Post on 17-Feb-2018
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1
By
Khairun Nisa Berawi, dr
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Introduction to Physiology
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3
What is Physiology?
Physiology is the study of how living organism work
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TH !I"# $! PH%&I$"$'%
() *iral Physiology
+) Bacterial Physiology) -ellular Physiology
.) Plant Physiology
/) Human Physiology
0ore com1le2
4
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Physiology of cell
Characteristic of Life
1. Organization is the condition in which the 1art of
an organism have relationshi1 to each other and the 1arts interact to 1erform s1ecific functions)
2. Metabolism is all of the chemical reactions taking 1lace in an organism
3. Responsiveness is the a3ility of an organism tosense changes in its e2ternal or internal environmentand ad4ust to those changes
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Physiologi of cell
4. Growth ha11ens when cells increase in si5e or num3er which
1roduces an overall enlargement of all or 1art of the organism
. !evelopment includes the changes an organism undergoesthrough time6 it 3egins with fertili5ation and ends at death)
#evelo1ment usually involves growth, differentiation 7change
in cell structure and function from generali5ed to s1eciali5ed8,
and mor1hogenesis 7change in sha1e of tissues, organs, and the
entire organism8)
9) :e1roduction is the formation of new cells or new organisms
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References
() Te2t3ook of 0#I-;" PH%&I$"$'% 3y ;rthur -) 'uyton
and <ohn Hall) (=th dition) W)B) &;>N#:&
-$0P;N%
+) H>0;N PH%&I$"$'%) The mechanism of Body
!unction) ;rthur *ander6 <ames &herman6 #orothy "uciano)
th d) +==() 0c'raw@Hill
) ;N;T$0% A PH%&I$"$'% 3y :od :) &eeley, Trent #)&te1hens, and Phili1 Tate) 9th dition) +==) 0c'raw@Hill)
www)mhhe)comseeley9
7
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'N:;" IN&T:>-TI$N;" $B<-TI*
;fter attending the course of Physiology, student would 3e a3le
to a11ly the 1rinci1le normal value of 3ody organ functions to
evaluate the disease
8
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"CO#$ O% #&'"(OLOG'
1. Characteristics of life
2. &omeostasis
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Characteristic of Life
1. Organization is the condition in which the 1art of anorganism have relationshi1 to each other and the 1arts interact
to 1erform s1ecific functions)
2. Metabolism is all of the chemical reactions taking 1lace in an
organism
3. Responsiveness is the a3ility of an organism to sense
changes in its e2ternal or internal environment and ad4ust to
those changes
1
0
.) CCCC))
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4. Growth ha11ens when cells increase in si5e or num3er which
1roduces an overall enlargement of all or 1art of the organism
. !evelopment includes the changes an organism undergoes
through time6 it 3egins with fertili5ation and ends at death)#evelo1ment usually involves growth, differentiation 7change
in cell structure and function from generali5ed to s1eciali5ed8,
and mor1hogenesis 7change in sha1e of tissues, organs, and
the entire organism8)9) :e1roduction is the formation of new cells or new organisms)
11
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&omeostasis
Homeostasis is the condition in which 3ody function, fluids, and other
factors of the internal environment are maintained at levels suita3le
to su11ort of life
)egative fee*bac+
a) Negative@feed3ack mechanisms o1erate to maintain homeostasis
3) 0any negative@feed3ack mechanism consist of a rece1tor, control
center, and effector
#ositive %ee*bac+
a) Positive@feed3ack mechanisms usually increase deviation from
normal
3) ;lthough a few 1ositive@feed3ack mechanisms normally e2ist in the
3ody, 3ody 1ositive@feed3ack mechanism are harmful
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Negative Feedback
a. Como!e!ts of !egative feedback co!t"ol system
b. Negative feedback co!t"ol of body teme"at#"e
a. Como!e!t of a !egative
feedback co!t"ol
b. Negative feedback co!t"ol of body
tem.
a.$eviatio! i! co!t"olled va"iable
b.Fall i! body tem.bello% set oi!t
a.&e!so"
b.'em.(mo!ito"i!g !e"ve cells
a.)!teg"ato"
b.'em.co!t"ol ce!te"
a.*ffecto"+s,
b.&keletal m#scles
+a!d othe" effecto"s,
a.Come!sato"y "eso!se
b.- heat "odc.th"o#gh shive"i!g
the" mea!s
a.Co!t"oll va"iable "esto"ed to !o"malb.)!c"ease i! body tem.to set oi!t
a.Feed
/ack
b.Neg.
F/
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)!te"dee!de!t "elatio!shi of cells body system a!d
homeostasis
'he deicted i!te"dee!de!t "elatio!shi se%"ves as the
fo#!datio! fo" mode"!(day hysiology homneostasis is
essential for the survival of cells, body system maintain
homeostasis, and cells make up body system mai!tai!
)s esse!tial fo" ake # s#"vival of
/ody systemsomeostasis
Cells
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PH%&I$"$'% IN 0#I-;" !;->"T% $! >NI";
$))&)N &C- && 5'*6)5&
P&) ) +3 : 0, 3"d 1. )!t"od#ctio! to Physiology2. Cell a!d #scle Physiology
3. Ne#"ohysiology
4. *!doc"i!e Physiology
;. 6e"od#ctive Physiology
P&) )) +2 : 3, 4th 1. 6esi"ato"y Physiology2. &ecial se!ses
3. ast"oi!testi!al Physiology
4. etabolism < 'eme"at#"e 6eg#latio!
;. abo"ato"y P"actice
P&) ))) +2 : 3, ;th 1. Ca"diovasc#la" Physiology
2. /lood
3. 6e!al Physiology < /ody Fl#ids
4. abo"ato"y P"actice
1;
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1=
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"pecific (nstr,ctional Ob-ective
;fter attending the cell discussion, student would 3e a3le to
e21lain the molecular factors that res1onsi3le for the 1rinci1le
function of the cells as the smallest 3asic units of life
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he main f,nction of the cell
() Basic unit of life) The cell is the smallest 1art6 retain the
characteristic of life+) Protection and su11ort) -ells 1roduce and secrete various
molecules that 1rovide 1rotection and su11ort of the 3ody
) 0ovement) ;ll the movements of the 3ody occur 3ecause of
molecules located within the s1ecific cells)
.) -ommunication) -ells 1roduce and receive chemical and
electrical signal that allow them to communicate with one
another
/) -ell meta3olism and energy release) The chemical reactions that
occur within the cells are referred to collectively as cell
meta3olism) nergy released during meta3olism is used for the
cell activities)
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&u3 to1ic CCCCC))
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&>BT$PI-&
() How we see cells
+) Plasma mem3rane
) 0ovement through the 1lasma mem3rane
.) $verview of cell meta3olism
/) -ellular as1ects of aging
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1. &ow we see the cells
We useD() "ight microsco1e
To see general feature of the cell
+) lectron microsco1eTo study the fine structure
) &canning electron microsco1e
To see the cell and internal structure surface
.) Transmission electron microsco1e
To see EthroughF 1art of the cell and discover other as1ect of the cell structure
The cell CC))
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The Cell Theory
1. All organisms are composed of cells
2. Cells are the basic units of structure
and function in organism3. All cells come from preeexiting cells
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F"om Cells to &ystem
evels of "ga!i>atio! i! body?
( Chemical level
( Cell#la" level
( 'iss#e level
( "ga! level
( /ody system level( "ga!ism level
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The cell 23
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+Fig.1C,
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*-@56')C 65N**&
5N$ '*)6 F-NC')N&
GENERAL FUNCTION : MANUFACTURE
Nucleus : DNA synthesis; RNA synthesis; assembly o !ibosomalsubunits "in nucleus#
Ribosomes : $oli$e$ti%e "$!otein# synthesis
Rou&h ER : 'ynthesis o memb!ane $!oteins( sec!eto!y $!oteins( an%hy%!olytic en)ymes; o!mation o t!ans$o!t *esicles
'mooth ER : Li$i% synthesis; ca!bohy%!ate metabolism in li*e! cells;%eto+iication in li*e! cells; calsium ion sto!a&e
Gol&i a$$a!atus : Mo%iication( tem$o!a!y sto!a&e( an% t!ans$o!t omac!omolecules; o!mation o lysosomes an% t!ans$o!t *esicles
GENERAL FUNCTION: ,REA-DO.N
Lysosomes : Di&estion o nut!ients( bacte!ia( an% %ama&e% o!&anelles;
%est!uction o ce!tain cells %u!in& emb!yonic %e*elo$ment/e!o+isomes ; Di*e!se metabolic $!ocesses( 0ith b!ea1%o0n o 23O3
by $!o%uct
4acuoles : Di&estion "li1e lysosomes# ; sto!a&e o chemicals; cellsenla!&ement; 0ate! balance
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*-@56')C 65N**&
5N$ '*)6 F-NC')N&*N*65 F-NC')N ? *N*6 P6C*&&)N
Chlo"olasts +i! la!ts a!d some "otists,? Co!ve"sio! oflight e!e"gy to chemical of s#ga"s
itocho!d"ia ? co!ve"sio! of chemical e!e"gy of 5'P*N*65 F-NC')N& ? &-PP6' **N' 5N$
C-N)C5')N /*'A**N C*&
Cytoskeleto! +i!cl#di!g cillia flagella ce!t"iols i! a!imalcells,
Cell %alls
*Bt"acell#la" mat"iB +i! a!imal,
Cell #!ctio!
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;ssignment
G #efine cyto1lasm and cytosolG What are the two general functions of the cytoskeleton?
G #escri3e and list the function of microtu3ules, actin filaments, and
intermediate filaments
G #efine and give e2am1les of cyto1lasmic inclusions) What areli1ochromes?
G #efine organelles
G #escri3e and list the functions of chromosomes) 21lain the structure of
centrioles
G What are s1indle fi3ers? 21lain the relationshi1 3etween centrosomes,
s1indle fi3ers, and kinetochores of chromosomes during cell division
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) -ontrast the structure anf function of cilia and flagella
) #escri3e the structure and function of microvilli) How are microvilli
different from cilia?
(=) What kinds of molecules are in ri3osomes? Where are the ri3osomal
su3units formed and assem3led?
(() -om1are the functions of free ri3osomes and endo1lasmic reticulum
ri3osomes
(+) How is the endo1lasmic reticulum related to the nuclear envelo1e? How
are the cisternae of the endo1lasmic reticulum related to the rest of the
cyto1lasm?
() What are the functions of smooth endo1lasmic reticulum?
(.) #escri3e the structure and function of the 'olgi a11aratus
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(/) #escri3e the 1roduction of a 1rotein at the endo1lasmic reticulum and its
distri3ution to the 'olgi a11aratus) Name three ways in which 1roteins
are distri3uted from the 'olgi a11aratus
(9) #efine secretory vesicles
() #escri3e the 1rocess 3y which lysosomal en5ymes digest 1hagocyti5ed
materials) #efine auto1hagia
() What is the function of 1ero2isomes? How does catalase 1rotect cells?() #escri3e the structure and function of 1roteasomes
+=) What is the function of mitochondria? What en5yme are found on the
cristae and in the matri2? How can the num3er of mitochondria in a cell
increase?
+() How might a cellular clock, death genes, #N; damage, free radicals, or
mitochondrial damage contri3ute to cellular aging?
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+) Plasma mem3rane 30
() The outermost com1onent of a cell
+) -onsists ./ J /= li1ids, ./ J /= 1roteins, . J car3ohydrate
) CCC)
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+) Plasma mem3rane (
) -ar3ohydrates com3ine with li1id to form glycoli1ids, and with 1rotein to form
glyco1roteins) 'lycocaly2 is the collection of car3ohydrates, glycoli1ids, and
glyco1roteins on the outer surface of the 1lasma mem3rane
.) CCC)
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+) Plasma mem3rane +
.) &u3stances inside the 1lasma mem3rane are intracellular, and outside are
e2tracellular sometimes called intercellular
/) ncloses and su11orts the cell contents
9) CCCC
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+) Plasma mem3rane
9) ;ttaches cells to the e2tracellular environment or other cells
) To a3le the cell to recogni5e and to communicate with each other
) CCC))
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+) Plasma mem3rane .
) #etermines what move into and out of cells different the e2tra A intra@
cellular environment
) :egulates the movement of ions as a result of the e2istence of mem3rane
1otential 7outside is 1ositively and inside is negatively charged8
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0em3rane li1ids
() Predominantly 1hos1holi1ids and cholesterol
+) Phos1holi1ids readily assem3le to form a lipi* bila/er that have a 1olar
7charged8 head and a non1olar 7uncharged8 head) The 1olar is hydro1hilic
which e21osed to water inside and outside the cell) The non1olar is
hydro1ho3ic tails which face one another in the interior of the 1lasma
mem3rane
-om1osition of the 1lasma mem3rane 3;
3=
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0em3rane li1ids
.) -holesterol accounts for a3out one third of the total li1ids which is
inters1ersed among the 1hos1holi1ids
/) The amount of cholesterol determines the fluid nature of the mem3rane)
-om1osition of the 1lasma mem3rane 3=
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The 1roteins
() #etermine the function of the 1lasma mem3rane
+) 'ive structure of Efluid mosaic modelE
) CCCC)
37
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The 1roteins
The 1osition are integral 7intrinsic8 that 1enetrate dee1ly into the li1id 3ilayer
and e2tend from one surface to the other, consist of hydro1hilic and
hydro1ho3ic : grou1s6 and 1eri1heral 7e2trinsic8 that are attached either the
inner or outer surface and usually 3ound to integral 1rotein
. CCC
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The 1roteins
.) !unction as markers, attachment sites, channels, rece1tors, en5ymes, or
carriers)
/) The functions de1end on their three J dimensional sha1es and their chemical
characteristics)
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40
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0em3rane Protein
'lo3ular 1roteins in the
1lasma mem3rane
-ell surface marker
'lyco1roteins on the surface allow cells to
identify one another
0em3rane 1rotein C))
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0em3rane Protein
;ttachment site
Proteins 7integrins8 in the 1lasma mem3rane attach to e2tracellular molecules
0em3rane 1rotein C))
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:ece1tor 1rotein
0em3rane 1rotein C))
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TH -H;NN" P:$TIN&
() &ome region of the 1rotein are helical) achhelical region can 3e de1icted as cylinder
43
44
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+) In some mem3rane 1roteins, the helical regionform circle with a channel in the center
44
4;
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) The ring of cylinders can 3e de1icted as a @#
glo3ular structure with a channel in the center)
This is called a channel 1rotein
4;
4=
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.) The channel 1rotein can 3e de1icted cut in half
to show the channel
4=
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/) The cut channel 1rotein is de1icted within the
1lasma mem3rane
0em3rane 1roteins CCC))
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48
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&ome 1rotein are ligand J gated ion channel) When ligands 3ind to the rece1tor
sites, this com3ination alters the the three@dimensional structure causing the
channels either to o1en or to close change the 1ermea3ility of the 1lasma
mem3rane)
:ece1tors linked to channel 1roteins
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The 3ounded ligand o1en the channel
0em3rane 1roteins CCC))
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:ece1tors linked to ' 1roteins
&ome mem3rane@3ound molecules
function 3y altering the activity of a ' J
1rotein com1le2 that consisted of three
1roteins called al1ha, 3eta, and gamma,located on the inner surface of the
1lasma mem3rane) When a ligand
attaches the rece1tor the '@1rotein is
activated and stimulate a cell res1onse)
0em3rane 1roteins CCC))
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n5yme in the 1lasma
mem3rane
This en5yme in the 1lasma mem3rane 3reaks the 1e1tide 3ound of di1e1tide
to 1roduce two amino acids)
&ome mem3rane 1roteins
function as en5yme
0em3rane 1roteins CCC))
- i t i
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-arrier 1roteins
-arrier 1roteins are integral
1roteins that move ions or
molecules from one side of the
1lasma mem3rane to the other) The
carrier 1roteins have s1ecific 3inding sites to which ions or
molecules attach on one side of the
1lasma mem3rane) The carrier
1rotein change its conformation to
move the ions or molecules to the
other side of the 1lasma mem3rane)
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;ssignmentD
() What are the ma4or function of the cell?+) What are the difference 3etween light and electron microsco1e?
) #efine glycoli1id and glyco1rotein) #escri3e the difference 3etween
integral and 1eri1heral 1roteins in the 1lasma mem3rane
.) "ist two functions of marker molecules
/) #escri3e and give the function of integrins
9) #efine nongated ion channel, ligand@gated ion channel, and voltage@gated
ion channel) What determines the function of a channel 1rotein?
) To what 1art of a rece1tor molecule does a ligand attach? 'ive twoe2am1les of how a ligand can 3ind to a rece1tor in the 1lasma mem3rane
and cause a res1onse in the cell
) 'ive an e2am1le of the action of an en5yme in the 1lasma mem3rane
;3
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3. Movement thro,gh the selectivel/ permeable
plasma membrane
$34ectivesD
a) #escri3e the four ways 3y which su3stances can move through the 1lasma
mem3rane
3) #escri3e the factors that affect the rate and the direction of diffusion of the
solute in a solvent
c) #escri3e diffusion and osmosis
d) #escri3e the 1rocesses of facilitated diffusion, active trans1ort, andsecondary active trans1ort
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0ovement Through the Plasma 0em3rane
() "i1id@solu3le molecules 1ass through the 1lasma mem3rane readily 3y
dissolving in the li1id 3ilayer
+) &mall molecules 1ass through mem3rane channel) 0ost channel are
1ositively charged, allowing negatively charged ions and neutral
molecules to 1ass through more readily than 1ositive charged ions
) "arge 1olar su3stances 7e)g), glucose and amino acids8 are trans1orted
through the mem3rane 3y carrier molecules
.) "arger 1ieces of materials enter cells in vesicles
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#iffusion
() #iffusion is the movement of a su3stance from an area of higher
concentration to one lower concentration Lwith a concentration gradientM
+) The concentration gradient is the difference in solute concentration
3etween two 1oints divided 3y the distance se1arating the 1oints
) The rate of diffusion increases with an increase in concentration gradient,
an increase in tem1erature, a decrease in molecular si5e, and decrease in
viscosity
.) The end result of diffusion is a uniform distri3ution of molecules/) #iffusion reuires no e21enditure of energy
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"igand
"igand
:ece1tor site
Intracellular
rece1tor
#iffusion
This small, li1id@solu3le
ligand diffuses through
the 1lasma mem3raneand com3ine with the
rece1tor site of an
intracellular rece1tor
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DIFFUSI
Substansi atau molekul akan berpindah dari larutan yang konsentrasiGradien tinggi ke konsentrasi gradien rendah
Melalui selaput semipermiabel
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$smosis() $smosis is the diffusion of water 7solvent8 across a selectively 1ermea3le
mem3rane
+) $smotic 1ressure is the force reuired to 1revent the movement of water
across a selectively 1ermea3le mem3rane
) Isosmotic solutions have the same concentration of the solute 1articles,
hy1erosmotic solutions have a greater concentration, and hy1osmotic
solutions have a lower concentration of solute 1articles than a reference
solution
.) -ells 1laced in an isotonic solution neither swell nor shrink) In a
hy1ertonic solution they shrink 7crenate8, and in a hy1otonic solution they
swell and may 3e 3urst 7lyse8
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!iltration
() !iltration is the movement of a liuid through a 1artition with holes thatallow the liuid, 3ut not everything in the liuid, to 1ass through them
+) "iuid movement results from a 1ressure difference across the 1artition
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0ediated Trans1ort 0echanism() 0ediated trans1ort is the movement of a su3stance across a mem3rane 3y
means of a carrier molecule) The su3stances trans1orted tend to 3e large,
water J solu3le molecules
The carrier molecules have 3inding sites that 3ind with either a singletrans1ort molecule or a grou1 of similar trans1ort molecules) This
selectiveness is called s1ecificity
&imilar molecule can com1ete for carrier molecules, with each
reducing the rate of trans1ort of the other
$nce all the carrier molecules are in use, the rate of trans1ort cannot
increase further 7saturation8
0ediated Trans1ort mechanism CCCCC))
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+) Three kinds of mediated trans1ort can 3e identified)
!acilitated diffusion moves su3stances with the concentration
gradient and does nor reuire energy e21enditure 7;TP8
;ctive trans1ort can move su3stances against their concentration
gradient and reuires ;TP) ;n e2change 1um1 is an active trans1ortmechanism that simultaneously moves two su3stances in o11osite
direction across the 1lasma mem3rane
In secondary active trans1ort) ;n ion is moved across the 1lasma
mem3rane 3y active trans1ort, and the energy 1roduced 3y the ion
diffusing 3ack down its concentration gradient can trans1ort anothermolecule, such as glucose, against its concentration gradient)
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FACILITATED DIFUSI!
Dengan adanya "arier protein# molekul atau substansi yang dibutuhkanDapat masuk ke dalam sel$
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0ediated trans1ort
() The carrier 1rotein 3inds with amolecular on one side of the 1lasma
mem3rane
+) The carrier 1rotein changes sha1e
and release the molecule on the
other side of the 1lasma mem3rane
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Primary ;ctive Trans1ort
&econdary ;ctive Trans1ort
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&econdary ;ctive Trans1ort
() NaO concentration is maintained higher out side than inside the cell 3y
sodium@1otassium e2change 1um1) This concentration gradient 1rovides
energy for secondary active trans1ort
+) NaO
move 3ack into the cell with glucose as secondary active trans1ort)
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ndocytosis and 2ocytosis
() ndocytosis is the 3ulk movement of materials into cells
Phagocytosis is the 3ulk movement of solid material into cells 3y
formation of a vesicle
Pinocytosis is similar to 1hagocytosis, e2ce1t that the ingested
material is much smaller or in solution
+) 2ocytosis is the secretion of materials from cells 3y vesicle formation
) ndocytosis and e2ocytosis use vesicles, can 3e s1ecific 7rece1tor@
mediated endocytosis8 for su3stance trans1orted, and reuire energy
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ndocytosis
$r
Internali5ation
; 1article enters the vesicle 7mem3rane@3ounded sac8 the 1lasma
mem3rane wra1s around the 1article and fuses so that the 1article is
surrounded 3y a mem3rane) That 1ortion of the mem3rane then E1inches offF
so the surrounded 1article is with the cyto1lasm, and the 1lasma mem3rane is
left intact
%hagositosisM l k l i k
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Molekul asing akanDiselubungi oleh
Membran plasma yangMembentuk &esikel
phagositik
%hinositosisMolekul yang lebih
'e"il akan
Diselubungi &esikelSinaptik danDitranport ke dlm
sel
EndositosisTransport substansi(Molekul masuk ke
Dalam sel)erla*anan dengan
eksositosis
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2ocytosis
Particle contained vesicle migrate forward the mem3rane, fuses with the
mem3rane) The vesicle 3urst and release it contain out of the cell
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Pinocytosis
Pinocytosis is much like 1hagocytosis, e2ce1t the cell 1rocesses and therefore the
vesicle formed are much smaller and the material inside the vesicle is liuid rather
than 1articulate) Pinocytotic vesicle form on the internal side of a ca1illary, are
trans1orted across the cell, and o1en 3y e2ocytosis outside the ca1illary
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$verview of -ell 0eta3olism
() ;ero3ic res1iration reuires o2ygen and 1roduces car3on
dio2ide, water, and u1 to ;TP molecules from a molecule
of glucose+) ;naero3ic res1iration does nor reuire o2ygen and 1roduces
lactic acid and two ;TP molecules from a molecule of
glucose
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$verview of -ell
0eta3olism
;ero3ic res1iration reuires o2ygen and 1roduces more ;TP 1er glucose molecule
than does anaero3ic meta3olism
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-ellular ;s1ect of ;ging() -ellular clock) ; cell line may die out after a certain time or a certain
num3er of cell divisions
+) #eath genes) There may 3e Edeath genesF, with turn on late in life,
causing cells to die
) #N; damage) Telomeres normally 1rotect #N; from damage during
re1lication, and telomerase 1rotects these telomeres) ;ging cells lack
telomerase and telomeres, and other #N;, 3ecome o1en to damage
.) !ree radicals) !ree radicals may also damage #N;
/) 0itochndrial damage) 0itochondrial #N; may 3e the most sensitive to
free@radicals damage
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;ssignmentsD
() "ist four ways that su3stances move across the 1lasma mem3rane
+) #efine solute, solvent, and concentration gradient) #o solutes diffusewith or against their concentration gradient?
) How is the rate of diffusion affected 3y an incr.eased concentration
gradient? By an increased of a solution? By increased viscosity of the
solvent?
.) #efine osmosis and osmotic 1ressure) ;s the concentration of a solution
increases, what ha11ens to its osmotic 1ressure and the tendency for water
to move into it?
/) -om1are isosmotic, hy1erosmotic, and hy1osmotic solution to isotonic,
hy1ertonic, and hy1otonic solutions what ty1e of solution causescrenation of a cell? What ty1e of solution causes lysis of a cell?
9) #efine filtration and give an e2am1les of where it occurs in the 3ody
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) What is mediated trans1ort? What ty1es of molecules are moved through
the 1lasma mem3rane 3y mediated trans1ort?
) #escri3e s1ecificity, com1etition, and saturation as characteristics of
mediated trans1ort mechanisms
) -ontrast facilitated diffusion and active trans1ort in relation to energy
e21enditure and movement of su3stances with or against their
concentration gradients
(=) What are secondary active trans1ort, cotrans1ort, and countertrans1ort?
(() #efine endocytosis and vesicle) How do 1hagocytosis and 1inocytosis
differ from each other?
(+) What is rece1tor mediated endocytosis?
() #escri3e and give e2am1les of e2ocytosis
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