Page 1 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
1
Sustainable Development, Water and Security (Selected International Aspects)
Paper prepared for the 10th OSCE Economic Forum on “Co-operation for the Sustainable Use and the Protection of the Quality of Water
In the Context of the OSCE”
(Prague, May 28-31, 2002)
By
Jean Michel ColletteI International Consultant
and
Daniel Linotte
Senior Economic Adviser, OSCE
I Former Deputy Director at the UNECE.
Page 2 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
2
CONTENT Introduction 1. The Idea of Sustainable Development: Brief Historical Perspective
The Unbearable Costs of Wars and Arms Race “Seminal Works” after WWII The Impact of Environmental Disasters “Only One Earth” Institutional Responses “The Limits to Growth” Defining Sustainable Development The Dublin Statement on Water and Sustainable Development The Earth Summit – Rio 1992 Operationalising the Concept The Example of Gas Emissions and Climate Changes Environmental Sustainability Index 2. Water Resource Problems The Importance of Water Rich versus Poor Countries Growing Demand for Water Climate Changes and Water Supply Water-stress and Conflicts 3. International Responses The UN System The World Bank OECD Globalisation, WTO and Water International NGOs Regional Approaches: The EU Experience The Role of the OSCE Final Remarks and Conclusions Annexes - Tables - Figures
Page 3 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
3
“Earth turned white” (Sumerian quote, 2100 BC?) “The land was the best in the world, and was therefore able in those days to support a vast army, raised from the surrounding people … in those days the country was fair as now and yielded far more abundant produce. How shall I establish my words? And what part of it can be truly called a remnant of the land that then was? The whole country is only a long promontory extending far into the sea away from the rest of the continent, while the surrounding basin of the sea is everywhere deep in the neighbourhood of the shore. Many great deluges have taken place … the earth has fallen away all round and sunk out of sight. The consequence is, that in comparison of what then was, there are remaining only the bones of the wasted body, as they may be called, as in the case of small islands, all the richer and softer parts of the soil having fallen away, and the mere skeleton of the land being left. But in the primitive state of the country, its mountains were high hills covered with soil, and the plains, as they are termed by us, of Phelleus were full of rich earth, and there was abundance of wood in the mountains.” (Plato, Critias, circa -375) "We have become rich through the lavish use of our natural resources and we have just reason to be proud of our growth. But the time has come to inquire seriously what will happen when our forests are gone, when the coal, the iron, the oil and the gas are exhausted, when the soil has been further impoverished and washed into the streams, polluting the rivers, denuding the fields and obstructing navigation." (President Theodore Roosevelt, Conference on the Conservation of Natural Resources, 1908) "We do not have to believe in the inevitability of environmental catastrophe to accept the possibility of such a catastrophe. Whether the crisis is, in a physical sense, just around the corner or well over the horizon cannot obscure the fact that we have a policy crisis on our hands right now. We need only look at the unintended results of past and present decisions.” (Maurice Strong, Opening Statement of the UN Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm , June 1972)
Page 4 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
4
Introduction
Following the resolution 55/196 of the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA), 2003 will
be the international year of fresh water. The government of Tajikistan, one of the OSCE
participating states, initiated the resolution that was adopted on 20 December 2000.
The UNGA decision reflects: 1) the evolution of thinking about environmental
matters that led to the Earth Summit in 1992 and the forthcoming World Summit in
Johannesburg this year, and 2) growing evidence about the negative impacts of human
activities on the environment and related concerns about peace and security.
The aim of this short note is to provide background information on a number of
issues related to sustainable development, water and security, which might be of assistance for
further discussions.
This note is divided into three sections. The first one explains how the sustainable
development concept emerged. In the second section, water problems are presented as well as
their potential impacts on security. International responses are addressed in the third section,
including the role of the OSCE.
Selected background statistical data on OSCE countries and other regions are
provided in the annex.
1. Sustainable Development and the Environment: Brief Historical Perspective
As indicated by the antique Sumerian quote, reflecting the negative impact of
deforestation, environmental concerns were already articulated four thousands years ago. The
myth of the “Garden of Eden” also shows that the search for a better human society is as old
as man himself. It is rooted in the nature of human activities, which interact with the natural
resource base in a variety of ways, both positive and negative. Taken in a broad sense nature
can be regarded as a productive source of energy and materials which are either consumed
directly by the population or used by enterprises as inputs into their activity. It should also be
viewed as a set of life-supporting services provided by the environmental system consisting of
air, water, land and mineral resources.
Conversely, human activities, particularly those of an economic nature, provide
society with the material means to maintain and improve the natural base, while enhancing
man’s capacity to withstand, or at least to mitigate, some of the main threats and hazards
posed by pollution and other forms of environmental degradation. It is, therefore, hardly
Page 5 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
5
surprising that resource preservation and pollution abatement are rightly regarded as
prerequisites for sustainable development strategies in any organised society.
Environmental laws have been already adopted in the Middle Ages, for instance to
regulate the use of forests in France and coal burning in London in the 1300s. Rotation culture
was a common practice to reconstitute soil fertility and avoid irreversible degradations of the
agricultural land. In North America, as early as 1652, the City of Boston established a public
water supply. Nevertheless, one must perhaps wait until the “Enlightenment” period and the
subsequent scientific and industrial revolution for observing more systematic and ambitious
attempts to control the impact of human activities on the environment, above all for
improving health conditions.
The 1789 French Revolution created a new public policy, where health became one of
the most important individual rights, beside the right of property and fundamental liberties.1
That partly explains the construction of the unique and vast Parisian network of tunnels and
sewers that replicate the busy streets above, under the supervision of Baron Haussmann and
engineer Belgrand, in the middle of the 19th century.
Another revolution arose in the 19th century with the English chemist Edward
Frankland, who became the leading water specialist in the 1870s and 1880s. He associated
“bad water” with the idea of contamination. “A presumed act done to the water thus replaced
a manifest condition of the water.”2 In that respect, the importance of Louis Pasteur’s work,
the inventor of modern bacteriology, should be underlined. He also emphasised the role of
water as a carrier of germs. Linking contamination to the spread of infectious diseases would
also point to the importance of preventing pollution and decontaminating or, in other words,
improving the state of the environment.
US Presidents played key-roles in advocating new ideas and institutions. During his
mandate (1901-1909), President Theodore Roosevelt undertook a campaign for environmental
preservation, which gave an impetus to policies and led to the creation of official bodies. A
decade after, President Wilson also promoted The League of Nations in his famous Fourteen
Points presented before the US Congress in January 1918.
1 “Environmental History Timeline”, Radfort University.website. 2 Chistopher Hamlin, “III.12 – Water”, in Kenneth F. Kiple and Kriemhild Conee Ornelas, The Cambridge World History of Food.
Page 6 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
6
The Unbearable Costs of Wars and Arms Race
The two World Wars, initiated by rather autocratic and intolerant regimes, costed the lives of
at least 70 millions peoples, human beings of all continents and ages, combatants and
civilians. Furthermore, they corresponded to incommensurable ecological catastrophes, with
lasting effects in some cases. As illustrated by nuclear testing, the development of weapons
contributes to environmental degradation and human suffering. The decommissioning of arms
and ammunitions also requires considerable means, definitely lost for other purposes.
It is probably no coincidence that the work on the ecological consequences of ill-
controlled scientific and technological progress started shortly after the end of the Second
World War.
The Rise of the Ecological Consciousness after the Second World War
In 1945, Rachel Carson, an American scientist, proposed an article to the Reader’s Digest
about the negative aspects of DDT extensive use in agriculture. In the late 1950s, after being
shocked by the disappearance of birds, she decided to write a more comprehensive book to
alert the public on the hazards of pesticides. She finally published her book, with the title
Silent Spring in 1962, which led to an immediate and negative reaction from chemical
companies.
Nevertheless, along with other major contributions that aimed at a better
understanding of the complex relationship between man and nature, she stimulated growing
concerns and consciousness about the environment. She is often seen as one of the spiritual
founders of the environmental movement in the US, which does not reflect the impact of
earlier contributions.
The Impact of Environmental Disasters
On March 18, 1967, a large vessel, the Torrey Canyon, carrying crude oil ran aground in
England. The intervention of the Royal Navy, with the use of dispersants and napalm, even
worsened the environmental disaster. Another important case is the “Minimata disease” in
Japan, where water pollution killed or caused deformities. The pollution was the result of the
dumping of mercury into the sea for several decades. The company responsible for the
poisoning was finally forced into court in 1969, after almost 10 years of protest. In the late
1960s, acid rains became also a source of concerns.
These disasters became widely publicised events and drew almost universal
attention. They were like the tip of an iceberg, revealing the most visible aspects of a much
Page 7 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
7
wider phenomenon, namely the negative impact of human activities on the environment and
life. As a result, several measures to protect the environment were adopted between 1968 and
1972. However, the main event in the field of international environmental co-operation was
the 1972 UN Conference on the Human Environment often referred to as the Stockholm
Conference.
“Only One Earth” (1972)
Rene Dubos and Barbara Ward, two distinguished scientists, published a study in 1972. In
this major work, they underlined the negative impact of human activities on the biosphere and
expressed optimism about the possibilities offered by co-operation between nations for
building a common future for mankind.
This report was commissioned by the SG of the Stockholm Conference, Maurice
Strong, and was prepared with the assistance of the 150-member committee of consultants in
58 countries.
Dubos and Ward played key-roles in the Stockholm Conference, including the
conciliation of views between rich countries, that were pushing a pollution agenda, and those
who were more concerned about the broader challenge of development in the poorer
countries.3
Institutional Responses
Under the leadership of Maurice Strong, the Stockholm 1972 Conference on the Environment
promoted new approaches at both international and national levels to cope with the increased
pollution, the degradation of nature, resources depletion and various hazards.
The Conference adopted a Declaration on the Human Environment, with an action
plan for environmental assessment (Earth watch) and management, taking into account side
effects of human activities, and “protect and enhance the human environment for present and
future generations”. The Conference stimulated the creation of national environmental
agencies and the establishment of the United Nations Environmental Programme, UNEP. It
provided an impetus to the work carried out by the OECD and other bodies in the field of
environment.
3 Richard Sandbrook, “Twenty Years On and Five Years In”, Yearbook of International Co-operation and Development 1998/99, pp. 19-22.
Page 8 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
8
“The Limits to Growth”
Partly based on the seminal work of Karl L. von Bertalanffy on system theory, and relying on
the calculation capabilities offered by computers, another major contribution to the study of
the relationship between man, natural resources and the environment was the 1972 “Report to
the Club of Rome”, with the title The Limits to Growth, written under the direction of an MIT
professor, Dennis L. Meadows.
The basic feature of the study is the use of feedback loops that connect actions to
their effects, which, in turn, can determine further actions. When applying that feature to the
use of natural resources, one can develop a pessimistic scenario, where growth will in the long
run be confronted with limits with the depletion of the raw material base. Even if more
resources can be found, pollution problems remain. Assuming that the resource and pollution
problems can be solved, we are still confronted with population growth and its pressure on
food availability. Broadly speaking, the Meadows’ Report suggests that both world population
and economy will first overshoot and then collapse irremediably, with tremendous side effects
in terms of famines and conflicts. The proposed solution was “zero growth”, which led to
strong negative reactions from both developed and developing countries.
Meadows’ Report was heavily criticised because of its methodology, scenarios and
policy implications. Thus, “few decades later, these ‘predictions’ have not fulfilled their
promises and human activities still enjoy economic growth. Nevertheless, the link between
economic growth and the environment remains heavily debated”.4
Defining Sustainable Development
In 1982, the World Charter for Nature was adopted by the UNGA. That document stresses
ecological and ethical principles of development. The idea of sustainable development was
above all developed by a comprehensive report of the World Commission on Environment
and Development (WCED or the “Brundtland Commission”), Our Common Future, published
in 1987.
The WCED also proposed what is seen as the reference definition of sustainable
development: “Development that meets the needs of the present generation without
compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs”.
The WCED four hundred pages document covers most fields of human activities and
stimulated further research and approaches aiming at reconciling economic, social and
Page 9 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
9
environmental needs, often related to water resources, an area to which special attention was
given by WCED and subsequent works.
The Dublin Statement on Water and Sustainable Development
In January 1992, five hundred participants, representing countries, IOs and NGOs, attended
the Dublin international conference on water and the environment (ICWE). They adopted 4
principles for the sustainable use of water, providing a frame for discussing water in the Rio
Summit. They remain important reference principles for all major actors in the field of water,
including the World Bank.
Box 1: The Four Dublin Principles 1. Fresh water is a finite and vulnerable resource, essential to sustain life, development and the environment. 2. Water development and management should be based on a participatory approach, involving users, planners
and policy-makers at all levels. 3. Women play a central role in the provision, management and safeguard of water. 4. Water has an economic value in all its competing uses and should be recognised as an economic good.
The Earth Summit – Rio 1992
The preparation of the Rio UN Conference on Environment and Development gave more
impetus to sustainable development, providing conceptual and practical perspective and
aiming at re-conciliating environmental and economic objectives. The Conference also
decided the drafting of the Earth Charter. The Rio Declaration Principle 1 states that “human
beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable development”. It calls for the protection
and restoration of ecological systems and underlines the importance of poverty eradication.
The Rio Declaration was followed by “A Programme of Action for Sustainable
Development”, often referred to as Agenda 21. The implementation of these guidelines was
entrusted to a new body – the Commission on Sustainable Development that started working
in 1993.
The next World Summit on Sustainable Development (often called “Rio + 10”) will
take place Johannesburg, from 26 August to 4 September 2002. It is expected that a plan for
action will be adopted with specific steps for promoting sustainable development. Access to
safe water is seen as a major priority.
4 Joelle Noailly, “Modelling Sustainable Development: An Overview of Neoclassical and Evolutionary Approaches”, Mimeo, August 14, 2000.
Page 10 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
10
Operationalising the Concept
The concept of sustainable development is still debated: “no consensus prevails on a unique
definition of sustainable development and the wide range of interpretations in the literature
presents often a rather confusing picture”.5
Despite conceptual difficulties, studies and actions that address sustainable
development are mushrooming. They address data collection, “green” and natural resource
accounting, bio-diversity, modelling the interaction between economic activities and
resources, forecasting pollution trends and climate changes, scenario analysis, with the
provision of policy recommendations, the adoption of international conventions and domestic
legislation, and the establishment of organisations.
The Example of Gas Emissions and Climate Changes
Carbon dioxide (CO2) and other gases emissions cause the “greenhouse effect”. Many human
activities contribute to the production of these gases that can remain in the atmosphere for
decades, stimulating a warming up tendency, which influences water conditions.
In an earlier study, Bruce Cohen and Jean-Michel Collette have shown that much
time will be needed to stabilise CO2 emissions and reduce its atmospheric concentrations to
acceptable levels. That requires intensified international co-operation in the R&D sphere and
facilitating technology transfers.6
The 1992 UN Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol,
adopted by the so-called “Convention of the Parties” (the “supreme body” of the Climate
Convention) are addressing these emissions. Related national legislation is also adopted and
implemented in many countries, especially the richest, namely the US, Western Europe and
Japan.
Box 2: Environmental Sustainability Index The Columbia University Center for International Earth Science Information Network has already calculated
an aggregated index of environmental sustainability (ESI) for 122 countries. ESI has five core components covering 22 indicators: 1) environmental systems (including water quantity
and quality), 2) environmental stresses, 3) human vulnerability, 4) social and institutional capacity and 5) global stewardship (international commitments).
5 J. Noailly, op. cit. 6 Bruce C. Cohen and Jean Michel Collette (1991), “Fossil-Fuel Use and Sustainable Development”, International Journal of Global Energy Issues, Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 132-141.
Page 11 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
11
Considering 1998 ESI data, many OSCE countries are found in the first quintile that is led by Finland, Norway and Canada. Haiti, Saudi Arabia and Burundi are located at the bottom of the list.
Overall, “higher levels of incomes are associated with higher ESI scores” (see Table 1 and Figure 1), which
may suggest that improving the environment requires adequate resources, expertise and international co-operation focusing on developing countries.
2. Water Resource Problems
Three-fourth of the Earth surface is water. About 1 percent of the Earth water is useable to
human beings, the rest is salty or frozen water. The quality and the quantity of available water
are altered by pollution caused by households and human activities in all economic sectors –
agriculture, mining, industry and services – which may also reduce its regenerating capacity
and role as a sink.
In this section, we provide background information and data that may help to better
assess the current water situation and trends, for both quality and quantity. From that
perspective, the economic concepts of demand and supply are useful. In the long run, the
demand for water can be related to variables such as population levels and indicators of
economic activities. Moreover, water supply will be modified by the on-going and
uncontrolled climate changes. The pricing of water also influences both users and suppliers.
Confronting demand and supply sides, we can unquestionably conclude about the growing
“water stress” and possible security implications.
Reference data for this work are most often country and even continent-wide
indicators that are provided by major IOs such as the World Bank, FAO, OECD and the
European Environmental Agency (EEA). These figures are aggregated indicators that may not
reflect differences between the regions of a country in terms of water availability and uses.
For instance, considering France, Normandy is more rainy and humid than Provence that is
itself confronted with recurrent and very localised droughts. Population density and the
concentration of specific economic activities in some regions have also an impact on water
quality that is not fully reflected in national statistics. That definitely shows the value of
detailed national studies, which goes beyond the scope of this preliminary work.
The Importance of Water
Both water quality and quantity are essential for life and economic activities. Considering
some background figures and facts:
- human water use has increased more than 35-fold over the past 300 years,
Page 12 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
12
- worldwide, 70 percent of water use is agricultural, 22 percent industrial and 8 percent
domestic,
- one third of world’s food crops are produced by irrigated agriculture,
- in the past 30 years, 50 percent of food supply was attributed to agricultural expansions,
which is often seen as unsustainable,
- one billion people in developing countries have no access to potable water and
approximately 1.7 billion have inadequate sanitation facilities,
- unsafe water is responsible for the death of 3 million people annually,
- and contaminated water causes about 2.4 billions of episodes of illness each year.7
Rich versus Poor Countries
Most often, water resource conditions and problems are directly related to levels of
development, institutions and policies. Per capita water consumption in North America is
twice that of Europe, three times that of Asia and seven times that of Africa.8 Moreover, in
low-income countries 87 percent of water withdrawals go to agriculture whereas in high-
income countries, industry represents 59 percent of water uses.
As indicated by Table 2, wide discrepancies are also observed between OSCE
countries. For instance, in most (high income) West European countries, industry represents
more than 80 percent of water uses. In the poor countries of Central Asia, the bulk of water
uses is in agriculture, especially for growing “thirsty” cotton.9
Another fundamental discrepancy between rich and poor countries is access to safe
water. Thus, in most developing countries, the basic provision of drinkable water remains a
formidable challenge. Sanitation has hardly improved in Latin America. In Asia, the situation
remains critical, with at least 500,000 infants dying each year from contaminated water. In
some transition countries, prevailing poor economic and financial conditions do not allow for
a good maintenance of infrastructures, which has also a negative impact on water quality.
Limited and unequal access to irrigation water also contributes to poverty in many
countries. Regarding the distribution of water rights and land ownership, women are often
7 Aris P. Georgakakos, “Water Resources Management: Challenges and Opportunities”, Research Horizon, Georgia Institute of Technology, Vol. 14, No. 1, Spring 1996. 8 Aris P. Georgakakos, op.cit. 9 See Daniel Linotte, “Poverty in Central Asia”, The Helsinki Monitor, Kluwer Law International, Vol. 13, No. 2, 2002.
Page 13 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
13
discriminated in poor countries. When water is scarce and distant from homes, women are
often responsible for the water task. In other words, water has a gender dimension.
Growing Demand for Water
As development, corresponding to more industry in the “Third World”, and population levels
continue to increase (the world population is expected to overtake 9 billions by 2050; see
Figure 2 and Table 3), the demand for water and food should increase dramatically.
According to figures provided by the US Bureau of Census, 99 percent of the
population change will take place in developing countries, where, in some cases, water
problems are already acute. For instance, population should increase by almost 70 percent,
from 144 to 240 millions over the next five decades in drought-prone North Africa (irrigated
Egypt might be the exception, thanks to the longest river on Earth – the Nile).
Climate Changes and Water Supply
“The projected change of 1.5-4 degree Celsius over the next (21st) century would be
unprecedented in comparison with the best available records for the last thousand years”.10
Simulation models show that rainfall will increase at high latitudes. In other regions, rainfall
should decline. CO2 forecasts are also worrying (Figure 3).
The melting of glaciers and ice caps will continue and, as a result, the sea level will
increase, flooding coastal regions. Various vulnerability indices have been proposed and
calculated, combining measures of insularity and population. Table 4 presents some values for
a group of selected countries. What matters is the cost of protection. For the Netherlands, that
cost represents 0.03 percent of GDP whereas the corresponding figure for the Maldives is one
third of GDP.
When confronting water demand and supply in the long run, there should be a
growing imbalance, especially in the developing countries, both humid and arid (see Figure
4). “Approximately one in three people live (now) in regions of moderate to high water stress
and it is estimated that two thirds of people will live in water stress conditions by 2025.”11
Overall, simulation models conclude to a significant worsening of water supply.12
10 NCDC, “Global Climatic Change”, Updated 06 December 2001. 11 UNEP, “Freshwater: A Global Crisis of Water Security and Basic Water Provision”, Towards Earth Summit 2002 – Environment Briefing No. 1. 12 Carmen Revenga, Jake Brunner, Norbert Henninger, Ken Kassern and Richard Payne, Pilot Analysis of Global Ecosystems, World Resources Institute, October 2000.
Page 14 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
14
South, South East and Central Asia, the Middle East, and North, Western and
Southern Africa are often pointed out as critical zones (see also Figure 5). On the contrary,
low population density places, like for instance Siberia and Canada, could become much more
attractive for agriculture and people. These contrasted evolutions may in turn aggravate
tensions between communities, countries and possibly civilisations.
Water-stress and International Tensions
De facto, tensions and conflicts over water are not new in history. For the last century only,
more than 50 critical situations are reported, with 24 cases recorded for the 1990s only.13
Considering the 21st century, preliminary evidence shows that water resource
problems will definitely increase. That may push some communities to relocate themselves,
which inevitably will create tensions with richer neighbours who benefit from better water
conditions. The pressure for emigration will force rich countries to raise additional barriers
and protection against potential and actual immigrants. That is well illustrated by the recent
decision of the Australian government to rebuff the request of the leaders of Tuvalu (a small
island State in the Pacific) to accepts its 11,000 citizens who should be forced to abandon
their land because of the rising sea level.14
Similar views are supported by F. Fisher and H. Askari: “water disputes over river
basins are a global phenomenon”. Moreover, “disputes over water are most commonly
considered as zero-sum games … Such a view of water allocation can lead only to conflict.”15
In the absence of international co-operation, the real game might correspond to net
losses for all countries. That could explain why in most cases countries opt for legal solutions
with the signing of treaties and conventions, and the creation of bodies for managing, for
instances, transboundary waterways or international river basins. Even if these formal
commitments and frameworks are, for various reasons, difficult to implement they still
represent valuable steps toward a better use of water resources, relying on the advances of
science and technology, and underlining the strong will to achieve partnership in a more
secured world.16
13 Source: Peter Gleick, “Water Conflict Chronology”, Pacific Studies for Studies in Development. Website address: www.worldwater.org/conflict.html. 14 Earth Policy Institute, November 15, 2001. 15 Franklin M. Fisher and Hossein Askari, “Optimal Water Management in the Middle East and Other Regions”, Finance & Development, Vol. 38, No. 3, Sept. 2001. 16 Aaron Wolf, A. "Conflict and Co-operation along International Waterways." Water Policy. Vol. 1, #2, 1998, pp. 251-265.
Page 15 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
15
As mentioned above, water stress zones have already been identified. Considering
OSCE regions, Central Asia is refereed to as a sensitive region, where the Aral Sea disaster
symbolises the legacy of Soviet times, the negative impact of excessive irrigation and the lack
of regional co-operation on water issues.17 That region is already the focus of series of
assistance programmes and projects. That is also the case of other regions. More assistance is
even expected from all sources and with a significant contribution from the profit oriented
private sector and benevolent international NGOs.
3. International Responses
Given the magnitude of actual and forthcoming water resources problems, there is an urgent
need for improving the use of scarce water resources. That may require a system (holistic)
approach that integrates, at least, four dimensions: 1) users or beneficiaries of water, 2)
organisations that are able to control and determine the supply of water, 3) the institutional
framework and 4) the overall context, that may influence decision-makers and outcomes.
All major actors should be involved in the design of water management strategies:
the state and other official bodies, even at a local level, the private sector, including business
associations, the civil society at large (especially NGOs) and international organisations, that
have gained a considerable experience in supporting third world and transition countries.
The UN System
The UN is the main organisation that is addressing both general environmental issues and
water problems in particular. It gathers the best experts to assess water conditions and trends,
define quality standards and provide comprehensive data basis. It promotes international
conventions aiming at improving the quality of life. Considering water management, it
supports integrated approaches and provides technical assistance.
UNEP is a leading institution in environmental matters. Its activities includes The
Global International Water Assessment that is being executed by Kalmar University in
Sweden. It should contribute to the formulation of policies and actions for protecting and
promoting a more sustainable use of international waters. UNEP just published a major
document, namely the Global Environment Outlook 3 that underlines the dangers of actual
17 See Stefan Kloetzli, “The Water and Soil Crisis in Central Asia – a Source for Future Conflicts”, ENCOP Occasional Paper No. 11, Centre for Security Policy and Conflict Research, Zurich/Swiss Peace Foundation, Bern, May 1994.
Page 16 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
16
trends. Improvements in river and air quality are observed in developed countries. However,
when observing the environmental decline in developing countries, the overall tendencies are
bleak.
Following the Hague Ministerial Declaration signed in March 2000, that identified
key challenges for water security, UNESCO is responsible for the World Water Assessment
Programme, that aims at: 1) assessing the state of world’s fresh water resources and eco-
system, 2) identify critical issues, 3) develop indicators and methodologies, 4) help countries
to develop their governance capabilities, and 5) publish a World Water Development Report
(WWDR). A special report was already prepared for the 2001 Bonn International Conference
on Fresh Water: A Preliminary Assessment of Policy Progress since Rio. It will be followed
by regular WWDR, targeting those involved in water-related strategies and policies. Instead
of covering the whole world, a limited set of case studies will be first presented to test
proposed methodologies. With the “Water for Peace” Programme, UNESCO is also involved
in the prevention and resolution of water-related conflicts.
As already mentioned, Agenda 21,that was adopted in “Rio 1992”, supports
integrated approaches to the development, management and use of water resources, with the
overall objective of satisfying “the freshwater needs of all countries for their sustainable
development”.18 UNDP is supporting developing countries to adopt and implement it.
FAO is providing technical assistance to many developing countries to improve
agricultural production and, as result, enhance food security. FAO work is strongly helped by
WMO that supplies information and predictions on air and weather conditions. WHO is also
helping poor countries to improve their diagnoses of health conditions, adopt standards,
prevent disease and deliver better cares to the people.
Considering OSCE countries, UNECE is a key-regional organisation strongly
involved in environmental matters, including the sustainable use of resources. With the
Aarhus “Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and
Access to Justice in Environmental Matters”, that was adopted in 1998, it promotes a new
kind of environment agreement, giving much importance to “participative democracy”.
Following the tragedy of September 11, UNECE and OSCE decided to increase their co-
operation on security matter, particularly to elaborate an “integrated policy approach to
security and development”.19
18 United Nations/Sustainable Development, Agenda 21, Ch. 18, Par. 18.7.
Page 17 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
17
The work of the UNECE on water issues started almost thirty five years ago, in 1968, when
the ECE Committee on Water Problems was set up to carry out and co-ordinate activities
concerning the rational use of waters. Over the course of the last decades it moved from
studies focused on measurement and quantitative analysis to a programme that reflected
concerns for water quality, particularly issues of a transboundary nature.20
The World Bank
The Bank’s water strategy was embodied in a document published in 1993. Since, the Bank’s
perspective has evolved to reflect growing concerns about mismanagement of so-called
“global water resources” and the need to better serve the poor. The Bank is asking borrowing
countries to reform water management institutions, revise policies and adjust planning
systems. In that respect, the Bank acknowledges that much importance should be given to
local contexts and sustainability. Reforms are also difficult and take time. Nevertheless, “the
prediction of a global water crisis makes it important for the Bank to reposition itself to meet
the challenge”.21
The Bank has used a mix of instruments to support developing countries: specific
investment lending, maintenance loans, sectoral adjustment loans, private sector participation
(PSP), etc. Beneficiary countries include India, China, Mexico and Brazil. The Bank is also
involved in the “Nile Basin Initiative” that involves, for the first time in history, 10 countries,
and underlines the importance of an “equitable utilisation” of the basin water resources.
The Bank has assessed the investments needed to be able to cope with water resource
problems. By 2025, $180 billions of annual investment will be needed, about twice and a half
the current level (Table 5). Such massive investments require radical reforms in most
developing countries to attract FDIs.
OECD
The Paris based organisation is possibly the world largest think-thank on economic issues.
One of the OECD Directorates is responsible for the environment. In May 1998, the OECD
Ministers agreed “that the achievement of sustainable development is a key priority for OECD
countries”.
19 UNECE, Press Release, 10 May 2002. 20 For more details, see Economic Commission For Europe, “Protection and Sustainable Use of Waters”, Water Series No.2, ECE/CEP/10, and Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and Lakes, ECE/MP:WAT/5,Geneva 29 August 2000.
Page 18 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
18
Following the 1998 declaration, the OECD Secretariat has been working on a report,
Policies to Enhance Sustainable Development that was published in 2001. It focuses on policy
options, stressing some priority areas, from domestic and international perspectives. The
report underlines the risks of irreversible situations in terms natural resources depletion and
degradation. A set of measures is also put forward.
Broadly speaking, the measures proposed cover:
1) the use of price systems to encourage more rational behaviours from a long-term
perspective,
2) reforming governance to allow for integrative approaches and a better assessment of the
full consequences of policies,
3) the role of technology policies to favour environmentally-friendly growth,
4) the strengthening of globalisation tendencies to promote sustainable development world
wide.
The OECD is also working on indicators measuring progress toward sustainable development.
Considering water and referring to Agenda 21, it proposes reports on water conditions,
namely water stress and quality, from a comparative perspective. These documents advocate
policies, insisting on “getting the prices right”.22 Furthermore, more co-operation between
“upstream and downstream interests of transboundary water bodies” is recommended to avoid
discord.
Regarding developing countries, OECD activities concentrate on the evaluation of
the impact of climate changes, the linkages between growth, development and poverty, and
the formulation of sustainable development strategies and policies. Specific actions are
focusing on the poorest countries.
The OECD already completed studies on the state of the environment in transition
countries, including the role of public particiaption and international co-operation.23
Considering water, the OECD helps transition countries to design reforms for improving
21 George Keith Pitman, Bridging Troubled Water. Assessing the World Bank Water Resources Strategy, The World Bank, 2002. 22 OECD, Water Mnagement – Performances and Challenges in OECD Countries, 1998. 23 See: - Environment in the Transition to a Market Economy: Progress in Central and Eastern Europe and the NIS,
October 1999. - OECD Environmental Performance Reviews Russian Federation, 1999.
Page 19 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
19
water supply and sanitation services in urban regions. That covers legislation, tariffs, social
aspects, consumer protection and the evaluation of performances.
With UNECE, the OECD is also supporting the Environment for Europe Process that
brings together organisations and aims at solving environmental problems within the
European Context. A major Conference will take place in Kyiv, Ukraine, next year.
Globalisation, WTO and Water
The new global economy offers plenty of opportunities for associating the private sector in
the fight against poverty and solving water problems. Private firms are led by profit. For
improving their performances, they invent and innovate, creating new technologies that may
help save scarce resources, including oil and water. For that purpose, they need the right
incentives, in terms of environmental legislation, taxation, pricing, and economic and political
conditions.
Developing countries are lacking resources and experience to address water issues in
the most efficient manner. For that reason, they should become more attractive for foreign
firms. The WTO framework may help to create a more conducive environment for FDIs in the
field of water management. That would definitely allow them to benefit from the best
available technology (BAT), while meeting their commitments in terms of intellectual
property rights. However, water distribution is still a major public service, subject to many
regulations and controls. The GATS agenda should perhaps be enlarged to include water
issues, as it was done for telecommunication. More realistic prices for water should also
stimulate more rational behaviours on both supply and demand sides (see Table 6).
Some developing and transition countries have not yet joined the WTO. Acceding to
the WTO may help to address water resource problems. For instance, considering Central
Asia, cotton growing absorbs a significant proportion of available water. Cotton prices may
also fluctuate and decline on world markets. The diversification of exports, with more
elaborated products such as textiles and clothing, requires better market access, what is
permitted by WTO membership, especially when the so-called “Multifibers Agreement” is
being phase out.
Globalisation is supported by trade liberation within the WTO framework. When
observing the strong linkage between liberalism and co-operation between nations (or peace),
or between protectionism and nationalism (or conflicts), one has another argument for
eliminating domestic monopolies in water matters and promoting genuine international
competition in the field of water supply.
Page 20 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
20
International NGOs
Besides multilateral agencies, NGOs are playing a growing role in the field of water issues.
One key-international NGO is the World Water Council, that was founded after “Rio 1992”.
Its members include public institutions, private sector firms, UN organisations and other
NGOs. WWC is promoting awareness on critical water issues at all levels and in all sectors. It
aims at influencing major decisions related to water management. WWC is currently
preparing “Rio + 10” and the 3rd World Water Forum that will take place in Japan on March
2003.
Another important NGO is Global Water Partnership that gathers public and private
sectors, multilateral agencies and “others committed to the Dublin-Rio Principles”. UNESCO
is also working closely with Green Cross International, an NGO chaired by M. Gorbachev. It
supports co-operation between countries for improving trans-boundary water management
and, subsequently, suppressing causes of tensions and conflicts.
The World Resources Institute, a non-profit making research organisation, is a think
tank that aims at finding solutions to key-environmental problems, including water. The State
of the World is a reference regular publication of the Worldwatch Institute. The 2000 edition
was written under the direction of Lester Brown and contains information about the
limitations of irrigated agriculture.
Regional Approaches: The EU Experience
European integration is the most advanced, comprehensive and ambitious co-operation
scheme between sovereign nation-states. The first significant step was the April 1951 Paris
Treaty that established the European Coal and Steel Community between 6 members: France,
Germany, Italy and the 3 Benelux countries. It was complemented by the 1957 Rome Treaty,
which created the Common Market.
The EU is now a partial monetary union since the full and successful introduction of
the Euro in a majority of member states. Significant moves are also made toward the
definition and the implementation of a common foreign and defence policy, at least for a
“hard core” of countries.
The EU integration is a long-term economic and political process that combines both
deepening and enlargement, encompassing many dimensions, including the environment and
water. There are 6 EU Directives related to water policy. The latest and most important one is
the “Water Framework Directive” (2000/60/EC), that establishes a framework for acting in
Page 21 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
21
water issues. It was adopted on 23 October 2000 and is the result of a process that started in
the 1970s. The aim the new Directive is to expand the scope of protection to all waters and
achieve a good status within a set timeframe, concentrating on river basins and involving civil
society.
With the “Europe Agreements” concluded between the EU and candidate countries,
and various partnership and co-operation agreements, the impact of European Directives go
far beyond the borders of the 15 member countries. Thus, they are part of the acquis
communautaire which all future members of the EU are expected to incorporate into their
own national legislation. Accordingly, EU water directives and related policy instruments can
be regarded as the core elements of a pan-european water policy still in the making.
The Role of the OSCE
The OSCE participating States are stressing the importance of democracy, human rights and
fundamental freedoms. Such institutions are essential for encouraging good governance and
the rule of law in all matters of public interests, including the environment and water in
particular.
Democracy means open political competition and free elections, which implies that
dissatisfied (and responsible) citizens can simply not re-elect leaders when they misconduct.
That could apply to environmental and water policies. For instance, democratic rules could
possibly terminate prestigious huge hydraulic schemes that may create additional external
debts not fully justified by any reasonable feasibility study.24 From that perspective, human
rights also refer to the satisfaction of basic needs, in terms of education and health, where
water and food security should appear as key-elements.
Freedoms are essential for access to information, allowing speeches and opposing
wrong policies without fearing arbitrary pressures and sanctions.
In that respect, the UNECE-based “Aarhus Convention” is strongly supported by
OSCE field presences, especially in Central Asia and the Caucasus. In Ukraine, the
Convention is already being used to address specific water pollution problems, with the
support of national authorities and NGO participation. Even in countries that are still lacking
full democratic institutions, the OSCE is able to enhance the environmental role of civil
society with the consent and backing of national governments.
24 That might the case of the so-called “Lake of the Golden Century”. See Daniel Linotte, “Water Resources in Central Asia. Addressing new Challenges and Risks”, Central Asia – Caucasus, John Hopkins University / School of Advanced International Studies, August 15, 2001.
Page 22 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
22
Under Portuguese Chairmanship, the OSCE Secretariat and field presence could
initiate and successfully accomplish many activities addressing water issues. OSCE “water
diplomacy” is facilitating post-conflict reconciliation in South Eastern Europe, within the
framework of the Stability Pact. In the Caucasus, the preparation of the 10th OSCE Economic
Forum provided an opportunity to gather Armenians and Azeris and discuss common water
issues. Despite difficulties, these initiatives help to rebuild mutual understanding and trust,
and should ultimately contribute to lasting peace settlements.
Final Remarks and Conclusions
• Water resource problems cannot be seen in isolation. They are directly caused by the
degradation of the environment, in particular CO2 emissions and concentrations in the
atmosphere. Simulation models show that decades will be needed to reverse negative
tendencies. As indicated by the time it takes between awareness raising, the full
recognition of actual damages and future risks, and adequate reaction, a reversal could
eventually never happen, on the contrary.
• Water stress situations are also worsened by demographic trends, which points out to the
importance of promoting effective family planning and, above all, women education.
• For some regions, extreme water stress seems inevitable unless there is a significant
increase of resources for funding programmes, infrastructure and institutional reforms,
which absolutely requires attracting the private sector and FDIs. That also indicates the
need to fully recognise water as a commodity and involve the WTO.
• In some instances, there is still a substantial margin for raising the level of efficiency of
water uses, particularly in agriculture. Considering the huge estimates of needed annual
investments in the field of water, it is essential to adopt water-saving measures as soon as
possible. That may possibly render some costly water schemes and infrastructures
irrelevant.
• International assistance already plays a major role in fighting poverty and improving
water conditions. The EU experience shows the substantial benefits of regional integration
Page 23 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
23
in all spheres, including the environment and water. It should serve as a model for all. The
OSCE is another example of co-operation, with precise standards in terms of political
institutional development and human rights. In co-operation with other IOs, including
UNECE, it is also engaged in environmental and water issues.
In conclusion, as Professor Aaron Wolf underlined on many occasions, critical water
issues offer unique opportunities for co-operation between communities and countries, and
therefore contribute to a more secured world.
[The views expressed in this paper are those of the authors only.]
Jean Michel Collette and Daniel Linotte
Annexes
Tables 1. Incomes per Capita and Environmental Sustainability Index – OSCE Countries 2. Water Use Indicators – OSCE Countries 3. World Population, 2000 and 2050 4. Some typical values of Insularity Index, Vulnerability Index and Protection Costs
(Consequences of Raising Sea Levels) 5. Investment Requirements to Address Water Needs 6. Water pricing
Page 24 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
24
Figures 1. The Relationship between Incomes per Capita and the Environmental Sustainability Index 2. World Population (1950-2050) 3. World Carbon Emission by Region 4. Water Availability – Developed and Developing Countries 5. Water Vulnerability by Country – Global Perspective Table 1: Incomes per Capita and Environmental Sustainability Index – OSCE Countries (late 1990’s) ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Country (1) (2) Income ESI
per capita Rank PPP $
------------------------------------------------------------------------ Albania 2,892 78 Armenia 2,210 48 Austria 23,808 8 Azerbaijan 2,322 69 Belarus 6,518 57 Belgium 24,200 79 . Bulgaria 4,914 60 Canada 23,725 3 Croatia 6,915 39 Czech Republic 12,289 29 Denmark 24,280 10 Estonia 7,825 27 Finland 21,209 1 France 21,829 13 Germany 22,404 15 Greece 14,595 41 Hungary 10,479 21 Ireland 19180 17 Italy 20,751 37 Kazakhstan 4,408 91 Kyrgyz Republic 2,223 98
Page 25 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
25
Latvia 5,938 32 Lithuania 6,093 23 Moldova 2,358 59 Netherlands 23,052 12 Norway 26,522 2 Poland 7,894 58 Portugal 15,147 20 Romania 5,647 80 Russia 6,339 33 Slovak Republic 9,811 18 Slovenia 15,062 24 Spain 16,730 25 Sweden 20,824 4 Switzerland 27,486 5 Turkey 6,126 70 Ukraine 3,142 110 UK 20,883 16 USA 30,600 11 Uzbekistan 2,042 90 ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Source: World Bank, World Development Report 2000 – Attacking Poverty, Washington, 2001, and Columbia University. Remark: The table includes countries for which the above mentioned source provides relevant data. PPP = Purchasing Power Parity. Table 2: Water Use Indicators – OSCE countries (late 1990’s) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Region/ (1) (2) (3) (4) Country Water Uses Water uses Water uses Water uses per sector
% of total per capita per PPP $ Agric. Indus. Domestic resources Cu. Meters Cu. Meters % of total
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- North America USA 18.1 1659 0.05 27 65 8 Canada 1.6 1474 0.06 9 80 11 European Union and European Economic Space (former EFTA) Austria 2.7 281 0.01 9 60 31 Belgium 72.2 887 .0.06 4 85 11 Denmark 9.2 226 0.02 43 27 30 Finland 202 470 0.02 3 85 12 France 21.3 691 0.03 12 73 15 Germany 26 564 .03 0 86 14 Greece 10.2 669 0.05 81 3 16 Ireland 2.3 323 0.02 10 74 16 Italy 34.4 1001 0.05 45 37 18 Netherlands 8.6 499 0.02 34 61 5 Norway 0.5 443 0.02 8 72 20 Portugal 10.1 730 0.05 48 37 15 Spain 31.7 902 0.06 62 26 12 Sweden 1.5 302 0.01 9 55 36 Switzerland 4.9 365 0.01 0 58 42
Page 26 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
26
UK 6.4 159 0.01 3 77 20 Central and Eastern Europe Bulgaria 6.8 1667 0.34 22 76 3 Czech Republic 15.8 246 0.02 2 57 41 Hungary 5.2 617 0.06 36 55 9 Poland 19.2 315 0.04 11 76 13 Romania 12.5 11.53 0.20 59 33 8 Baltic States Estonia 1.3 115 .0.02 3 85 12 Latvia 0.8 15 0.02 13 32 55 Lithuania 1 67 0.01 3 16 81 South Eastern Europe Albania 3.3 421 0.16 71 0 29 Slovenia 2.7 252 0.02 -- 50 50 Turkey 17.4 559 0.09 73 11 16 Western CIS Belarus 4.7 266 0.04 35 43 22 Ukraine 18.6 516 0.16 30 52 18 Moldova 25.3 689 0.29 26 65 9 Russia 1.7 521 0.08 20 62 18 Southern Caucasus Armenia 27.9 772 0.35 66 4 30 Azerbaijan 54.6 2092 0.90 70 25 5 Georgia 5.5 640 .021 59 20 21 Central Asia Kazakhstan 30.7 2158 0.49 81 17 2 Kyrgyz Republic 949 9536 4.29 94 3 3 Tajikistan 14.9 1940 1.98 92 4 4 Turkmenistan 52.3 5043 1.63 98 1 1 Uzbakistan 63.4 3471 1.70 94 2 4 Source: World Bank, World Development Report 2000 – Attacking Poverty, Washington, 2001, and Columbia University. Remark: The table includes countries for which the above mentioned source provides relevant data. PPP = Purchasing Power Parity.
Page 27 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
27
Table 3: World Population, 2000 and 2050 ----------------------------------------------------------- Region/ Population Share Change % Year Million % 2000-2050 ----------------------------------------------------------- World 2000 6,080 100 2050 9,104 100 49.7 ----------------------------------------------------------- Developed Countries 2000 1,185 19.5 2050 1,218 13.4 2.8 ----------------------------------------------------------- Developing Countries 2000 4,894 80.5 2050 7,886 86.6 61.1 ----------------------------------------------------------- Source: U.S. Bureau of Census.
Page 28 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
28
Table 4. Some typical values of Insularity Index, Vulnerability Index and Protection Costs Country Insularity Index Vulnerability Index Protection cost (% GDP) Libya 0.0010 0.0030 0.08 Zaire 0.000016 0.031 0.12 US 0.0022 0.063 0.02 Sweden 0.0078 0.17 0.14 Nicaragua 0.0076 0.24 0.35 Belgium 0.0021 0.70 0.01 Italy 0.026 4.9 0.04 Netherlands 0.013 5.0 0.03 Greece 0.10 8.3 0.10 UK 0.051 12 0.02 Jamaica 0.028 21 0.19 Mauritius 0.096 52 0.15 Anguilla 0.67 77 10 Gaza strip 0.11 230 NA Singapore 0.31 1700 0.05 Tokelau 10.1 1500 11 Maldives 2.1 1800 34 Monaco 2.2 36000 0.13 Source: FAO. Data from Factbook (1997), UN 1996a UN 1997, median population scenario, as well as CZMS (1990) for the protection costs
Page 29 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
29
Table 5: Investment Requirements to address Water Needs
Source: George Keith Pitman, Bridging Troubled Waters – Assessing the World Bank Water Resources Strategy, The World Bank, 2002.
Page 30 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
30
Table 6: Water Pricing ------------------------------------------------------------------ Water Charges as Share of Households Income (%) Country Existing Prices Full Cost Tariff Denmark 0.8 0.9 France 1.1 1.5 Germany 1.0 1.2 Greece 0.4 1.6 Spain 0.4 1.2 UK 1.2 1.3 World Bank Guideline Maximum: 3.3. ------------------------------------------------------------------ Comparative Water Prices, 1999 Country Water Price USD/Cubic meter Germany 1.81 Denmark 1.61 Netherlands 1.19 France 1.17 UK 1.15 Spain 0.54 US 0.50 Canada 0.41 ------------------------------------------------------------------ Residential Water Price Elasticities Developed Country(ies)? Short-run -0.21 Long-run -0.45 In-house -0.27 Sprinkling -1.38 Winter -0.44 Summer -1.37 ------------------------------------------------------------------ Source: World Bank Website. End tables
Page 31 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
31
Figure 1 Source: www.ciesin.org/indicators/ESI/ESI_01.ppt
40000 3000020000100000
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20
Canada
Russia UK
Italy
France
Germany
India
Japan
China
USA
Page 32 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
32
Figure 2
Page 33 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
33
Figure 3
Source: cerfe.ucsd.edu/vlt/viewgraphs2002.html
Page 34 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
34
Figure 4: Water Availability – Developed and Developing Countries
Source: George Keith Pitman, Bridging Troubled Waters – Assessing the World Bank Water Resources Strategy, The World Bank, 2002, p. 3.
Page 35 of 36 / MFCC:\DOCUMENTS AND SETTINGS\MICHAEL E. CAMPANA\MY DOCUMENTS\REPORTS\02 COLLET
35
Figure 5: Water Vulnerability by Country – Global Perspective
Source: Olli Varis, Global Changes and Water Resources (Version 080501), Helsinki Institute of Technology, Water Resources Laboratory.
Top Related