chemical BuffersChemical Buffers

- - COOH COOH - - COOCOO-- + H+ H++

The protein buffering systemThe protein buffering system

OR OR - - NHNH2 2 + H+ H++ - - NHNH33

++

COCO22 + H + H22O HO H22COCO3 3 HCOHCO33- - + H+ H++

Physiological BuffersPhysiological Buffers

The bicarbonate buffering The bicarbonate buffering systemsystem

The respiratory system is a two The respiratory system is a two to three times stronger to three times stronger buffering system than chemical buffering system than chemical buffersbuffers

Physiological BuffersPhysiological Buffers

HH++ are secreted from the blood are secreted from the blood into kidney tubules where they into kidney tubules where they bind with HCObind with HCO33

--, HPO, HPO442-2- or or

ammoniaammonia

The urinary system is most The urinary system is most powerful buffering system in powerful buffering system in the bodythe body

Physiological BuffersPhysiological Buffers

The removal of free HThe removal of free H++ is what is what makes this buffering system so makes this buffering system so powerfulpowerful

The bound and free HThe bound and free H++ are then are then excreted in the urineexcreted in the urine

Buffering OverviewBuffering Overview

Buffering OverviewBuffering Overview

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- a covalently - a covalently bonded, polar bonded, polar

moleculemoleculeMolecules are Molecules are

said to be polar if said to be polar if they have slight they have slight opposite charges opposite charges

on either endon either end

The slight attraction between the negative end of one molecule and the positive end of another results in a…

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- Polarity leads to adhesion and cohesion- Polarity leads to adhesion and cohesion -Adhesion and cohesionAdhesion and cohesion lead to capillary lead to capillary action and surface tensionaction and surface tension- High specific heat leads to temperature - High specific heat leads to temperature stabilitystability- High heat of vaporization leads to - High heat of vaporization leads to evaporative coolingevaporative cooling

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- This characteristic means water has a - This characteristic means water has a high degree of solvency and chemical high degree of solvency and chemical reactivityreactivity

- Spheres of hydration form electrostatic - Spheres of hydration form electrostatic interactions, keeping ions from interacting interactions, keeping ions from interacting with each otherwith each other

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- Water also ionizes into H- Water also ionizes into H++ and OH and OH-- which which can be incorporated into other molecules or can be incorporated into other molecules or released from themreleased from them

The four types of organic compoundsThe four types of organic compounds

CarbohydratCarbohydratesesLipidsLipidsProteinsProteinsNucleic Nucleic acidsacids

The general formula is The general formula is CHCH22OOThe monomers are The monomers are monosaccharidesmonosaccharidesFunctionsFunctions:: Provide energyProvide energyStructural Structural usesusesExamples:Examples:Plants - starch, Plants - starch, cellulose Animals - cellulose Animals - glycogen, chitinglycogen, chitin

Functional group – COOHFunctional group – COOH- -

(carboxyl)(carboxyl)The monomers are fatty acids and The monomers are fatty acids and alcoholsalcoholsFunctionsFunctions:: Storage energyStorage energyStructural Structural usesusesRegulationRegulationProtectionProtection

Examples:Examples:•Fats (triglycerides)Fats (triglycerides)•PhospholipidPhospholipidss•SteroidsSteroids•WaxesWaxes

The two types of fatty The two types of fatty acidsacids

•SaturatSaturateded

•UnsaturatUnsaturateded

Two functional groups – COOHTwo functional groups – COOH- -

(carboxyl) and NH(carboxyl) and NH22-- (amine) (amine)

The monomers are amino acidsThe monomers are amino acidsFunctionsFunctions::

Provide energyProvide energy

Structural Structural usesusesRegulationRegulationProtectionProtection

Examples:Examples:•CollagenCollagen•HormoneHormoness•EnzymesEnzymes•AntibodiesAntibodies

The monomers are The monomers are nucleotidesnucleotidesFunctionsFunctions::HeredityHeredityProtein Protein synthesissynthesis

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Nitrogen baseNitrogen base

Pentose sugarPentose sugar

Phosphate Phosphate groupgroup

ExampleExamples:s:•DNADNA•RNARNA

Single Single stranded stranded with three with three forms – forms – tRNA, tRNA, rRNA, and rRNA, and mRNAmRNA

Double Double stranded, stranded, double double helix helix moleculemolecule

Adenosine Adenosine triphosphatetriphosphate

The fuel of The fuel of living cellsliving cells

DefinitionsDefinitions

Dehydration synthesis – the Dehydration synthesis – the assembling of organic assembling of organic molecules by extracting molecules by extracting waterwaterHydrolysis – the breaking Hydrolysis – the breaking up of organic molecules up of organic molecules using waterusing water

The The Metabolism Metabolism

of of MacromolecuMacromolecu

lesles

EnzymeEnzymessProteins that function as biological Proteins that function as biological catalysts by lowering the energy of catalysts by lowering the energy of activation and speeding up chemical activation and speeding up chemical processesprocessesEnzymes are substrate specific, much Enzymes are substrate specific, much like a lock and keylike a lock and keyEnzymes catalyze reactions without Enzymes catalyze reactions without being changed being changed

EnzymeEnzymessHow they work!How they work!

EnzymeEnzymessHow they work!How they work!

pH effects on pH effects on enzymesenzymes

Temperature Temperature effects on effects on enzymesenzymes