PHYTOSOCIOLOGICAL AND
ETHNOBOTANICAL STUDIES OF DISTRICT
NOWSHERA KHYBER PAKHTUNKHWA,
PAKISTAN
SAJJAD ALI Ph.D. (Scholar)
DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
ISLAMIA COLLEGE PESHAWAR 2016
PHYTOSOCIOLOGICAL AND
ETHNOBOTANICAL STUDIES OF DISTRICT
NOWSHERA KHYBER PAKHTUNKHWA,
PAKISTAN
Thesis submitted to the Department of Botany, Islamia College Peshawar in
partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN
BOTANY
DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
ISLAMIA COLLEGE PESHAWAR 2016
267
Plagiarism Undertaking
I solemnly declare that research work presented in the thesis titled
“Phytosociological and Ethnobotanical Studies of District Nowshera, Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan” is solely my research work with no significant
contribution from any other person. Small contribution/help wherever taken has
been duly acknowledged and that complete thesis has been written by me.
I understand the zero tolerance policy of the HEC and University Islamia College
Peshawar towards plagiarism. Therefore I as an Author of the above titled thesis
declare that no portion of my thesis has been plagiarized and any material used
as reference is properly referred/cited.
I undertake that if I am found guilty of any formal plagiarism in the above titled
thesis even after award of PhD degree, the University reserves the rights to
withdraw/revoke my PhD degree and that HEC and the University has the right
to publish my name on the HEC/University Website on which names of students
are placed who submitted plagiarized thesis.
Student /Author Signature: ____________
Name: Sajjad Ali
267
Author’s Declaration I Mr. Sajjad Ali hereby state that my PhD thesis titled “Phytosociological and
Ethnobotanical Studies of District Nowshera, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan” is
my own work and has not been submitted previously by me for taking any
degree from this University Islamia College Peshawar Or anywhere else in the
country/world.
At any time if my statement is found to be incorrect even after my Graduate the
university has the right to withdraw my PhD degree.
Sajjad Ali : _______________
Dated:12/02/2018
i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of contents ....................................................................................... i
List of tables ............................................................................................ iv
List of figures .......................................................................................... vi
List of appendices .................................................................................. vii
Acknowledgements ............................................................................... viii
Abstract .................................................................................................... x
Chapter-1 ................................................................................................ 1
INTRODUCTION.................................................................................. 1
1.1 Introduction to the study area ....................................................... 1
1.1.1 Area and topography ........................................................ 1
1.1.2 Nature of land ................................................................... 1
1.1.3 Climate, rainfall and temperature ..................................... 2
1.1.4 Languages ........................................................................ 3
1.2 Phytosociology .............................................................................. 5
1.2.1 History of phytosociology ................................................ 5
1.2.2 Introduction to the phytosociology .................................. 6
1.3 Ethnobotany ................................................................................ 13
1.3.1 History of ethnobotany ................................................... 13
1.3.2 Introduction to the ethnobotany ..................................... 13
Chapter-2 .............................................................................................. 23
MATERIALS AND METHODS ........................................................ 23
2.1 Floristic structure and ecological characteristics ........................ 23
2.2 Biological spectra ....................................................................... 23
2.3 Leaf size spectra .......................................................................... 24
2.4 Phenological behavior................................................................. 25
2.5 Phytosociology / Vegetation structure ........................................ 25
2.5.1 Density ........................................................................... 26
2.5.2 Frequency ....................................................................... 26
2.5.3 Relative frequency ......................................................... 26
2.5.4 Cover .............................................................................. 26
2.5.5 Importance Value ........................................................... 27
2.5.6 Family Importance Value (FIV) .................................... 27
ii
2.5.7 Edaphology .................................................................... 27
2.5.8 Soil texture ..................................................................... 28
2.5.9 Water holding capacity .................................................. 28
2.5.10 Calcium carbonate .......................................................... 28
2.5.11 Nitrogen .......................................................................... 28
2.5.12 Phosphorus ..................................................................... 28
2.5.13 Potassium ....................................................................... 28
2.5.14 pH ................................................................................... 28
2.5.15 Electrical conductivity ................................................... 29
2.5.16 Total soluble salts ........................................................... 29
2.5.17 Carbonates and bicarbonates .......................................... 29
2.5.18 Chloride ........................................................................... 29
2.5.19 Calcium++
Magnesium++
.................................................. 29
2.5.20 Sodium ............................................................................. 30
2.5.21 Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) ...................................... 30
2.5.22 Sulphates ........................................................................ 30
2.6 Ethnobotany ................................................................................ 30
2.6.1 Ethnobotanical profile .................................................... 30
2.6.2 Observations ................................................................... 31
2.6.3 Interviews ....................................................................... 31
2.6.4 Preservation of vascular plants ...................................... 31
2.6.5 Fuel and timber wood species ........................................ 31
2.6.6 Fodder plants .................................................................. 32
2.6.7 Local medicinal use of plants ......................................... 32
2.6.8 Analysis and documentation of research data ................ 32
2.7 Phytochemical screening ............................................................ 33
2.7.1 Test for alkaloids ............................................................ 33
2.7.2 Test for tannins ............................................................... 33
2.7.3 Test for reducing sugars (Fehling’s test) ........................ 33
2.7.4 Test for saponins ............................................................ 34
2.7.5 Test for flavonoids ......................................................... 34
2.7.6 Test for terpenoids .......................................................... 34
2.7.7 Test for cardiac glycosides (Keller-Killiyani test) ......... 34
2.7.8 Total phenolic contents .................................................. 34
iii
2.7.9 Test for anthraquinones .................................................. 35
Chapter-3 .............................................................................................. 36
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .......................................................... 36
3.1 Floristic composition .................................................................. 36
3.1.1 Life form and seasonal variation .................................... 37
3.1.2 Leaf size spectra and seasonal variation ........................ 39
3.2 Phenological behavior................................................................. 66
3.3 Vegetation structure .................................................................... 88
3.3.1 Autumn aspect ................................................................ 89
3.3.2 Winter aspect .................................................................. 93
3.3.3 Spring aspect .................................................................. 96
3.3.4 Summer aspect ............................................................. 101
3.4 Ethnobotany .............................................................................. 109
3.5 Ethnomedicine .......................................................................... 130
3.6 Phytochemical screening .......................................................... 153
3.6.1 Alkaloids ...................................................................... 153
3.6.2 Tannins ......................................................................... 154
3.6.3 Sugars ........................................................................... 154
3.6.4 Saponins ....................................................................... 155
3.6.5 Flavoniods .................................................................... 155
3.6.6 Terpenoids .................................................................... 156
3.6.7 Cardiac glycosides ....................................................... 156
3.6.8 Phenolics ...................................................................... 157
3.6.9 Anthraquinones ............................................................ 157
3.7 Chemical evaluation of some selected plants ........................... 161
3.7.1 Proximate analysis ....................................................... 161
3.8 Elemental nutrient analysis of selected plants .......................... 169
Conclusions ......................................................................................... 184
Recommendations and Suggestions ................................................. 187
Appendices .......................................................................................... 189
References ........................................................................................... 214
Questionnaire for Ethnobotanical Survey ............................................ 249
Questionnaire for Ethnomedicinal Survey ........................................... 250
iv
LIST OF TABLES
Table-1.1: Land distribution of district Nowshera ........................................ 2
Table-1.2: Meterological data of district Nowshera 2014 ............................. 3
Table-2.1: Six Cover Classes for establishing plant cover .......................... 27
Table 3.1: Floristic Diversity and Ecological Characteristics. .................... 41
Table-3.2: Summary of ecological characteristics of plants ...................... 65
Table-3.3: Phenological behavior of plants during 2013. ........................... 69
Table-3.4: Summary of phenological stages ............................................... 86
Table-3.5: Number of species and Total Importance Value (TIV) . ......... 105
Table-3.6: Physico-chemical features of soil during 2013 ........................ 107
Table-3.7: List of ethnobotanically important plants. ............................... 111
Table-3.8: Plants used as fodder ................................................................ 119
Table-3.9: Plants used as fuel .................................................................... 122
Table-3.10: Plants used in furniture industries ............................................ 124
Table-3.11: Plants used in thatching. .......................................................... 124
Table-3.12: Plants used as vegetables ......................................................... 125
Table-3.13: Plants used in hedge ................................................................. 125
Table-3.14: Percentage of ethnobotanical usage of plants. ......................... 126
Table-3.15: List of ethnomedicinal plants. .................................................. 133
Table-3.16: Plants used against asthma ....................................................... 147
Table-3.17: Plants used in dysentery ........................................................... 147
Table-3.18: Plants used as anthelmintic ...................................................... 148
Table-3.19: Plants used as stimulant ........................................................... 148
Table-3.20: Plants used in diarrhea. ............................................................ 149
Table-3.21: Plants used as emollient. .......................................................... 149
Table-3.22: Plants used in snake bite .......................................................... 149
v
Table-3.23: Plants used in fever .................................................................. 150
Table-3.24: Percentage of ethnomedicinal uses of plants ........................... 151
Table-3.25: Different phytochemical tests at vegetative stages. ................. 159
Table-3.26: Different phytochemical tests at fruiting stages. ...................... 160
Table-3.27: Proximate composition of the selected plant species. .............. 165
Table-3.28: Macronutrients of the selected plant species. .......................... 172
Table-3.29: Micronutrients of the selected plant species . .......................... 180
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure: 1.1: Land distribution of district Nowshera ................................ 2
Figure-1.2: Land cover map of district Nowshera ................................. 4
Figure-3.1: Floristic list of district Nowshera ...................................... 64
Figure-3.2: Phenological behaviour of plants at district Nowshera ..... 87
Figure-3.3: Some views of the research area ....................................... 108
Figure-3.4: Percentage of ethnobotinical usage of plants .................. 127
Figure-3.5: Sheep and Goat grazing ................................................... 128
Figure-3.6: Ziziphus etc as fuel wood ................................................ 128
Figure-3.7: Stem branches of Ziziphus used as fences ....................... 129
Figure-3.8: Gum of Acacia used in market ........................................ 129
Figure-3.9: Percentage of Ethnomedicinal usage of plants ................ 152
Figure-3.10: Proximate composition at vegetative stage ..................... 167
Figure-3.11: Proximate composition at fruiting stage .......................... 168
Figure-3.12: Macronutrients at vegetative stage .................................. 174
Figure-3.13: Macronutrients at fruiting stage ...................................... 175
Figure-3.14: Micronutrients at vegetative stage ................................... 182
Figure-3.15: Micronutrients at fruiting stage ....................................... 183
vii
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix-1: Autumn Community 2013. ...................................................... 189
Appendix-2: Autumn Community2013. ....................................................... 190
Appendix-3: Autumn Community 2013. ...................................................... 191
Appendix-4: Autumn Community 2013. ...................................................... 192
Appendix-5: Autumn Community 2013………. .......................................... 193
Appendix-6: Winter Community 2013……. ................................................ 194
Appendix-7: Winter Community 2013……………………………………..195
Appendix-8: Winter Community 2013……………………………………..196
Appendix-9: Winter Community 2013……………………………………..197
Appendix-10:Winter Community 2013…………………. ............................ 198
Appendix-11: Spring Community 2013..…………………………………...199
Appendix-12:Spring Community 2013.......................................................... 200
Appendix-13:Spring Community 2013.......................................................... 202
Appendix-14:Spring Community 2013. ……................................................ 204
Appendix-15: Spring Community 2013......................................................... 206
Appendix-16: Summer Community2013. ...................................................... 208
Appendix-17: Summer Community 2013… .................................................. 209
Appendix-18: Summer Community 2013... .................................................. 210
Appendix-19: Summer Community 2013 ...................................................... 211
Appendix-20:Summer Community 2013. ...................................................... 212
viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Nothing can happen nor could anything be done without the will of
Allah Almighty. Indeed, I am extremely grateful to Allah Who gave me
strength to begin this task, Who bestowed upon me special help to pursue my
project, and Who gave me a team of selfless friends, supporting teachers and
capable guides. Due to these Divine favours, finally, I managed to steer my
project towards completion.
I cannot find suitable words to express my profound gratitude to my
supervisor Prof. Dr. Syed Zahir Shah (Former Dean, Faculty of Life and
Chemical Sciences). His professional and technical support, valuable
counseling, personal interest and supervision made it possible for me to attain
my goal. Despite his numerous engagements and responsibilities, he helped
me out to complete this manuscript.
I am also extremely thankful to my teacher Prof. Dr. Farrukh Hussain
(Former Dean, Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, Univ. of Pesh.)
for his strong support and reliable guidance at every stage of my research
work.
It would be great injustice if I do not pay homage and acknowledge the
sincere support, and incessant co-operation of my teachers – Dr. Samin Jan,
Dr. Muhammad Saleem Khan, Dr. Naveed Akhtar, Dr. Izhar Ahmad, Dr.
Wisal Muhammad Khan, Dr. Arshad Iqbal, Mr. Khushnood Ur Rehman, Dr
Fida Hussain, Prof. Dr. Fazle Malik Sarim, Dr. Sami Ullah, Dr. Tabassum
Yaseen, Mr. Imtiaz Ahmad, Mr. Syed Adil Hayat, Mr. Fazle Rahim, Miss
Sumaira Shah and Mr. Ishaq Khan.
I am extremely grateful to Prof. Mahboob-ur-Rehman, Govt. Degree
College, Matta, Swat, for his valuable help in plants identification. I am also
thankful to Dr. Dawood Jan, Senior Research Scientist, Nuclear Institute for
Food and Agriculture (NIFA), Tarnab, Peshawar, for his in-depth knowledge
of elemental analysis of plant and soil samples. I also want to say thanks to all
ix
my respectable teachers, friends and colleagues, particularly Abdur Rehman,
Izhar Khan, Shah Khalid and Muhammad Ismail for their good wishes, moral
support and help in thesis setup. I am also grateful to all staff members of
Department of Botany, Islamia College Peshawar and Bacha Khan University,
Charsadda for their selfless support and cooperation during my research hours.
I extend special thanks to Mr. Syed Sajid (alias Doctor), for composing this
manuscript in short time but carefully and painstakingly.
This thesis is an artifact of several field visits, a number of surveys and
various group discussions. Many people have contributed towards the
realization of this work in one way or the other. However, I apologize if I
missed to mention the name of any individual or organization who contributed
in this project.
In the end, I want to express my deep gratitude to my sisters, brother
and in-laws for their prayers and good wishes.
Last, but definitely not the least, are my ever-loving parents. For me,
they are incomparable and above everyone on the surface of the earth. Their
pure and undiluted love, their sincere and genuine prayers and their unyielding
support gave me strength and confidence to accomplish the highest goal of my
life.
Sajjad Ali
x
ABSTRACT
A survey was carried out to evaluate the phytosociological and ethnobotanical
features of district Nowshera, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. The study was
performed in different seasons of 2013-2015. The plant diversity comprised of
221 species belonging to 75 families. Among the total reported plant species,
Poaceae (28 spp.) was the dominant family, followed by Brassicaceae (15
spp.) and Papilionaceae (13 spp.) while other families had less than 09 species
each. Hydrophytes had 44 species (19.8%); xerophytes had the share of 157
species (70.72%), while 21 species (9.45%) were amphibious in nature. Plant
species possessing simple leaves were 170 (76.57%) species having compound
leaves were 23 (10.36%). There were 24 species (10.81%) with dissected
leaves and 04 species (2.25%) were aphyllous. Seasonal variation of species
diversity indicated 172 species (77.92%) in spring, followed by summer with
119 species (54.5%), winter with 89 species (40.54%) and autumn with 83
species (37.83%). Biological spectrum showed that therophytes were
dominant life form and were represented by 109 species (50.1%), followed by
microphanerophytes with 25 species (10.58%). Nanophylls were the leading
leaf size spectra with 94 species (42.23%), followed by microphylls with 75
species (33.78%), while leptophylls had 32 species (14.41%), mesophylls had
16 species (7.20%) and aphyllous were 04 species (2.25%). The phenological
studies revealed that in February the major bulk of flora (22.52%) was in
vegetative phase. In March 23.87% species blossomed and their number
decreased towards the fall season. April was the peak fruiting season. The
dormant period lasted from November to January. Twenty plant communities
were established in five sites. Among these Olea-Rydingia-Justicia, Prosopis-
Justicia-Acacia, Dodonaea-Rydingia-Olea, Opuntia-Ziziphus-Acacia,
Justicia-Ziziphus-Acacia, Microsisymbrium-Dodonaea-Olea, Lactuca-Salvia-
Allium and Euphorbia-Pennisetum-Indigofera were the important
communities of the area. Ethnobotanical data showed that 71 species
belonging to 65 genera and 39 families were used for various purposes.
Among these, family Asteraceae contributed the highest number of plant
species (08) used by local community. Leaves (50 spp; 70.42%) were the
xi
commonly used plant part followed by stems (47 spp; 66.16%), whole plant
(13 spp; 18.22%), fruits (09 spp; 14.27%) and roots (04 spp; 5.17%). Wild
herbs were the dominant growth form (44 spp; 61.38%), followed by wild
trees (16 spp; 23.54%) and wild shrubs (11 spp; 15.06%). Indigenes mostly
used the wild plants for various purposes; 45 species of wild plants (63.38%)
were used as fodder, 29 species (41.25%) as fuel, 10 species (14.69%) were
used in furniture making, 08 species (11.95%) were used for thatching
purpose, 07 species (9.58%) were used as vegetables, 04 species of wild plants
(5.84%) were used as hedges, and 03 species (4.22%) were used as ornamental
plants. There was only one species each used in production of hair oil, cloth
colouring, ropes preparation, hand fan making, perfumes production and
detergent industries. Ethnomedicinal data revealed that 90 plant species
belonging to 84 genera and 37 families were used by the local community for
treatment of various ailments. The dominant growth forms of indigenous
medicinal plants were wild herbs which comprised of 66 species (73.33%),
followed by wild trees with 14 species (14.58%) and wild shrubs 10 species
(11.45%). The highest number of medicinal plant species (10 spp.) was
contributed by family Asteraceae. Plants used by the local community for the
treatment of various ailments were: 30 species used for fever, followed by
diarrheaand stimulant (09 spp; each), dysentery (08 spp; each), as anthelmintic
(07 spp.), for relief in asthma (06 spp.), in venomous snake bite (04 spp.) and
as emollient (02 spp.). Regarding indigenous medicine, the leaves are the most
preferred plant part (62.12%), followed by stems (33.17%), roots (21.66%),
seeds (17.95%), fruits (16.37%), whole plant (14.40%) and flowers (2.08%).
Qualitative analysis of secondary metabolites of selected plant species
revealed the presence of alkaloids, tannins, sugars, saponins, flavonoids,
terpenoids, cardiac glycosides, phenolics and anthraquinones. These chemicals
were mostly found at post reproductive stage. Methanolic fraction contained
more secondary metabolites as compared to chloroform and n-hexane
fractions. The results of proximate composition showed variation at two
phenological stages. The moisture contents ranged from 2.31% to 59.23% at
vegetative stage and 1.46% to 62.51% at post reproductive stage. Ash contents
ranged from 0.9% to 18.50% at vegetative stage and 2.1% to 20.0% at post
xii
reproductive stage. Crude fats ranged from 0.98% to 23.45% at vegetative
stage and 1.20% to 28.93% at post reproductive stage. Crude fiber ranged
from 0.2% to 15.11% at vegetative stage and 0.3% to 20.68% at post
reproductive stage. Protein content ranged from 2.31% to 27.56% at
vegetative stage and 4.71% to 28.56% post reproductive stage. Carbohydrates
content ranged from 28.39% to 83.53% at vegetative stage and 29.35% to
78.83% at post reproductive stage. Investigation of elemental nutrition of the
selected plant species at two phenological stages showed a decreased trend
towards maturity. Soil textural analysis showed that soil was mostly sandy
clay-loam with 7.3 to 8.1 pH and 0.3dSm-1
to 7.2dSm-1
Electrical Conductivity
(EC). Organic matter ranged from 0.4% to 7.1%. Nitrogen ranged from 0.02
% to 0.27 %. Phosphorus, Zinc, Iron and Potassium were 7 ppm to 16 ppm,
2.1 ppm to 4.4ppm, 9.4ppm to 11.5ppm and 100ppm to 180ppm respectively.
Calcium carbonate was found from 11.2% to 17.2% whileeach Ca++
and
Mg++
were in the range of 16.5 Mequ/l to 35 Mequ/l.
1
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction to the study area
The district Nowshera lies in KhyberPakhtunkhwa Province of
Pakistan. It is located between 33o42 to 34
o 09 N latitude and 71
o 97to 72
o 15
E longitude. It is surrounded by Mardan and Charsadda districts on north,
Peshawar district in west, Swabi district on north east and Kohat district in
south. Attock district is located to the southeast (Rehman Ullah et al., 2011).
This district was a part of Afghanistan and was known as Nowkhaar Province
till it was annexed into British India via the Durand Line Agreement.
Nowshera district is divided into 47 Union Councils.
1.1.1 Area and topography
The district covers an area of about 181610 hectares (Bukhari et al.,
2012). The topography of the district is mostly piedmont plain or hilly areas
consisting of Attock Cherat ranges (Rehman Ullah et al., 2011).
1.1.2 Nature of land
Bukhari et al. (2012) reported that 37560 hectares (20.6%) of the total
land is covered by forests. A small fraction i-e 496 hectares (0.3%) of the total
land is covered by scrub vegetation. The area under agricultural use is 79054
hectares (43.3%). Some of the areas are covered by rangelands which accounts
for 46264 hectares (25.5%). Barren land covers a total area of 2710 hectares
(1.5%) and only 4897 hectares (2.7%) are covered by water bodies. Almost
10629 hectares (5.9%) of the total area is occupied by settlements of the locals
(Table-1.1).
2
Table-1.1: Land distribution of district Nowshera
S.No Nature of Land Quantity (hectares) Percentage
1 Forests 37560 20.6
2 Shrub and bushes 496 0.3
3 Range land 46264 25.5
4 Agriculture land 79054 43.3
5 Settlements 10629 5.9
6 Barren land 2710 1.5
7 Water bodies 4897 2.7
Total 181610 100
Figure: 1.1: Land distribution of district Nowshera
1.1.3 Climate, rainfall and temperature
Climate of Nowshera is semi-arid, with hot summer and cold winter.
June is considered the hottest month, with maximum temperature range of 40-
45oC, while maximum ever recorded temperature is 50
oC in 1994. Lowest
temperature that was recorded for the region is -3.1oC in 2000. The area
receives 635 mm annual rainfall (Table 1.2) of which most rainfalls takes
place from Feburary-August (Processing center, Pakistan meteorological
department, Peshawar).
20.6%
0.3%
25.5% 43.3%
5.9%
1.5% 2.7%
Forests
Shrub and bushes
Range land
Agriculture land
Settlements
Barren land
Water bodies
3
Table-1.2: Metrological data of distric Nowshera for the year 2014
Month Mean Minimum
(Temperature oC)
Mean Maximum
(Temperature oC)
Mean Precipitation
(mm)
Average Relative
Humidity (%)
January 2.9 20.7 5.2 66.5
February 6.1 20.1 40.6 71
March 10.2 22.6 119.7 86
April 15.5 30.0 54.8 55
May 20.1 34.8 16.6 50
June 24.6 41.2 27.8 45
July 26.4 37.6 48.4 71
August 25.9 37.0 61.0 63.5
September 23.7 35.5 15.0 63
October 18.1 29.9 43.2 74
November 9.0 25.5 1.2 66.5
December 3.8 20.8 0.0 68
Annual 186.3/12 = 15.52 355.7/12 = 29.64 433.5/12 = 36.12 779.5/12 = 64.95
Source: Processing center, Pakistan meteorological department, Peshawar.
1.1.4 Languages
A large majority of people speak Pushto as their mother language.
However, some people of Nowshera, particularly the residents of eastern side
are bilingual, speaking Hindko and Pushto languages. After demographic
changes due to arrival of Pushtuns, Pushto language became the local
language of the district. Urdu, being the national language of Pakistan, is
understood and even spoken with the people of other provinces.
4
Figure-1.2: Land cover map of district Nowshera
5
1.2 Phytosociology
1.2.1 History of phytosociology
On the basis of approaches with respect to development, history of
phytosociology can be divided into two periods.
Period of a physiognomic approach to vegetation (formation theory in
the 19th century)
Period of a floristic approach to vegetation (Braun-Blanquet, 1918,
1913).
The periods characterized by the physiognomic approach to vegetation
started at the beginning of the 19th century with Humboldt (1805), the great
master of plant geography. He focused his studies on plant distribution,
formation of communities and plant growth forms. Purely physiognomic terms
were created for the large-scale distribution of vegetation units or formations.
These included deserts, steppes, savana, deciduous hard-wood forests,
evergreen rain forests, etc, (Knapp, 1954; Filzer, 1956; Box, 1981). Schouw in
(1822) was the first to divide the entire Earth’s surface into plant-related
geographical provinces. He emphasized on the phenomena of plant
distribution and community formation. These scientific pioneers named here
can, however, be considered neither plant scientists nor phytosociologists in
the modern sense of these terms. Nonetheless, as already pointed out, they
were plant geographers who paid particular attention to the phenomenon of the
formation of plant communities. For the most part, they applied the term
formation as the basis for their study of vegetation. The term “formation” is
still used today when referring to less refined division of large areas of
vegetation on the earth. It no longer suffices to describe a more detailed study
of vegetation on a smaller scale. This realization was already evident at the
turn of the century, as the transition was made to attempt a more refined
differentiation between vegetation units and classifying them as objectively as
possible. In their place, plant species became more important for classification
purposes. Answering the question, which types can be found and in what
6
quantity can they be found, leads to determination of quality and quantity of
individual species in the vegetation unit. This led to the development of
modern plant sociology based on the floristic approach (Balik & Cox, 1997).
Cajander (1909) was among the founders of modern plant sociology.
He characterized the different conifer forest types, in Finland. According to
floristic and sociological principles, he already used the term character types.
On the basis of suggestions made by Flahault & Schroter (1910), the term
phytosociology was coined for the study of plant communities (Paczoski,
1896; Miyawaki, 1980).
1.2.2 Introduction to the phytosociology
Phytosociology is defined as the study of the smallest area that
provides sufficient space or combination of habitat factors for a particular
stand of a community type to develop its essential combination of species or
its characteristic composition and structure (Cain & Castro, 1959).
Vegetation may be defined as a unit which possesses characteristics in
physiognomy and structure sufficiently large enough to permit their
differentiation from other such units (Khan et al., 2010). The biological
spectrum is defined as percentage ratio of life form of plant present in any
area. It is an important physiognomic attribute that has been widely used in
vegetation studies. Life form spectrum tells us about the climate of an area and
can be predicted for particular climate, for any continent, region and altitude
(Sarmiento & Monasterio, 1983). Similarly, leaf size knowledge may help in
understanding the physiological processes of plant and plant communities
(Oosting, 1956).
Phytosociology is a sub discipline of plant ecology that describes the
co-occurrence of plant species in communities (Ewald, 2003). Vegetation and
soil characteristics are so interconnected and inter-dependent that they become
indicative of each other. A habitat under certain existing ecological conditions
would permit plants being adjusted to these conditions, thus soil-plant
relationship becomes so close that plants reveal the ecological situation of the
7
inhabited locality (Anonymous, 1991; Boggs, 2000). Vegetation diversity is
primarily determined by a combination of interacting physical and chemical
factors like water, temperature, solar radiation and air current flow velocity
(Hinterlang, 1992). The level of essential elements in plants is dependent on
geochemical characteristics of the soil and on the form of their bond with the
components of the soil. Plants obtain these elements through roots (Bin et al.,
2001).
Floristic composition and phytosociology of different forests and areas
of the world have been investigated by several workers. Dhole et al. (2013)
collected 30 weeds species from the wheat field in the Marathwada region
Indiathat belongs to 26 genera and 15 families. Most of the species (07) were
members of family Euphorbiaceae, followed by family Asteraceae (04
species), Amaranthaceae and Cyperaceae (03 species each). 02 species were
found to be in Poaceae, Solanaceae and Molluginaceae. The rest of the
families have 01 species each. Lumbres et al. (2014) conducted the study to
assess the floral composition of the forest in Philippine. A total of 78 species
belonging to 43 families were identified in this communal forest. The most
dominant species in this area was Pinus kesiya with an importance value of
64.19. Pandey & Pitman, (2003) analysed the plant diversity in preserved Sal
forest of Gorakhpur, India. A total of 208 plant species representing 165
genera and 72 families were recorded. The Sal forest was rich in family
Papilionaceae (23 species). Manhas et al. (2010) reported a total of 206
species belonging to 159 genera and 59 families from Pathankot, India. The
contribution of dicotyledons, monocotyledons and pteridophytes was 77.7%,
20.4% and 1.9%, respectively. Ipomoea was the most dominant genus.
Biological spectrum of the study site showed that therophytes (52%) were
the most dominant followed by phanerophytes (27%).
Francisco et al. (2009) made a cheaklist of Commelinaceae of Guinea,
containing 46 species. Palisota was known to be best representive genus,
having 11 species. Eleven species of Commelinaceae were recorded for the
first time in the country. Eilu et al. (2004) recorded a total of 5747 trees
belonging to 53 families and 159 genera. Number of species was highest in the
8
family Euphorbiaceae (25 species) followed by Meliaceae and Rubiaceae with
16 species each. Based on Rabinowitz's forms of rarity, 93% of the species
were geographically widespread, 47% were restricted to a single forest type,
while 41% occurred at densities of <1 individual ha-1
. Gimenez et al. (2004)
worked on the flora and biodiversity of Iberian Peninsula which has 516
vascular endemic species or subspecies with an endemicity rate of 13%. This
study dealt with species richness, originality, life forms and dispersal modes of
these plants, in relation to altitudinal and rainfall gradients. Chamaephytes
(46.08%) and hemicryptophytes (31.37%) were found in abundance, whereas
therophytes (11.96%) and phanerophytes (0.98%) were relatively rare.
In the forests of Valparai plateau 103 families with 312 species were
reported. The forests comprised of 1968 trees (144 species), 2250 lianas (60
species), and 6123 understory plants (108 species) (Muthuramet al., 2006).
Segawa and Nkuutu (2006) recorded 179 species from Lake Victotia Central
Uganda. Of these, Rubiaceae was the richest with fourteen species followed
by Euphorbiaceae (13 species), Apocynaceae (10 species) and Moraceae (9
species). Majority of the families (35) were represented by 01 species each.
Fifty eight herbaceous species, 39 lianas, 10 shrubs and 72 species of trees
were recorded. Costa et al. (2007) listed 133 species belonging to 47 families
from Caatinga in Northeast. The herbaceous/woody ratio was 1: 4. The
Raunkiaerean life-form spectrum observed was: therophytes (42.9%),
phanerophytes (26.3%), chamaephytes (15.8%), hemicryptophytes (12.8%),
and cryptophytes (2.3%).
Review on floristic listing, composition, phytosociology and ecological
characteristic of vegetation in Pakistan is given as under:
Khan & Musharaf, (2014) recognized the plant diversity in tehsil
Katlang; district Mardan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. The flora comprised
of 165 plant species belonging to 124 genera and 54 families. Asteraceae and
Poaceae were the dominant families. The biological spectrum explains that
therophytes (78 species, 47.27%) were the dominants followed by
chamaephytes (29 species, 17.58%). Microphylls (78 species, 47.27%) were
9
dominant leaf size followed by mesophylls (34 species, 20.61%). Khan &
Musharaf, (2014) studied the floristic composition and biological characteristics
of the Shahbaz Garhi, Mardan area.The flora comprised of 132 plant species
belonging to 104 genera and 47 families. Asteraceae and Poaceae were the
dominant families. The biological spectrum revealed that therophytes (63
species, 47.73%) were the dominant life form. Dominant leaf size class of plant
was microphylls (62 species, 46.97%). Barkatullah et al. (2011) studied the
phytosociological and ethnobotanical characters of Skimmia laureola. A total
of 44 different species were found in association with S. laureola in different
localities. Ethnobotanically the leaves of S. laureola were also used as cough
remedy and commercially harvested as flavoring agent in food, and in
traditional healing. The smoke of the dry leaves is used for nasal tract
clearness. It is also used for cold, fever and headache treatment.
Shah & Rozina (2013) observed phytodiversity of Dheri Baba Hill
Gohati and Peer Taab Graveyard from where a total of 72 plant species were
identified belonging to 23 families. Twelve different plant communities were
recognized. Species like Cynodon dactylon, Boerrhavia procumbens,
Calotropis procera, Cyperus rotundus, Tribulis terristris, Digera muricata
and Ziziphus mauritiana dominated these communities. The life form and leaf
size spectra were also determined in which therophytes (30%) and
chamaephytes (13%) dominated all the stands. Microphylls (42%) and
mesophylls (24%) were dominant in Dheri Baba hills while in case of Peer
Taab Graveyard microphylls (42%) and nanophylls (15%) were the dominant
species. Khan et al. (2013) studied the eco-taxanomy of family Brassicaceae
of district Mardan. Life form classes indicated 66% therophytes followed by
17% chamaephytes, 14% hemicryptophytes and 3% geophytes. Ilyas et al.
(2013) identified a total of 593 plant species that belonged to 130 families
from Swat. Among total families Poaceae contributed 65 species (10.96%),
followed by Asteraceae (44 species, 7.42%). The largest genera were:
Cyperus and Persicaria (7 species each). Sher et al. (2013) recognized 13
plant communities on the basis of importance values from Sudhan Galli Hills,
district Bagh, Azad Kashmir. Pinus-Berberis-Carex, Pinus-Sarcococa-Hedra,
10
Pinus-Sarcococa-Carex, Pinus-Vibernum-Poa and Pinus-Sarcococa-Carex
were dominant communities on the south facing slopes. Abies-Sarcococa-
Fragaria, Abies-Sarcococa-Anogromma, Abies-Sarcococa-Urochloa, Abies-
Vibernum-Fragaria, Abies-Vibernum-Galium and Abies-Vibernum-Viola
community were recorded on the north facing slopes.
Nazir et al. (2012) studied the composition and diversity of plants in
the lesser Himalayan subtropical forests of Kashmir. Pinus-Poa-Maytenus,
Myrsine-Themeda-Pinus, Colebrookia-Themeda-Dodonaea, Themeda-
Carissa-Adhatoda, Themeda-Dodonaea-Eriophorum, Carissa-Myrsine-
Themeda, Carissa-Themeda-Dodonaea, Dodonaea - Carissa – Pinus
communities were recognized. Amjad & Hameed (2012) reported life form
and leaf spectra from the plants of Basu vally, district Sakardu. They described
50 plant species that belonged to 22 families. The biological spectrum showed
that chameaphytes (26.38%) were the dominant life form of the area. It was
followed by hemicryptophytes (19.83%), nanophanerophytes (19.17%),
megaphanerophytes (17.23%) and therophytes (12.06). Leaf size spectra of
plant communities consisted of microphylls (24%), leptophylls (52%),
nanophylls (20%) and megaphylls (4%). The dominancy of chameaphytes,
leptophylls and microphylls showed that the area varied from subtropical to
alpine type. Khan et al. (2010) studied the vegetation of Thandiani forests,
district Abbottabad. 15 plant communities were recorded in the study area.
The soil of the study area was loamy clay with pH ranging from 6.5 to 8.75.
Khan & Hussain, (2013) collected 161 plant species belonging to 52
families in Tehsil Takht-e-Nasrati, Pakistan, where 25 monocotyledonous and
136 dicotyledonous species were identified. Among 52 families, the dominant
was family Poaceae with 17 species following Asteraceae and Papilionaceae
with 13 species each. Sher et al. (2011) identified 40 weed species belong to
21 families, from wheat fields of village Lahor, district Swabi. Poaceae (7 spp)
was the dominant family, followed by Brassicaceae (5 spp), Caryophyllaceae,
Asteraceae and Fabaceae (each with 4 spp). The remaining families had single
species each. Based on importance value four communities viz., Arenaria-
Anagallis-Chenopodium, Fumaria-Rumex-Chenopodium, Fumaria-
11
Chenopodium-Anagallis and Arenaria-Fumaria-Chenopodium were
recognised. The biological spectrum revealed that there were 82.5%
therophytes and 12.5% hemicryptophytes. Geophytes and chamaephytes were
represented by 01 species each. Leaf spectra comprised of microphylls
(42.5%), nanophylls (35%) and leptophylls (22.5%).
Ahmed & Qadir, (1976) reported 07 plant communities from
himalayan range of Pakistan. Sher et al. (2010) investigated economically
important plant communities in several parts of Malam Jabba valley, Swat.
They documented 90 species of ethnobotanical important plants, out of these
71 spp used as medicinal plants, 20 spp as fodder plants, 10 spp as vegetables,
14 spp as wild fruit, 18 spp as fuel wood, 09 spp for furniture and agricultural
tools, 09 spp for thatching, fencing and hedge, 04 spp for honey bee, 02 spp
for evil eyes, 02 spp have religious importance and 03 spp as poison.
Phytosociologically six plant communities were found, comprising five herbs-
shrubs-trees communities and one meadow community. Jan et al. (2010)
carried out the vegetation analysis of district Lower Dir. A total of 06 tree
species existed among which Monotheca buxifolia occurred as dominant tree
species on overall locations ranging with 62% to 100%. Olea ferruginea and
Acacia modesta were reported in four stands as a second dominant species.
Farooq et al. (2010) recognized 05 plant communities on the basis of highest
importance values in Ziarat area. These communities are Pinus-Abies-
Sophora, Pinus-Abies, Abies-Cedrus, Abies-Pinus and Pinus-Abies. All these
communities comprised economically valuable wood; firewood, medicinal and
aromatic plants. Hussain et al. (2010) carried out the phytosociology of
National Park in Northern Areas of Pakistan, Central Karakoram. It was
documented that 05 stands by trees and 08 stands by bushes were dominant.
Pinus wallichiana and Picea smithiana form a community in two sites,
associated with Juniperus excelsa.
Hadi et al. (2009) worked out the flora of Botanical Garden Azakhel,
during summer and reported 30 weed species belonging to 28 genera and 15
families. The dominant family was Poaceae (7 species) followed by
Asteraceae (5 species), Amaranthaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Euphorbiaceae,
12
Solanaceae and Verbenaceae with 2 species each. Leaf size spectra showed 4
leptophylls, 13 nanophylls, 9 microphylls, 3 mesophylls and 01 macrophyll.
Hussain et al. (2009) recorded the diversity and ecological
characteristics of weeds of wheat fields at Azakhel, district Nowshera and
investigated 62 weed species including 15 monocots and 01 pteridophyte
belonged to 24 families. Poaceae contribute maximum number of species (15
spp, 24.19%), followed by Asteraceae (8 spp, 12.90%), Brassicaceae and
Papilionaceae (each with 5 spp). Therophytes (53 spp, 85.48%) and
nanophylls (25 spp, 40.32%) were the major life form and leaf size classes.
Phenological studies showed thatduring January 95% of weeds were in
vegetative phase while during March 61 and 26% were in flowering and
fruiting stage respectively.
Phytosociology and vegetation analysis of Pakistan forests have been
reported by several other workers from time to time i.e Hussain (1969 a, b),
Hussain & Qadir (1970), Chaghtai et al. (1989), Naqvi (1976), Ahmed &
Qadir (1976), Ahmed (1976, 1988), Hussain et al.(1981), Amin & Ashfaq
(1982), Beg & Khan (1984), Qadri (1986), Hussain & Shah (1989), Ahmed et
al. (1990), Ajaib et al. (2009), Wahab et al.(2008), Ahmed et al.(2009),
Siddiqui et al.(2009), Hussain & Illahi (1991), Hussain (1984), Chaudhri
(1960), Qadir et al. (1966), Hussain & Qadir (1970), Shaukat & Qadir (1970),
Ahmed (1988), Malik & Hussain (1987), Durrani & Hussain (2005) and Khan
& Shaukat (2005). Beside these, individual and localized of some work areas
of Pakistan, need comprehensive quantitative investigations to describe
various types of forest communities and population structure. One of such area
is district Nowshera which comes under the sub-tropical dry forests (Rehman
Ullah et al., 2011)
The review showed no reference on the flora and overall
phytosociology and ethnobotany of the research area. Thus there is need to
investigate phytosociology and ethnobotany of district Nowshera.
13
1.3 Ethnobotany
1.3.1 History of ethnobotany
Harshberger (1896) defined ethnobotany as “the study of the utilitarian
relationship between human beings and vegetation in their environment,
including medicinal uses”. The concept of ethnobotany began longer before
the use of the term by Harshberger. In 77 AD, Dioscorides, the Greek surgeon
published “De Materia Medica” which was a catalogue of about 600 plants in
the Mediterranean, including information on how the Greeks consumed the
plants and when each plant was collected, especially for medicinal purposes
(Balick & Cox, 1997).
First record of plant medicine was compiled in Rigveda between 4500-
1600 BC and Ayurveda 2500-600 BC (Harshberger, 1896). In 19th century
Humboldt composed data from the new world while Captain Cook brought
back information on plants from the South Pacific. At that time botanical
gardens were introduced, such as the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Edward
Palmer collected articles and botanical specimens from people in the North
American West (Great Basin) and Mexico from 1860s to 1890s (Balick &
Cox, 1997).
1.3.2 Introduction to the ethnobotany
“Ethnobotany is the knowledge of plants usage by the native people
and their usefulness as understood to the people of a particular ethnic group,
since information concerning a particular plant varies from one ethnic group to
another” (Tor et al., 2003; Igoli et al., 2005). Many countries still depend on
plants for their economy, medicine, food, construction material, fire wood,
dyes and ornamentals purposes etc. The aim of the ethnobotanical study is to
have a better understanding of the local uses, improved use of resources, to
find new ways for transferring this knowledge to future generations and to
search for new pharmaceuticals to be used in biomedicine (Kufer et al., 2005).
Similarly ethnobotanical knowledge establishes priorities in the local
communities and assists taxonomists, ecologists, pharmacologists, watershed
14
and wild life managers in their efforts for improving the economic status of
the area (Ibrar et al., 2007).
Traditionally forests and rangelands are the main sources of medicinal
plants in many areas of Pakistan and therefore, are commonly exploited
commercially. Since these wild plants have been collected for decades, their
cultivation and ex.situ management has been neglected in the past (Beg &
Khan, 1984). The lack of knowledge about the part used and time of collection
leads to misuse of the species. Presently a number of barriers exist to the
sustainable cultivation, gathering and use of medicinal plants. These include
little understanding of sustainable management parameters and knowledge of
market requirement (Sher & Khan, 2007). Ethnobotany is a multidisciplinary
science defined as relationship between plants and people and is not restricted
to utilization of plants food, shelter, clothing etc but also use for holy
ceremonies, decoration and treatment of various diseases (Schultes, 1992).
In early times, ethnobotany research was mostly the investigation of
plants used by residents but recent ethnobotany was concerned with
enlightenment of multifarious relationships between cultures and uses of
plants, keeping in view several aspects mainly on how plants used and
observed across human cultures for instance, as food, medicines, textiles,
tools, currency, clothing, in cosmetics, dyeing, construction, literature,
divination, rituals and in social life (Acharya & Shrivastava, 2008). Long &
Wang (1994) conducted a research on thecultural and social values of
ethnobotany. To search for the uses of plants, ethnobotany becomes a major
part of the world. Modern studies of plants are an imperative fact of
ethnobotanical research; from time immemorial, individuals treated
themselves with outdated medicines and ancient remedies (Amrit, 2007;
Bourdy et al., 2008). Furthermore, it was reported by the World Health
Organization (WHO) that about 80% of the total world population depends on
traditional medicine (Marshal, 1998; Said et al., 2002; Adiaratou, 2005; Lucy,
1999).
15
Human beings have found medications for several purposes
surrounded by their locality and also implemented numerous strategies
depending upon the climate, phytogeographic and plant characteristics, as well
as upon the socio-structural typologies (Nichter, 1992).
There are variety of plants, whose leaves are reaped and are used as
fodder either fresh or stored for times of fodder shortage, such as Quercus
incana, Q. semicarpifolia and Q. glauca (Lohan et al., 1983; Bajracharya et
al., 1985). In Israel, leaves and young stems of Q. calliprinos are a major
source of food for cattles (Perevolotsky et al., 1993).
In Pakistan, maize is cultivated in abundance, as it is cheap and
appreciated fodder for animals and also has enough nutrients e.g. 1.66%
proteins, 0.34% fats and 5.48% fiber (Nazir et al., 2003). In Himachal
Pradesh, India, unavailability of fresh fodder for mulch is a main problem
(Banyal & Bhardwaj, 2003). Other plants like Helleteres isora with enough
nutrients, reaping ability, tastiness, and restoration potential are also used as
fooder (Bhatt et al., 1992).
It was observed that animals are usually selective in their needs of
fodder e.g red deers are fond of leaves while goat and sheeps prefer grasses
hence produces significant affect on the availability of fodder (Petrak, 1992;
Grunwaldt et al., 1994). Unsustainable grazing adversely affected the growth
of conifers and other broad-leaves species (Chaghtai et al., 1989).
Cline-Cole et al. (1990) & Smith (1981) stated that the oil-richand
developed countries have shifted to modern form of energies leaving behind
fuel wood and charcoal, but eventhen almost two billion people from all over
the world fulfill their energy needs by fuel wood and charcoal. In ancient
times the wood resources were more than the need but with increasing
population the need of fuel wood resource increases up to 3 to 4% per annum
(IUCN, 2001).To fulfill the need of fuel wood, about 7000 to 9000 hectares of
forest has been depleted every year while the rate of this depletion is intence
particularly in rular areas due to lack of other fuel wood reources (Ilyas,
16
2006). Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) in 1981 reported that fuel
wood is the need of both developed and under developed countries. The report
also reveals that about 2 billion people of developing countries are dependent
upon fuel wood. Regardless of domestic needs, fuel wood is used in several
industries including smithies, brick work, curing of tobacco and potteries. It
was further reported by FAO in 1984 that about 1148 million people fulfill
their domestic energy need only by consuming fuel wood. Among total
estimated population, 1052 million people belong to Asia. Arnold et al. (2003)
investigated that the consumption of fossil fuelis dominated as the major
source of energy worldwide nevertheless use of traditional fuel resources till
play an important role in fulfillment of energy needs. The worldwide biomass
fuel resources are estimated at about 100 EJ per annum (EJ= Exajoul). Hillring
(2006) identified that Europe, South East Asia and North America are the
main trade spots in wood, fuel wood and charcoal.
In Pakistan, it is reported that about 50% of domestic energy necessity
are fulfilled by fuel wood while 16% by the fossil fuels and 34% by burning
dung and crop waste (Sheikh, 1987). Among major producers of firewood,
irrigated plantation of the Punjab, riverian forest of Sindh and the foothill
scrubs are of greater importance. Per capita consumption of firewood is about
0.2m3 per annum (Hussain, 1990).
In Pakistan the diverse population of 122 million people uses forest
wood. The current shortage in wood purchases had give rise to increasing fuel
prices and higher socio-economic cost in the form of constantly eroding
woody resources. To maintain developmental level, these resources need
instant attention of the government (Sheikh, 1987; Ali & Qaiser, 1991-2004).
In some rural areas such as Ushairy valley distric Upper Dir, wood is cheap
and easily available source of fuel that is why local people mostly prefer forest
wood to fulfill their domestic energy needs (Muhammad, 2011).
Review of ethnobotanical studies studies is summarized as follows:
17
Teklay et al. (2013) stated 114 medicinal plant species belonging to
100 genera and 53 families from Kilte Awulaelo district, Tigray region of
Ethiopia. He reported that herbs were the most utilized plants, accounting for
44% of the species, followed by shrubs (29%). Leaf was the most commonly
used plant part accounting for 42.98% of the plants, followed by roots
(25.73%). Preference ranking exercise on selected plants used against
abdominal pain indicated the highest preference of people for Solanum
marginatum. Ganapthy et al. (2013) conducted an ethnobotanical survey to
document the remedies used as a hepatoprotective in Kuppam, Sathupally and
their surrounding villages of Andhra Pradesh, India. They reported that the
medicinal plants used to treat variety of diseases and disorders of major body
organs including liver as a hepatoprotective and antioxidants are Begonia
laciniata, Dendrobium ovatum and Cuscuta epithymum. Pawar (2012)
investigated 21 plant species used as traditional medicine against a variety of
ailments from Jalgaon, India. All necessary informations about plants
including mode and dosage are also provided.
Megersa et al. (2013) investigated a total of 126 medicinal plant
species, distributed in 108 genera and 56 families from Wayu Tuka district,
East Welega Zone of Oromia Regional State and West Ethiopia. Among 126
species of medicinal plants collected from the study area 86 (68%) were wild
whereas 33 (26%) were cultivated. Fabaceae came out as a leading family
with 15 medicinal species followed by Solanaceae with 08 species. Medicinal
plants reported as being used for treating human ailments were 78 (62%), 23
(18.2%) for the treatment of livestock ailments and 25 (20%) for both. The
most frequently used plant parts were leaves (43%), followed by roots
(18.5%). Crushing, which accounted for (29%) and powdering (28%) were the
widely used methods of preparation of traditional herbal medicines. Kumar et
al. (2013) studied 32 plant species of Lower Foot Hills of Himachal Pradesh
that has been used for the treatment of various oral complaints. Kumar et al.
(2009) explored the information about 71 ethno-medicinally useful plants
grown in Kishtwar, Jammu and Kashmir, India. Family name, botanical name,
local name, ethnomedicinal uses are given for each plant.
18
Lulekal et al. (2008) documented 230 plant species in Mana Angetu
district south eastern Ethiopia. The most frequently used plant parts were roots
(33.9%), followed by leaves (25.6%). Olea europaea L. sub spp cuspidate
(Wall. ex G. Don) was the most important species followed by Acacia tortilis
(Forssk.). Rasila et al. (2013) collected 24 plant species having medicinal and
toxic properties and other uses representing 16 families from Manipurstate of
India. The family Solanaceae, Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae (3 species each) was
dominant followed by Fabaceae, Apocynaceae (2 species each) and
Ranunculaceae, Ericaceae, Rutaceae, Cactaceae, Polygonaceae, Cyperaceae,
Araceae, Sapindaceae, Caesalpinaceae, Mimosacea, and Meliaceae (1 species
each). Tardío et al. (2006) compiled a total of 419 plant species belonging to
67 families in Spain. A list of species, plant parts used localization and method
of consumption and harvesting time was documented. Among 07 different
food categories considered, green vegetables were the largest group, followed
by plants used to prepare beverages, wild fruits, and plants used for seasoning,
sweets, preservatives, and other uses. Arenas & Scarpa (2007) reported that
Chorote people used 57 plant species as a source of food, which they used to
consume in 118 different ways. A cross-cultural comparison with 04
neighboring ethnic groups reveals that one third of their plant foods are
exclusive to the Chorote people, despite the fact that they share most of
their edible plants with the other groups. Mizaraite et al. (2007) examined
the possibilities of increasing the use of wood from private forests in Lithuania
for bioenergy purposes. Potential wood fuel supply and consumption were
investigated using a literature review and analysis of statistical data. Costs of
wood chips production were calculated applying economic simulation. Okello
& Segawa (2007) carried an ethnobotanical survey in Apac district and stated
that roots were the most commonly harvested parts which have greatly
affected the regeneration of medicinal plants. It was believed that plants
collected only from the wild were effective. Though not intentional, plant
parts which are not used for medicinal purposes are sometimes destroyed in
the process of harvesting.
19
The main source of biomass fuel was homestead forests (40%). Maoe
et al. (2009) highlighted the rich plant resources and the vast wealth of
ethnobotanical information available with the various tribes of the region.
Parvaiz et al. (2013) studied the ethnobotany of medicinal plants of
district Gujrat, Punjab, Pakistan. A total of 50 plant species were identified,
that belonged to 29 families, which were being used by local inhabitants of the
study area. Zereen & Sardar, (2013) documented the ethnobotanical
knowledge of local people on wild trees in 08 districts of Central Punjab, viz.,
Vehari, Pakpattan, Lahore, Faisalabad, Nankana Sahib, Sahiwal, Sialkot and
Narowal. 48 plant species belonging to 23 families were collected, including
their utility by local people of respective districts for various purposes i.e
medicine, fodder, fuel, vegetables, fruits, timber, etc. Manzoor et al. (2013)
reported the medicinal vegetables and their role to treat different diseases. 26
vegetables belonging to 12 families were investigated for various disorders.
Ahmed et al. (2013) recognized a total of 93 plants species belonging
to 80 genera and 56 families from New Murree, Pakistan. Most plants were
used for medicinal and fodder purposes (27.93% each), followed by fuel
(16.90%), fruit (6.55%), vegetable (5.52%) and ethno-veterinary (3.79%).
Shahet al.(2013) recognized 131 plant species (2 Pteridophytes, 7 Monocots,
122 Dicots) belonging to 48 families (2 Pteridophytes, 4 Monocots, 42 Dicots)
from Makerwal and Gulla Khel. The most commonly represented families
were Amaranthaceae (9 species), Mimosaceae (8 species), Asteraceae and
Papilionaceae (7 species each); Solanaceae, Euphorbiaceae and
Scrophulariaceae (6 species each), followed by Boraginaceae, Brassicaceae,
Lamiaceae and Polygonaceae (5 species each).
Khan & Hussain, (2013) reported 161 plants belonging to 57 families
including 22 trees, 23 shrubs, 104 herbs, 9 grasses and 3 parasite species from
Tehsil Takht-e-Nasrati, district Karak, Pakistan. The locals used 118 (73.3%)
species as folk medicinal plants, 114 (70.8%) fodder species, 47
(26.7%) fuel species, 16 (9.94%) timber woods, 23 (14.3%) vegetable
species, 50 (31.06%) veterinary use plants and 90 (55.9%) honey bee species.
20
Razzaq et al. (2013) recognized 22 medicinal weeds belonging to 13 families
from district Shangla. Among these, 10 weeds were perennial, 10 annual, 01
biennial and 01 was parasitic. Ahmad et al. (2013) recognized 100
ethnomedicinal plants from Madyan valley in district Swat, Pakistan. Most of
the plants found to be diuretic, tonic, stimulant, laxative andnarcotic. Gulshan
et al. (2012) reported knowledge medicinal plants and their usage from Dera
Ghazi Khan, Punjab, Pakistan. He reported 08 species belonging to 04 (6%)
monocotyledon families and 58 species belonging to 26 (44%) dicotyledonous
families were in use for medicinal purposes. Shah & Hussain (2012) reported
the traditional uses of 82 plant species belonging to 74 genera and 42 families
from Mastuj valley Chitral. Most of the plants were used as stomachic, pain
killer and against skin diseases. Among recorded plants, 56 were herbs, 17
trees and 09 shrubs.
Sardar & Khan (2009) reported 102 plant species from tehsil
Shakargarh, district Narowal, which was being used by local inhabitants for
different purposes such as in making baskets, mats and furniture. Also used as
medicines, fuel and fodder while some species have edible fruits and
vegetables. Ajaib et al. (2010) reported 38 plant species that belonging to 25
families from district Kotli, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan, of
economics importance. The inhabitants used it for medicinal purpose, as fuel
andfodder, for shelter and also in making different agricultural tools. Most of
the shrubs were noticed having more than one ethnobotanical uses. Tareen et
al. (2010) observed that 61 species of medicinal plants belonging to 56 genera
and 34 families from Kalat and Khuzdar, Balochistan are usually used by the
local women for treatment of several diseases. Family Lamiaceae was
dominant by 09 species followed by Asteraceae (07 species), Apiaceae,
Papilionaceae, Solanaceae and Zygophyllaceae (03 species each). Qasim et al.
(2010) reported 48 wild coastal plant species used in Hub, Lasbela district,
Balochistan for 12 various purposes. Plant uses include fodder (56%),
medicine (22%), food (5%), household utensils (5%), for increasing milk
production in cattle (3%) and other uses (8%). Most frequently used species
were from Poaceae (29%) followed by Amaranthaceae and Chenopodiaceae
21
(10% each) and Mimosaceae and Convolvulaceae (6% each). Sher and Al-
Yemeni, (2011) reported 50 species of plants belonging to 33 families as
ethnobotanically important from Malam Jabba valley, district Swat.
Zaman & Hazrat (2013) reported the ethnobotanical information of
about 40 species, belonging to 26 families, from tehsil Dargai, district
Malakand Pakistan. Among these, 12 species were trees, 18 were herbs, 07
were shrubs and 02 species were climbers. Wazir et al. (2007) reported 20
medicinal halophytes found in thesurrounding of district Karak. Manan et al.
(2007) investigated 52 plant species belonging to 35 families from Upper Dir.
All species have a significant role in primary health care. Shah & Hussain
(2008a) reported 76 plants belonging to 52 families used for various purposes
from Mount Elum district Bunair. The species include 47% medicinal plants,
21% fuel wood, 9% fruit species, 19% honey bee species, 20% timber
yielding species and 4% poisonous species. Kamal et al. (2009) concluded that
50 plant species of 30 families were used medicinally and for other purposes
in district Bannu. Zahoor et al. (2009) enumerated the traditional uses of 52
plant species belonging to 45 genera and 30 families from Darra‟e Pezo
district, Lakki Marwat, Pakistan for various purposes. Out of 52 plant species,
47 were medicinal. Some of useful species are under serious threat due to
unsustainable activities. Khan et al. (2009) reported that 50 plant species are
being used locally for medicinal and other purposes in F.R. Bannu. The largest
families are Poaceae and Moraceae each with 5 species. Agaricus campestris
was the only fungus used as food. Akhtar & Begum (2009) recorded that 55
plant species belonging to 38 families which were used for more than 42
ailments in Jalala area district Mardan. Calotropis procera and Boerhavia
diffusa had multipurpose medicinal uses. The information reported was purely
based on the knowledge of local inhabitants. Taj et al. (2009) revealed that
ethnobotanically 29 plant species of 25 families were used for medicinal
purposes in Godi Khel district Karak. Hazrat et al. (2010) conducted an
ethnobotanical research in Usherai valley and recorded 50 species, belonging
to 32 families of wild herbs, shrubs and trees which were used as medicinal
plants by their habitants in the valley. Attaullah et al. (2010) identified 27
22
plant species belonging 19 families that were used in traditional health care of
Kurram River beds of district Bannu. The uses of these plants were confined
mostly to less educated and poor people. However, some plants were also used
by local herbalist (Hakims). Badshah et al. (2010) reported 41 plant species
with various local uses from Parachinar Kurram valley.
23
CHAPTER-2
MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.1 Floristic structure and ecological characteristics
Floristic survey was conducted all over the district Nowshera from
2013- 2015 in different seasons of the year. Plants from several areas were
collected, pressed, dried, poisoned and mounted at standard size (42 x 29 cm
or 11 x 16 inches) herbarium sheets and identified with the help of Flora of
Pakistan (Nasir & Ali, 1971-1991; Ali & Qaisar, 1995-2009). A complete
floristic list was arranged alphabetically and the specimens were deposited in
the Herbarium of Department of Botany, Islamia College, Peshawar.
2.2 Biological spectra
Plants were classified into various life-form classes after Raunkiaer
(1934) and Hussain (1989) as follows:
i. Therophytes (The)
These are the annual seed bearing plants which complete their
life cycle in one growing season and during the unfavourable winter season
by means of seeds and spores.
ii. Geophytes (G)
Their perennating buds are located below the surface of soil and
include plants with deep rhizomes, bulbs, corms, tubers and may also include
hydrophytes which may be submerged, partly submerged, free-floating and
leaf-floating.
24
iii. Hemicryptophytes (Hem)
These are the herbaceous perennials in which aerial portions of the
plants die at the end of growing seasons leaving a perennating bud at or just
below the ground surface and may be covered by litter.
iv. Chamaephytes (Cha)
Their perennating buds are located close to the surface of the ground at
a height of 25cm.
v. Phanerophytes
a. Nanophanerophytes (NaP)
Their perennating buds are borne on aerial shoots at a height of 0.25 m
(25 cm) up to 2m above the ground surface.
b. Microphanerophytes (MiP)
These are shrubby plant species with perennating buds located at a
height of 2 m to 7.5m above the ground.
c. Mesophanerophytes (MeP)
These are small trees with their perennating buds located at a height of
7.5 m to 30 m above the ground surface.
d. Megaphanerophytes (MgP)
These are tall tree species whose perennating buds are located over the
height of 30 m.
2.3 Leaf size spectra
Plants were classified into various Raunkiaerian (Raunkiaer, 1934) and
quantitative leaf sizes as follows:
25
i. Leptophylls (L). Leaf area up to 25 mm2.
ii. Nanophylls (N). Leaf area from 25 to 225 mm2.
iii. Microphylls (Mic). Leaf area from 225 to 2025 mm2.
iv. Mesophylls (Mes). Leaf area from 2025 to 18225 mm2.
v. Macrophylls (Mac). Leaf area from 18225 to 164025 mm2.
vi. Megaphylls (Meg). Leaf area larger than class v.
2.4 Phenological behavior
Plants were classified into the following four Phenological classes:
i. Pre-reproductive-vegetative / seedling stage (S1).
ii. Reproductive stage / Flowering stage (S2).
iii. Reproductive stage / Flower plus fruiting stage (S3).
iv. Post reproductive stage / Dormant stage / Drying stage (S4).
2.5 Phytosociology / Vegetation structure
Phytosociological studies were carried out in 06 representative selected
sites on the basis of species composition, density, frequency, coverage,
habitations, and physiognomic contrast. Vegetation was analyzed by using 5,
10 x 10 m quadrats for trees, 10, 5 x 5 m quadrats for shrubs and 15, 1x1 m
quadrats for herbs on each site during four seasons of the year viz. autumn,
winter, spring and summer. Density, cover and frequency of each species were
measured and values were changed to relative values (Badshah, 2011). The
plant communities were established based on highest importance values
(Digiovinazzo et al., 2010).
26
2.5.1 Density
Density is the number of individuals of a species in per unit area
Density = No. of individuals of a species
Area sampled
Relative Density = Density of a species x 100
Total density of all the species
2.5.2 Frequency
Frequency is the degree of distribution of a species in a community. It
is the percentage occurence of species in an area.
Frequency = No. of quadrats in which a species occurs x100
Total number of quadrats sampled
2.5.3 Relative frequency
It is the occurrence value of a species in relation to the occurrence of
other species. It can be calculated by following formula.
Relative frequency = Frequency for a speciesx100
Total frequency value for all species
2.5.4 Cover
Cover is the vertical projection of foliage shoots/crown of a species to
the ground surface expressed as fraction or percent of a surface area.
Coverage = X value of a species
Area sampled
X value = Sum of mid-points of coverage classes of a species
Total no of quadrats
Relative Cover = Cover or basal area of a species x100
Total Cover of all species
Following six cover classes (Doubenmire, 1979) were established for
estimating plant cover. Mid points values were used for calculation.
27
Table-2.1: Six Cover Classes for establishing plant cover
Coverage classes Range of coverage % Mid points of coverage
classes %
1 0-5 2.5
2 6-25 15
3 26-50 37.5
4 51-75 62.5
5 76-95 85
6 96-100 97.5
2.5.5 Importance Value
The relative values of each parameter for species were added to get the
importance values. The community was named after the three leading species
having the highest importance values as follows:
IV = RD+RC+RF
2.5.6 Family Importance Value (FIV)
Importance value of each species in a particular family was added
together to give rise the family importance value (FIV) for the recorded
families.
2.5.7 Edaphology
During July and August of 2013 to 2015, soil samples were collected
from 0-15 cm depth from five different sites and were analyzed for elemental
composition and physio-chemical characteristics.
28
2.5.8 Soil texture
The soil texture was determined by Hydrometer method (Bouyoucos,
1936) and textural classes were determined with the help of textural triangle
(Brady, 1990).
2.5.9 Water holding capacity
Water holding capacity of soils was determined by following Hussain
(1989).
Water holding capacity = Wet weight - Dry weight x100
Dry weight
2.5.10 Calcium carbonate
Calcium carbonate was determined by acid neutralization method
(Rayan et al., 1997).
2.5.11 Nitrogen
Total Nitrogen was determined by the Kjeldahl method of Bremner &
Mulvaney (1982).
2.5.12 Phosphorus
Phosphorus was determined after Olsen and Sommers (1982).
2.5.13 Potassium
Potassium was determined by flame emission spectroscopy (Rhoades,
1982).
2.5.14 pH
Soil pH was measured in 1:5 soil water suspensions with a pH meter
(Jackson, 1962).
29
2.5.15 Electrical conductivity
Electrical conductivity (EC) of the soil was determined in 1:5 soil
water suspensions with EC meter.
2.5.16 Total soluble salts
Total soluble salts were determined by the recommended method of
AOAC (1984).
2.5.17 Carbonates and bicarbonates
Dissolved carbonates (CO3-2
) and bicarbonates (H2CO3) were
determined by titration method (Jackson, 1962) as follows:
Carbonates (Meq/liter) = Volume of acid used in solution A for CO3-2 x 2 x N x1000
Volume of Soil extract
Bicarbonates (Meq/liter) = Vol. of acid used in sol. B - Vol. used in sol. A x N x 1000
Volume of Soil extract
2.5.18 Chloride
Dissolved chlorides (Cl-) were determined by titrating the soil
solution extract with Silver nitrate using Potassium chromate as an indicator
(Richard, 1954).
Chlorides (Meq/liter) = ml. of AgNO3 for sample - AgNO3 for blank x 0.005 x 1000
5 ml of water
2.5.19 Calcium++
Magnesium++
Calcium++
and Magnesium++
of soil saturated extracts were determined
by titration with Ethylene diamine tetra acetate (EDTA) and disodium salt
(Versenate) after Richard (1954).
30
2.5.20 Sodium
Sodium content of soil saturated extract was determined by flame
photometer.
2.5.21 Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR)
Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) was determined after Richards (1954)
as follows:
SAR = Na+ / √Ca
+++ Mg
++/2
2.5.22 Sulphates
Sulphate (SO4-2
) was determined by precipitation as Barium sulphate
(Richards, 1954).
SO4 (Meq/liter) = mg of BaSO4 precipitate x 8.568
Volume of Soil extract
2.6 Ethnobotany
As with the social sciences, fieldwork in ethnobotany is profoundly
influenced by the individual interaction between the researcher and his
network of “informants" (Ashkenazi, 1997). A large number of factors
influence the nature of these relationships, including theoretical approaches,
field techniques, ethical and philosophical values, personality and innumerable
circumstantial factors. Broad studies were carried out from 2013-2015. The
area was often visited for collection of plants diversity and ethnobotany of the
flora.
2.6.1 Ethnobotanical profile
Plants were classified into various categories on the basis of their uses
in the area, local economic uses with special reference to fodder species, fuel
timber, wood and medicinal uses. The information was collected from local
423 knowledgeable elderly persons and also supplemented with personal
31
observations during the field surveys. Study covered both the rural and urban
area of district Nowshera with an area of size 181610 acres. All the available
plants of the valley were carefully collected.
2.6.2 Observations
Field observation included local methods of collection, for example
drying, processing, storage and utilization of plants. This information collected
through interaction with the local people having sufficient plant resources
helped considerably in developing a broader image of the scope of study.
2.6.3 Interviews
Comprehensive interviews were conducted with the local people and
Hakeems (experts of herbal and organic remedies) so as to obtain data
pertaining to plant uses. Information about the importance of plants was
collected from the local people by interviews and group discussions. An open
questionnaire was also designed for collecting a systematic data and
conducting field analysis. Various informations including plants value, rate of
accessibility and consumptions, extent of plants consumed as fodder and fuel
was collected from the local people.
2.6.4 Preservation of vascular plants
The plant specimens collected from research area was preserved using
naphthalene. All the plants were poisoned by naphthalene powder and pressed
in papers or using blotting papers, upon drying, the plants were fixed on
herbarium sheets of standard size i-e 41.25cm´28.75cm. Every plant
specimens were given voucher numbers with its local and botanical names,
family names, part used by the people and other necessary informations.
2.6.5 Fuel and timber wood species
Data about the ethnobotany of fuel wood and timber wood species
was collected from different areas of district Nowshera, including brick baking
(kilns owner), food seller (tandoor owner), tree sellers (tree cutter), farmers
32
and fuel wood dealers following Ogunkunle & Oladele (2004) and Badshah et
al. (2006). These respondents were selected as they were more
knowledgeable by virtue of their profession, trades and utilization. The
study was conducted during 2013 - 2015. The questionnaire sought the name
of the preferred plant and quantity utilized. They were also asked to give the
reasons as to why a particular plant species was considered best for fuel and
timber wood. Fuel wood sellers were requested to quantify their weekly
sales with reference to number of mounds (1 mound equals to 50 kg).
The tree sellers were agreed upon to quantify their weekly cutting and
removal on the number of average standard logs.
2.6.6 Fodder plants
After a general survey and preliminary discussion with the farmers and
herdsmen, 15 villages were selected. In each village personal observations and
interviews were conducted with 25 randomly selected persons and were asked
to list the plants that are mostly used as fooder.
2.6.7 Local medicinal use of plants
The information on indigenous medicinal plants was gathered from
local people, experienced elderly rural folk, traditional herbal medicine
practitioners and local herbal drug sellers. Randomly selected respondents of
different age were interviewed in local languages. Information on local names,
plant parts used, diseases cured along with recipes and mode of administration
were recorded. The plants were ranked on the basis of preferences by the
inhabitants following Hussain et al. (2006).
2.6.8 Analysis and documentation of research data
The information collected during survey of the area was examined and
documented. The data obtained from the area, about plants uses, was noted.
This information was arranged according to their local uses and was
tabularized. The inventory for various uses of the indigenous plants included
33
voucher numbers, scientific names, local/common names, family, habit and
part of the plant used.
2.7 Phytochemical screening
The selected plant extracts were screened for different phytochemicals
in methanol, chloroform, and n- hexane crude extraction by using standard
procedure (Sofowara, 1993; Trease & Evans, 1989; Aylooa et al., 2008; Ghias
Uddin et al., 2012; Rauf et al., 2012) for identification of its chemical
constituents. The qualitative phytochemical screening was carried out for the
whole plant in the Department of Botany, Islamia College Peshawar in two
phenological stages (at vegetative stage and at post reproductive stage).
2.7.1 Test for alkaloids
Each plant fraction (0.2g) was warmed with 2% H2SO4 (2.0ml) for two
minutes. The reaction mixture was filtered and then a few drops of
Dragendrof’s reagent were sprayed on the filtrate. The appearance of orange
color indicated the presence of alkaloids.
2.7.2 Test for tannins
A small quantity of each extract of selected plants was mixed with
water, heated in water bath and then filtered. A few drops of FeCl3 were added
to the filtrate. As a result of this a dark green solutuion was obtained, which
indicated the presence of tannins.
2.7.3 Test for reducing sugars (Fehling’s test)
A few drops of Fehling’s solution (A and B) were boiled in a test tube
alongwith sample solutions (0.5 g of sample in 5 ml of water). Red
precipitates were formed which indicated the presence of sugars.
34
2.7.4 Test for saponins
5 ml of distilled water was added to 0.5 g of extract in a test tube. The
solution was boiled and shaken vigorously till the formation of a stable
persistent froth. 3 drops of olive oil were added to the froth and was again
shaken vigorously till the formation of an emulsion.
2.7.5 Test for flavonoids
Dilute ammonia (5 ml) was added to a portion of an aqueous filtrate
extract. Concentrated sulphuric acid (1 ml) was also added. The yellow
coloration disappeared when the test contents stabilized. This indicated the
presence of flavonoids
2.7.6 Test for terpenoids
Concentrated sulphuric acid (3 ml) was carefully added to a test tube
containing 0.5 g of each of the extracts in 2 ml of chloroform. Reddish brown
coloration at the interface indicated the presence of terpenoids.
2.7.7 Test for cardiac glycosides (Keller-Killiyani test)
About 0.5 g of extract was diluted with 5 ml of water. In this diluted
extract 2 ml of glacial acetic acid containing one drop of ferric chloride
solution was added drop wise. This was underacted with 1 ml of concentrated
sulphuric acid. A brown ring at the interface indicated the presence of a
deoxysugar.
2.7.8 Total phenolic contents
Total phenolics of various samples were determined by the method of
Makkar et al. (1993). A sample of 0.1 ml (0.5 mg/ml) was combined with 2.8
ml of 10% Na2CO3 and 0.1 mL of 2N Folin-ciocalteu reagent. The brownish
colour indicated the presence of phenolic contents.
35
2.7.9 Test for anthraquinones
Each extract (0.5g) was boiled with 10% HCl for few minutes. The
mixture was then filtered and allowed to cool. Equal volume of CHCl3 was
added to the filtrate along with few drops of 10% NH3 and then heated. Rose-
pink color formation was obtained which indicated the presence of
anthraquinones.
36
CHAPTER-3
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Floristic composition
The floristic composition and diversity of plants of an area is the
reflection of vegetation and resources of plant species. These important
resources are badly affected by many biotic and abiotic factors like
agriculture, over grazing, cutting and natural changes. The flora of district
Nowshera comprised of 221 species which belonged to 75 families. Monocots
had the share of 35 species, dicots had 184 species and there were only 3
species of pteridophytes. Family Poaceae dominated the study area with 28
species (12.61%), followed by Asteraceae which had 22 species (9.90%).
Brassicaceae had 15 species (6.75 %), Papilionaceae had 14 species (5.85%),
Euphorbiaceae and Amaranthaceae with 8 species each (3.60%), Lamiaceae
had 9 specieswhile family Polygonaceae and Solanaceae had 6 and 5 species
each (2.25%). Moraceae and Verbenaceae were represented by 4 species each
(1.80%). Family Boraginaceae, Gerianiaceae, Mimosaceae, Plantagonaceae,
Scrophulariaceae, Zygophyllaceae, Apiaceae, Rosaceae, Caesalpinaceae,
Malvaceae and Chenopodiaceae had 3 species each (1.35%). The families
which had 0.90% share with two species each were Adiantaceae, Cyperaceae,
Linaceae, Apocynaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Cucurbitaceae,
Lythraceae, Nyctiginaceae, Oleaceae, Ranunculaceae, Capparaceae and
Rhamnaceae. The remaining 41 families shared 1 species each (0.45%). The
abundance and species distribution in this area revealed that families Poaceae
and Asteraceae were present in large number through out the research area.
Malik & Malik (2004) reported that family Poaceae was dominant in their
survey at Kotli Hills during monsoon. Sher et al. (2003) investigated that the
largest family was Lamiaceae (09 species), followed by Asteraceae, Poaceae
(each with 05 species) and Rosaceae (04 species) from Udigram. Durrani et al.
(2005) reported that family Asteraceae was the leading family in Harboi
rangeland Kalat.This occurrence in large number of these families may be
37
mainly attributed to the wide ecological amplitude of the species belonging to
these families. Results, similar to our findings, were reported by Mendez
(2005), Muthuramet al. (2000), Bahtti et al. (2001), Qureshi & Bhatti (2005,
2008 a,b) and Perveen et al. (2008). Poaceae and Asteraceae (each with 04
species) had been reported from flora of Chakwal (Hussain et al., 2009).
All the species reported from the research area were classified on the
basis of habitat. The hydrophytes were represented by 44 species (19.81%),
xerophytes by 157 species (70.72%), while 21 species (9.459%) were of
amphibious nature. The floristic list showed that herbs were 167 (75.22%),
shrubs 35 (15.76%) and trees were 20 (9.00%) in number. Durrani et al.
(2005, 2010), and Badshah et al. (2006) reported that herbaceous vegetation
was dominant from Ladha, South Waziristan, Pakistan. Sher et al. (2003) from
Udigram Swat, Hussain et al. (2005) from Ghalegay Swat, Sher & Khan
(2007) and Fazal et al. (2010) from district Haripur had reported similar
results. Gimenze et al. (2004) had reported 140 species (68.3%) of xerophytes,
46 species (22.4%) of hydrophytes and 10 amphibious species (4.8%) from
Iberian Peninsula.
Badshah et al. (2006) reported that dense vegetation was the sign of
plant diversity and high density of species in an area. Qualitative features of
vegetation of an area were indications of many factors like water availability,
temperature, soil structure etc. Important parameters of vegetations are
floristic composition, gene pool, and diversity of plant in an area (Siddiqui et
al., 2009). The ecological characteristics of plants species such as phenology,
periodicity and leaf size spectra were important for phytosociological work
(Walther, 2003).
3.1.1 Life form and seasonal variation
The area under investigation was composed of sporadic trees and scrub
vegetation in some places. Due to excessive deforestation the percentage of
trees at many places had become low. The area had the potential to support
shrub and tree vegetation, if grazing and cutting were checked and kept in
38
control (Rehman Ullah et al., 2011). Life form plays a vital role in reflecting
the external look of the flora and vegetation of an area. Many abiotic factors
influence morphology and physiology of plant life. It provides help in the
identification and ecological elucidation of plant species. This classification is
based upon the basic role of position and also the level of protection to their
perennating buds during unfavourable conditions.
Seasonal changes showed that in different seasons different life forms
were dominant. Dominancy of different plants in different seasons may be
attributed to changing environmental factors and the ecological amplitude of
plants.
Nanophanerophytes with 23 species were dominant during autumn
(10.36%) followed by microphanerophytes with 20 (9.69%) species,
geophytes with 08 (3.60%), chaemophytes with 05 and therophytes with 04
species each (2.25%), and hemicryptophytes with 03 species (1.5%).
In winter nanophanerophyte life form was dominant with 42 species
(18.91%) followed by therophytes with 31 species (14.41%),
microphanerophytess 23 species (10.36%), geophytes with 12 species
(5.40%),chamaephytes with 06 species (2.70%), and hemicryptophytes shared
04 species (1.80%).
In spring season the therophytes was dominant with 61 species
(27.47%). The therophytes dominated the area due to its short life cycle, high
ability of adaptation and probably due to high ecological amplitude (Musila et
al., 2003; Guo et al., 2009). Nanophanerophytes with 40 species (18.01%)
were next in number followed by microphanerophytes with 21 (9.45%),
geophytes with 14 (6.30%), chamaephytes with 11 species (4.95%) and
hemicryptophytes shared 7 species (3.15%). Rich species diversity was
reported in spring and summer seasons from Aghberg rangelands, and
highlands of Balochistan, the reports also stated that during spring the
therophytes were dominant, (Durrani et al., 2010; Ahmad et al., 2009) which
supported our results
39
During summer the dominant class was nanophanerophytes with 33
species (14.86%), followed by therophytes with 28 species (13.06%),
microphanerophytess with 20 species (9.09%), chaemophytes and geophytes
with 8 species each (3.60 %), while hemicryptophytes shared only 2 species
(0.90%).
Many factors, like deforestation, aridity and over grazing, added in the
removal/erosion of stratification. Only few areas, including Cherat hills,
Manglot Wild Life Park and Bahadar Baba hills at Manki Sharif were
protected and represented stratified vegetation. Batalha & Martin (2002)
investigated that in Brazil the dominant life form was phanerophytes and
hemicryptophytes. Devineau et al. (2007) from Dynow foothills (Western
Carpathians) also reported the therophytes as a dominant life form. Costa et al.
(2007) showed that therophytes were dominant followed by phanerophytes in
SouthEastern Brazil.
3.1.2 Leaf size spectra and seasonal variation
Nonophylls were dominant in the area with 94 species (42.43%)
followed by microphylls with 75 (33.78%) species, leptophylls with 32
(14.41%) species, mesophylls with 16 species (7.20%); aphyllous shared 04
species (2.25 %) to the area.
In spring maximum plants showed their appearance among which the
nanophylls were dominant with 71 species (31.98%) followed by microphylls
with 49 species (22.7%), leptophylls with 21 (9.45%) and mesophyll with 12
species (5.45 %) while aphyllous were represented by 4 species (1.80%).
In autumn the nanophylls were the leading plant with 34 species
(15.31%) followed by microphylls with 24 (10.81%), leptophylls with 12
(5.40%), mesophyll with 5 species (2.25%) and aphyllous plant shared 2
species (1.35%).
In winter the nanophylls with 41 species (18.47%) were the leading
plant followed by microphylls with 30 species (13.51%), leptophylls with 11
40
species (4.95%) mesophylls with 4 species (1.80%) and aphyllous with 3
species each (1.00%).
During summer the dominant leaf size class was microphylls with 46
species (20.72%), followed by nanophylls with 42 species (18.91%),
mesophylls with 8 species (3.60%), leptophylls with 11 species (4.95%) and
aphyllous shared 2 species (1.35%). The leaf size spectra are directly related to
the environmental conditions of a particular area. Microphylls are basically
feature of steppes, where the water easily runs off after rain and not available
for plant growth, while the nanophylls and leptophylls are related to harsh
environmental conditions (Cain & Castro, 1959; Hussain et al., 2005). Ahmad
et al. (2010) investigated large percentage of microphylls from their study
area. Batalha & Martin (2002) presented the relationship of leaf size with
environmental conditions. Maliket al. (2007) and Badshah et al. (2010)
reported that nanophylls in autumn and microphylls in summer were the
dominant leaf size class from their respective study areas thus their results
were in conformity to our findings.
41
Table 3.1: Floristic diversity and ecological characteristics
S.No. Botanical Name Habitat A W S Sm Life Form Leaf Size Lamina Habit
Pteridophyta
1. Family Adiantaceae
1 Adiantum capillus-veneris L. W + + + + G Np Dis Hb
2 Adiantum incisum Forssk. W + + + + G Np Dis Hb
2. Family Equisetaceae
3 Equisetum arvensis L. W - - + - G Ap Abs Hb
Monocotyledon Families
3. Family Arecaceae
4 Phoenix dactylifera L. W & D + + + + McP Mec Com Tr
4. Family Alliaceae
5 Allium griffithianum Boiss. D - - + - Th Np S Hb
5. Family Aspodelaceae.
6 Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. D - + - - G Lp S Hb
Continued…
42
6. Family Cypraceae
7 Cyperus rotundus L. W + + - + G Np S Hb
8 Cyperus bulbosusVahl. W + + - + G Np S Hb
7. Family Liliaceae
9 Tulipa clusiana DC. D - - + - Th Mic S Hb
8. Family Poaceae
10 Apluda mutica L. D - - - + Th Np S Hb
11 Avena sativa L. D - + - - Th Np S Hb
12 Aristida monantha Michx. D + + + - Th Np S Hb
13 Arundo donax L. W + + + + G Mp S Hb
14 Bromus pectinatus Thunb. D - - + - Th Mic S Hb
15 Chrysopogon gryllus (L.) Trin. D - - + + NP Mic S Hb
16 Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Jones) Schult. D - - + - H Np S Hb
Continued…
43
17 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. D&W + + + + H Lp S Hb
18 Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk.) Stapf D&W - + - - H Np S Hb
19 Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf. D&W + - + - H Np S Hb
20 Eragrostis ciliaris (L.) R.Br. W - - + - Th Mic S Hb
21 Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. D - - - + Th Mic S Hb
22 Echinochloa colona (L.) Link D - - - + Th Np S Hb
23 Enneapogon persicus Boiss. D - - + + Th Mic S Hb
24 Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. W + - + - G Lp S Hb
25 Lolium temulentum L. W - + + - NP Np S Hb
26 Miscanthus nepalensis (Trin.) Hack. D - - - + Th Mic S Hb
27 Pennisetum orientale Rich. D - - + - Th Np S Hb
28 Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex Steud. W + - + + Th Mec S Hb
29 Poa annua L. W - + + - Th Lp S Hb
Continued…
44
30 P. infirma Kunth W - - - + Ch Lp S Hb
31 Polypogon monspeliensis (L.) Desf. W - - + - Ch Mic S Hb
32 Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. & Schult. D - - + - Th Mic S Hb
33 S. viridis (L.) P.Beauv. D - - + - Th Mic S Hb
34 Sorghum halepense (Linn) Bres. D - - - + Th Mic S Hb
35 Saccharum griffithii Munro ex Boiss. D - - + + NP Np S Hb
36 S. spontaneum Linn. W + + + + G Mec S Hb
37 Tetrapogon villosus Desf. D - - - + Th Lp S Hb
Dicotyledons Families
9. Family Acanthaceae
38 Justicia adhatoda L. D + + + + NP Lp S Sb
10. Family Amaranthaceae
39 Achyranthes aspera L. D + - - - Th Np S Hb
40 Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br. Ex DC. D - - + - Th Mic S Hb
Continued…
45
41 A. pungens Kunth. D - - - + Th Mic S Hb
42 Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Juss. D + + + Ch Lp S Hb
43 Amaranthus viridis L. D + - - - Th Np S Hb
44 Celosia argentea L. D - + + - NP Lp S Hb
45 Digera muricata (L.) Mart. D&W - - - + Th Mic S Hb
46 Pupalia lappacea Linn. D - - - + Th Mic S Hb
11. Family Apiaceae
47 Eryngium coeruleum M. Bieb. D - - - + Th Np Dis Hb
48 Ferula jaeschkeana Vatke. D&W - + + - NP Mic Dis Hb
49 Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC. D - - + - Th Np S Hb
12. Family Apocynaceae
50 Nerium oleander Linn. D&W + + + + NP Mic S Sb
51 Rhazya stricta Decne. D + + + + Ch Np S Sb
13. Family Asclepiadaceae
52 Calotropis procera Aiton. D + + + + NP Mec S Sb
Continued…
46
53 Periploca aphylla Decne. D + + + + Ch Ap Abs Sb
14. Family Asparagaceae
54 Asparagus asiaticus L. D + + + + G Np S Hb
15. Family Asteraceae
55 Artemisia vulgaris L. W - - + + NP Np Dis Hb
56 A. scoparia L. W - - + + NP Np Dis Hb
57 Ageratum conyzoidesL. D - - - + Th Mic S Hb
58 Bidens tripartite L. W&D - - + - Th Np S Hb
59 Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist. D - - - + Th Np S Hb
60 Calendula arvensis L. W - - + - Th Np S Hb
61 Carthamus oxycantha M.B TH Mie W&D - - + - Th Mic S Hb
62 Cirsium arvense L. Scop. D - - - + Th Mic S Hb
63 Cichorium intybus Linn. W&D - + + - NP Mic S Hb
Continued…
47
64 Dittrichia graveolens (L.) Greuter D - - - + Th Np S Hb
65 Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. W + - + - G Np S Hb
66 Lactuca serriola L. D - - + + Th Mec Dis Hb
67 L. dissecta D. Don D - - + - Th Mic S Hb
68 Parthenium hysterophorus L. D&W + - + + Mcp Mic S Hb
69 Phagnalon niveum Edgew. D - - + - Th Lp S Hb
70 Silybum marianum Gaertn. D - - + - Th Mec Dis Hb
71 Serratula pallida DC. D&W - - - + Th Mic S Hb
72 Saussurea heteromalla (De. Don) Hand. D - - + + Th Mic S Hb
73 Sonchus asper (L.) Hill W - - - + Th Mec Dis Hb
74 Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber. W - - - + Th Mic S Hb
75 Tagetes minuta L D - - + + NP Np Dis Hb
76 Xanthium strumarium L. D - - + - Th Np S Hb
Continued…
48
16. Family Berberidaceae
77 Berberis lycium Royle. D + + + + NP Np S Sb
17. Family Brassicaceae
78 Alyssum desertorum Stapf. D - - + - Th Lp S Hb
79 Cardaria draba (L.) Desv. D - - + + NP Mic S Hb
80 Coronopus didymus (L.) Smith W + + - - Th Mic Dis Hb
81 Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik D&W - - + - Th Lp S Hb
82 Eruca sativa Mill. W - + + - NP Mic S Hb
83 Farsetia jacquemontii Hook.f. & Thomson D + - - - Th Lp S Hb
84 Lepidium sativum Linn. D - - - + Th Np S Hb
85 L. ruderale L. D - - - + Th Np S Hb
86 Malcolmia africana (L.) R. Br. D - - + - Th Np S Hb
87 Microsisymbrium O.E. Schulz. D - - + - Th Mic Dis Hb
Continued…
49
88 Nasturtium officinale R.Br. W - - + - Th Np S Hb
89 Persicaria glabra (Willd.) M. Gomez W - - + + NP Mic S Hb
90 Rorippa palustris (L.) Besser. D - - + - Th Np S Hb
91 Sisymbrium irio L. D - - + + Th Np Dis Hb
92 Torularia afghanica (Gilli) Hedge D - - + - Th Mic Dis Hb
18. Family Boraginaceae
93 Arnebia hispidissima (Sieber ex Lehm.) A. DC. D - - + - Th Np S Hb
94 Heliotropium europaeum L. D - - + - Th Mp S Hb
95 Lithospermum arvense L. D - - + - Th Np S Hb
19. Family Buddlejaceae
96 Buddleja crispa Benth. D + + + + NP Np S Sb
20. Family Cactaceae
97 Opuntia dillenii Haw. D + + + + NP Np Abs Sb
Continued…
50
21. Family Caesalpinaceae
98 Parkinsonia aculeataL. D + + + + NP Np Com Sb
99 Cassia occidentalis hort. ex Steud. D + + + + McP Np S Sb
100 Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit. D + + + + McP Mic Comp Tr
22. Family Cannabinaceae
101 Cannabis sativa L. W&D + + + + McP Np S Hb
23. Family Capparaceae
102 Capparis spinosa L. D + + + + McP Mic S Sb
103 C.decidua (Forssk.) Edgew. D + + + + NP Ap S Sb
24. Family Caprifoliaceae
104 Lonicera griffithii Hook. f. &Thoms D&W + + + + McP Mic S Sb
25. Family Caryophyllaceae
105 Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke. W - - + - Th Np S Hb
Continued…
51
106 Stellaria media L. W - - + - Th Np Dis Hb
26. Family Celastraceae
107 Maytenus royleanus Wall. Ex Lawson. D - + + + NP Mic Com Sb
27. Family Chenopodiaceae
108 Chenopodium album L. D - + + - Th Np S Hb
109 C. ambrosioides L. W - - + - Th Lp S Hb
110 C. murale L. D + - - - Th Lp S Hb
28. Family Convolvulaceae
111 Convolvulus arvensis L. D + + - - Th Np S Hb
29. Family Cornaceae
112 Cornus macrophylla Wall. Ex Roxb. D + + + + McP Mic S Tr
30. Family Crassulaceae
113 Sedum hispanicum L. D - - + - Th Lp S Hb
Continued…
52
31. Family Cucurbitaceae
114 Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. D + - - - Th Mic Dis Hb
115 Cucumis melo var agretis (Naud.) Grebensc. D - - - + Th Mic S Hb
32. Family Cuscutaceae
116 Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. D + + + + Par Ap Abs Ps
33. Family Euphorbiaceae
117 Chrozophora tinctoria (L.) Raf. D - - - + Th Mic S Hb
118 Euphorbia granulata Forssk. D + - - - H Lp S Hb
119 E. pilulifera L. D - - + - Th Np S Hb
120 E. helioscopia L. D - - + - Th Np S Hb
121 E. prostrata L. D + - + - Th Np S Hb
122 E. heterophylla L. D - - - + Th Mic S Hb
123 E. pepulus L. D - - + + Th Lp S Hb
Continued…
53
124 Ricinus communis L. D - - + + Ch Mic S Sb
34. Family Fumariaceae
125 Fumaria indica (Hausskn.) Pugsley. D - + - - Th Np Dis Hb
35. Family Geraniaceae
126 Erodium ciconium L. D - - + - Th Mic Dis Hb
127 Geranium rotundifolium L. D - - + - Th Mic Dis Hb
128 G. malacoides L. D - - + - Th Mic Dis Hb
36. Family Hypericaceae
129 Hypericum perforatum L. D - + - - Ch Np S Hb
37. Family Lamiaceae
130 Ajuga bracteosa Wall.ex Benth. D - + + + Th Mic S Hb
131 Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze. W&D - + + - NP Mic S Hb
132 Caryopteris odorata (D. Don) B.L. Rob. D + + + + NP Mp S Hb
Continued…
54
133 Isodon rugosus (Wall ex Benth) D + + + + NP Np S Sb
134 Leucas cephalotes (Roth) Spreng. D - - + + Ch Mic S Hb
135 Mentha longifolia L. W - + + - G Np S Hb
136 M. spicata L. W - + + - G Np S Hb
137 Rydingia limbata (Benth.) Scheen & V.A.Albert D + + + + NP Np S Sb
138 Salvia moorcroftiana Wall.ex Benth. D - - + + Th Mic S Hb
38. Family Linaceae
139 Linum corymbulosum Rchb. D - - + - Th Np S Hb
39. Family Lythraceae
140 Ammannia auriculata Wild. D - - + + NP Mic S Hb
141 A. baccifera L D + + + + Ch Np S Hb
40. Family Malvaceae
142 Abutilon bidentatum Hochst. ex A.Rich. D + + + + Ch Np S Hb
Continued…
55
143 Malva neglecta Wallr. D - + + + Th Mic S Hb
144 Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke. D - - + - H Np S Hb
41. Family Meliaceae
145 Melia azedarach L. D + + + + McP Np Com Tr
42. Family Mimosaceae
146 Acacia modesta Wall. D + + + + McP Lp Com Tr
147 A. nilotica (L.)Wild. ex Delile D + + + + McP Lp Com Tr
148 Prosopis juliflora Swartz. D + + + + McP Lp Com Sb
43. Family Moraceae
149 Broussonetia papyrifera Vent. D + + + + McP Mic S Tr
150 Ficus carica L. D + + + + NP Mic S Tr
151 Morus alba L. D + + + + NP Mic S Tr
152 M. nigra L. D + + + + McP Mic S Tr
Continued…
56
44. Family Myrsinaceae
153 Myrsine africana L. D + + + + NP Np S Sb
45. Family Myrtaceae
154 Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. D + + + + McP Np S Tr
46. Family Nyctiginaceae
155 Boerhavia diffusa L. D - + - - H Np S Hb
156 B. procumbens Banks ex Roxb D + - - - H Np S Tr
47. Family Oleaceae
157 Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata (Wall. & G.Don)
Cif.
D + + + + McP Mic S Tr
158 O. ferruginea Wall. ex G. Aitch. D + + + + McP Mic S Tr
48. Family Oxalidaceae
159 Oxalis corniculata L. W - - + + Th Np Com Hb
49. Family Papaveraceae
160 Papaver pavoninum Schrenk. D - - + - Th Np Com Hb
Continued…
57
50. Family Papilionaceae
161 Alhagi maurorum Medic. D - - - + H Lp S Sb
162 Astragalus amherstianusBenth D - - - + Th Np Com Hb
163 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. W&D + + + + McP Np Com Tr
164 Indigofera linifolia (Linn.f.) Retz D - - + - Th Np S Hb
165 Lathyrus aphaca L. W + - - - Th Np Com Hb
166 Medicago sativa L. D - - + - Th Np Com Hb
167 M. laciniata (L.) Mill. D - + + - Th Np Com Hb
168 Trifolium alexandrinum L. W - + + - Th Np Com Hb
169 T. repens L. W&D - + + - Th Np Com Hb
170 Trigonella incisa Benth. D - - + - Th Np Com Hb
171 Vicia monantha Retz. D - - + - Th Np Com Hb
172 V. sativa L. D - - + - Th Np Com Hb
Continued…
58
173 Lotus corniculatus L. D - - + - Th Lp S Hb
174 Oxytropis campestris (L.) DC. D - - + - Th Np S Hb
51. Family Plantaginaceae
175 Misopates orontium (L.) Raf. D - - + - Th Lp S Hb
176 Plantago lanceolata L. W - - + + Th Np S Hb
177 P. major L. W - - + + Th Mp S Hb
52. Family Polygalaceae
178 Polygala abyssinica R. Br. ex Fresen. D - - + - Th Lp S Hb
53. Family Polygonaceae
179 Bistorta amplexicaulis (D. Don) Green W + + + + G Mec S Hb
180 Polygonum mucolosa L. W - - + + NP Mic S Hb
181 P. aviculer L. W - - + - Ch Mic S Hb
182 P. plebeium R. Br. D - - + + G Mec S Hb
183 Rumex hestatus L. W - - + - NP Mec S Hb
Continued…
59
184 R. dentatus L. W - - + - G Mec S Hb
54. Family Primulaceae
185 Anagallis arvensis L. W - + - - Th Np S Hb
55. Family Ranunculaceae
186 Delphinium kohatense Munz D - - - + Th Mec Dis Hb
187 Ranunculus laetus Wall. ex Royle. W - - + + G Mic Dis Sb
56. Family Rhamnaceae
188 Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. D + + + + McP Np S Sb
189 Z. nummularia Burm. f. D + + + + NP Np S Tr
57. Family Rosaceae
190 Cotoneaster microphyllsus Wall. Ex Lindl. D + + + + NP Np S Sb
191 Rubus fruticosus L. D&W + + + + Mcp Mic Comp Sb
192 Spiraea corymbosa Raff. D + + + + NP Np S Sb
Continued…
60
58. Family Rutaceae
193 Zanthoxylum armatum DC. D + + + + Mcp Mic S Sb
59. Family Rubiaceae
194 Galium tricornutum Dandy. D - - + - Th Lp S Hb
60. Family Salicaceae
195 Populus nigra L. D + + + + Mcp Mec S Tr
61. Family Sapindaceae
196 Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. D + + + + NP Np S Sb
62. Family Sapotaceae
197 Monotheca buxifolia (Falc.) A.DC D + + + + NP Np S Sb
63. Family Scrophulariaceae
198 Kickxia ramosissima (Wall.) Janch. D - - + - Th Np S Hb
199 Veronica anagallis-aquatica L. W - - + - Th Np Dis Hb
200 Verbascum thapsus L. D - - + - Th Mec S Hb
Continued…
61
64. Family Simarubaceae
201 Ailanthus altissima (Mill) Swingle D + + + + McP Mic Com Tr
65. Family Solanaceae
202 Datura innoxia Mill.NP Mes D - - + - Ch Mic S Hb
203 Solanum nigrum var. nigrum L. D - - + + H Np S Hb
204 S. surattense Burm. f. W&D - - + - Ch Mic S Hb
205 Withania coagulans (Stocks) Dunal. D + + + + Ch Mic S Sb
206 W. somnifera (L.) Dunal. D - - + + McP Lp S Sb
66. Family Tamaricaceae
207 Tamarix dioica Roxb. ex Roth. W + + + + McP Np S Tr
67. Family Thymelaecae
208 Daphne mucronata L. D + + + + NP Mic S Sb
68. Family Tiliaceae
209 Corchorus tridens L. D + - - + Ch Mic S Hb
Continued…
62
69. Family Ulmaceae
210 Celtis eriocarpa Decne. D + + + + NP Np S Tr
70. Family Utricaceae
211 Debregeasia salicifolia (D.Don) D - - + - Th Mec S Sb
71. Family Valerianaceae
212 Valeriana wallichii DC. D - - + - Th Mec S Hb
72. Family Verbenaceae
213 Lantana camara L. D + + + + NP Mic S Sb
214 Phyla nodiflora L. W - - + + Th Lp S Hb
215 Verbena officinalis L. D + - + + Th Np Dis Hb
216 Vitex negundo L. W&D + + + + NP Mic S Sb
73. Family Violaceae
217 Viola stocksii Boiss. D - - + - Th Lp S Hb
Continued…
63
74. Family Vitaceae
218 Vitis jacquemontii Parker. D + + + + NP Mic S Sb
75. Family Zygophyllaceae
Continued…
219 Fagonia cretica L. D + + + - H Lp S Hb
220 Peganum harmala L. D - - + - H Lp Dis Hb
221 Tribulus terrestris L. D + - - + H Lp Com Hb
Key:
Habitat Habit Life Form Leaf Size Lamina
D = Dry
W= Wet
Hb = Herb
Sb = Shrub
Tr = Tree
Th = Therophyte
H = Haemicryptophyte
Ch = Chamaephyte
G = Geophyte
NP = Nanophanerophytes
Mcp= Microphanerophytes
Par = Parasite
Leptophyll = Lp
Nanophyll = Np
Microphyll = Mic
Mesophyll = Mec
Aphyllous = Ap
Sim = Simple
Dis = Dissected
Com = Compound
Abs = Absent
64
Figure-3.1: Floristic list of district Nowshera
65
Table-3.2: Summary of ecological characteristics of plants
S.No. Ecological characteristics No Percentage
1. Flora
i. Total species 221
Ii. Family 75
iii. Genera 196
2. Seasonality/Aspect
i. Autumn 83 37.837
ii. Winter 89 40.540
iii. Spring 172 77.927
iv. Summer 119 54.054
3. Habitat types
i. Wet 45 19.819
ii. Dry 155 70.720
iii. Both 21 9.459
4. Lamina shape
i. Simple 170 76.576
ii. Compound 23 10.360
iii. Absent 04 2.252
iv. Dissected 24 10.810
5. Life form
i. Therophytes 109 50.1
ii. Hemicryptophytes 13 5.855
iii. Chamaephytes 15 6.756
Continued…
66
iv. Geophytes 17 7.657
v. Nanophanerophytes 41 17.117
vi. Microphanerophytes 25 10.810
vii. Parasites 01 0.450
6. Leaf size spectra
i. Leptophylls 32 14.41
ii. Nanophylls 94 42.34
iii. Microphylls 75 33.78
iv. Mesophylls 16 7.20
v. Aphyllous 04 2.25
3.2 Phenological behavior
Seasonal variation is very important for the development of plant body
and different events which are related to plant life cycle such as opening of
buds, flowering or leaf drop in autumn (Pott, 2011). Phenological
phenomenon depends on the environmental conditions. The physical stature of
plant is affected by changes in environmental conditions. Each plant species
shows different phenological activity under varied climatic conditions.
Flowering occurs during favourable condition in different seasons. In
our research area, March-May was the first flowering spell, in which 129
plants flowered (Table-3.3). The second flowering period was noticed from
June to September in which 68 species started reproduction. Last flowering
spell started from the month of December till end of February and was
represented by 16 species.
The species changed their phenology, during different seasons of the
year. Zhang et al. (2009) reported that warmth in winter generally makes
spring like phenology.
67
There were 16 plants species which were bloomed from December to
February (Table-3.5). The blooming of the plants was on peak in the month of
March where 53 species were bloomed. Our survey was not in conformity
with Malik et al. (2007) who reported that July and August were the months
where majority of the plants produced flowers. The apparent variations in
phenology may be attributed to the changes in the locality, accompanied by
variations in environmental factors. The percentage of flowering was 48
(21.62%), 28 (12.61%), 31 (13.96%), 24 (10.81%), 11 (4.95%), 02 (0.90%)
for the month of April, May, June, July, August and September respectively
where as it was 03 (1.35%), 01 (0.45%), 07 (3.15%), 05 (2.25%) and 04 (1.8
%) for the month of October, November, December, January and February
respectively. Generally the flowering capabilities of species decreased from
spring to winter seasons. During rainy and at the beginning of spring season
flowering and other events of plants are on peak in semi-arid region (Qadir,
1986) which are related to our report. In our findings mild seasons had
maximum flowering. Golluscio et al. (2005) presented that in autumn–winter,
the grasses had high phenological activity than other plants groups, which are
the favourable seasons for their collection at vegetative and reproductive
stage. In our study and survey many of the grasses were bloomed in the early
winter.
It was noticed that 119 of the plants species (53.60%) were in fruiting
stage during April to June, 50 species (22.52%) were noticed from August to
October, while the remaining 47 species (21.17%) produced their fruit in
different months of the year. In April maximum number of species (51
species, 22.97%) produced fruits. The number of plants in fruiting stage in
different months of a year was 41species (18.46%) in May followed by 27
species (12.16%) in June, 28 species (12.61%) in July and August each, 17
species (7.65%) in September, 07 species (3.15%) in February, 05 species
(2.25%) in October, 04 species (1.80%) each in January and March and 02
(0.90%) each species in November and December.
Whenever the conditions became favourable, the plants showed
vigorous vegetative growth. A high number of plant species i.e. 141 species
68
(63.51%) were present in their vegetative phase especially in the month of
February to May. A large number of species started their fair vegetative
growth in this period mainly because of onset of suitable environmental
conditions.
A report from South America stated that beginning of fruiting stage
occurred at the end of April and starting of May (Morellato, 2003). Van et al.
(2006) showed that these periods (April-May) had a positive effect on seed
germination. In our report annual grasses produced seeds and fruits in the
month of December. Their phenological behaviour provided a detail about
their growth. Jadeja & Nakar (2010) noticed that activity of fruit was high in
the month of December. During this period 50% species were reported to be in
fruiting. The duration of fruit maturation, and its ripening was longest, while
the duration of leaves development was short. A seasonal change is the cause
of fruiting and flowering in many species. It is related to the hypothesis that
changes and variation in seasons reduce the evolution of reproduction
phenologies (Zimmerman et al., 2007).
Our result is in conformity with the survey of Osada et al. (2006) who
reported that the growth of flowering and fruiting is particularly abundant in
the month of April and May. Beside these two months, the rest of the months
were considered as dormant phase for many plant species in the study area. In
the 1st dormant spell i.e. from October – December majority of species were
dormant. While the 2nd
period of dormancy started from June to August. The
results were in accordance to the work of Jadeja & Nakar (2010) who
presented that in the month of January leaf fall occurred in most species. New
leaves were formed before monsoon particularly in the month of February and
March.
Phenology of plants is related to biotic and climatic factors. In most of
the cases environmental conditions determined the most suitable period for the
growth and change in phenology of plants (Saima et al., 2010). During this
survey, in the month of October, it was observed that leaf fall started in
deciduous trees and shrubs mainly because of the onset of autumn season and
gradual decrease in temperature.
69
Table-3.3: Phenological behavior of plants during 2013
S.No. Species Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Herbs
1 Abutilon bidentatum Hochst. ex
A.Rich. PRe - - - - Veg - - Fl - Fr -
2 Achyranthes aspera L. - - - - - Veg Fl - - Fr - PRe
3 Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Juss. - - - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - -
4 Ageratum conyzoides L. - - - - - Veg Fl - - Fr PRe -
5 Ajuga bracteosa Wall.ex Benth. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -
6 Allium griffithianum Boiss. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -
7 Alternanthera pungens Kunth. - - - - Veg Fl Fru PRe - - - -
8 A. sessilis (L.) R. Br. ex DC. - - - - Veg Fl - Fr - PRe - -
9 Alyssum desertorum Stapf. - Veg Fl Fr - Pre - - - - - -
10 Amaranthus viridis L. - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - -
Continued…
70
11 Ammannia auriculata Wild. - - - - Veg Fl Fr - - PRe - -
12 A. baccifera L. - - - - Veg Fl Fr - - PRe - -
13 Anagallis arvensis L. - - - Veg Fl Fr - - - - PRe -
14 Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze. Fl - Fr PRe - - - - - - - Veg
15 Apluda mutica L. - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -
16 Aristida monantha Michx Fr PRe - - - - - - - - Veg Fl
17 Arnebia hispidissima (Sieber ex
Lehm.) A. DC. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -
18 Artemisia scoparia L. - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - - -
19 A. vulgaris L. - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - - -
20 Arundo donax L. - - - - Veg - Fl - Fr - PRe -
21 Asparagus asiaticus L. - - - - - Veg - Fl Fr Fl - -
22 Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. Fr PRe - - - - - - - - Veg Fl
23 Astragalus amherstianus Benth. - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - -
Continued…
71
24 Avena sativa L. - - Fl Fr - Pre - - - - Veg -
25 Bidens tripartite L. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -
26 Bistorta amplexicaulis (D. Don)
Green - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - -
27 Boerhavia diffusa L. - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - -
28 Bromus pectinatus Thunb. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -
29 Calendula arvensis L. - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - -
30 Cannabis sativa L. - - - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - -
31 Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -
32 Cardaria draba (L.) Desv. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -
33 Carthamus oxycantha M.B TH Mie. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -
34 Caryopteris odorata (D. Don) B.L.
Rob. Fr PRe - - - - - - - Veg - Fl
35 Celosia argentea L - Fr PRe - - - - - - - Veg Fl
36 Chenopodium album L. - - Fl Fr - - PRe - - - - Veg
Continued…
72
37 C. ambrosioides L. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -
38 C. murale L. - - Fl Fr - - PRe - - - - -
39 Chrozophora tinctoria (L.) Raf. - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -
40 Chrysopogon gryllus (L.) Trin. - - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - -
41 Cichorium intybus Linn. - - - Fl Fr Pre - - - - - Veg
42 Cirsium arvense L. Scop. - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -
43 Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. - - - - - - Veg Fl Fr - PRe -
44 Convolvulus arvensis L. - - Fl Fr - - PRe - - - - -
45 Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist - - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - -
46 Corchorus tridens L. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -
47 Coronopus didymus (L.) Smith. Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -
48 Cucumis melo var agrestis (Naud.)
Grebensc. - - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - -
49 Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Jones)
Schult. - - - Veg Fl Fr - PRe - - - -
Continued…
73
50 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. - - Fl Fr - Pre - - - - - -
51 Cyperus bulbosus Vahl - - - - - - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe
52 C. rotundus L. - Fr - - - - PRe - - Veg - Fl
53 Datura innoxia Mill.NP Mes. - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - -
54 Delphinium kohatense Munz. - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - -
55 Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stap.f. - - - - - Fl - Fr - - - PRe
56 Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk.)
Stapf. Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - - - Veg
57 Digera muricata (L.) Mart. - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -
58 Dittrichia graveolens (L.) Greuter. - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -
59 Echinochloa colona (L.) Link. - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -
60 Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. - Fr - - - - - - - Veg - Fl
61 Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - -
62 Enneapogon persicus Boiss. - - Veg Fl - - Fr PRe - - - -
Continued…
74
63 Equisetum arvensis L. - - - Fr - - PRe - - - - -
64 Eragrostis ciliaris (L.) R.Br. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -
65 Erodium ciconium L. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -
66 Eruca sativa Mill. Veg - - - Fl - - - Fr - - PRe
67 Eryngium coeruleum M. Bieb - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -
68 Euphorbia granulata Forssk. - - - - Veg - Fl - Fr PRe - -
69 E. helioscopia L. - - Fl Fr - Pre - - - - - Veg
70 E. heterophylla L. - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -
71 E. pilulifera L. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -
72 E. pepulus L. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -
73 E. prostrata L. - - - - Veg - Fl - Fr PRe - -
74 Fagonia cretica L. - - - - - Fl Fr PRe - - Veg -
75 Farsetia jacquemontii Hook.f. &
Thomson. Fr PRe - - - - - - - - Veg Fl
Continued…
75
76 Ferula jaeschkeana Vatke. - Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - - Veg
77 Fumaria indica (Hausskn.) Pugsley - Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - Veg -
78 Galium tricornutum Dandy. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -
79 Geranium malacoides L. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -
80 G. rotundifolium L. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -
81 Heliotropium europaeum L. - - Fl Fr - - PRe - - - Veg -
82 Hypericum perforatum L. - - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - - -
83 Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. - - - Veg Fl - - Fr - - PRe -
84 Indigofera linifolia (Linn.f.) Retz. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -
85 Kickxia ramosissima (Wall.) Janch. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -
86 Lactuca dissecta D. Don - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -
87 L. serriola L. - - - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - -
88 Lathyrus aphaca L. - - Fl Fr - - PRe - - - - Veg
89 Lepidium ruderale L. - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -
Continued…
76
90 L. sativum Linn. - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -
91 Leucas cephalotes (Roth) Spreng - - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - -
92 Linum corymbulosum Rchb. - Veg Fl Fr Pre - - - - - - -
93 Lithospermum arvense L. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -
94 Lolium temulentum L. Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - - Veg -
95 Lotus corniculatus L. - Veg - - Fl - Fr - - PRe - -
96 Malcolmia africana (L.) R. Br. - Veg - - Fl - - Fr - PRe - -
97 Malva neglecta Wallr. - - Fl Fr - - PRe - - - - Veg
98 Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.)
Garcke - - Fl Fr - - PRe - - - - Veg
99 Medicago laciniata (L.) Mill. - - Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - Veg
100 M. sativa L. - - Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - Veg
101 Mentha longifolia L. Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -
102 M. spicata L. - - - - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe -
Continued…
77
103 Microsisymbrium O.E. Schulz - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -
104 Miscanthus nepalensis (Trin.) Hack. - - - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - -
105 Misopates orontium (L.) Raf. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -
106 Nasturtium officinale R.Br. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -
107 Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC - - Veg Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -
108 Oxalis corniculata L. - - Veg - - - Fl Fr - PRe - -
109 Oxytropis campestris (L.) DC. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -
110 Papaver pavoninum Schrenk. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -
111 Parthenium hysterophorus L. - Veg - - Fl - Fr - PRe - - -
112 Peganum harmala L. - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - - -
113 Pennisetum orientale Rich. - - - Veg Fl Fr - PRe - - - -
114 Persicaria glabra (Willd.) M.
Gomez - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -
115 Phagnalon niveum Edgew. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -
Continued…
78
116 Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex
Steud. - - Fl Fr - Pre - - - - Veg -
117 Phyla nodiflora L. - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - - -
118 Plantago lanceolata L. - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - - -
119 P. major L. - - Veg Fl Fr - PRe - - - - -
120 Poa annua L. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -
121 P. infirma H. B. K. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -
122 Polygala abyssinica R. Br. ex
Fresen. - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - - - -
123 Polygonum aviculare L. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -
124 P. mucolosa L. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -
125 P. plebeium R. Br. - Fr - - - - PRe - - - Veg Fl
126 P. monspeliensis (L.) Desf. - - Fl Fr - Pre - - - - - Veg
127 Pupalia lappacea (Linn.) - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - -
128 Rorippa palustris (L.) Besser. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -
Continued…
79
129 Rumex dentatus L. - - - Fl Fr Pre - - - - - Veg
130 R. hastatus L. - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - - - -
131 Saccharum griffithii Munro ex Boiss. - - Veg - - Fl Fr PRe - - - -
132 S. spontaneum Linn. - - Veg Fl Fr - - - - PRe - -
133 Salvia moorcroftiana Wall.ex Benth. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -
134 Saussurea heteromalla (De. Don)
Hand. - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - - -
135 Sedum hispanicum L. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -
136 Serratula pallida DC. - - - - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - -
137 Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. &
Schult. - Veg - Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -
138 S. viridis (L.) P. Beauv. - Veg - Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -
139 Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke. - Veg - Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -
140 Silybum marianum Gaertn. - - Fl Fr - Pre - - - - - Veg
141 Sisymbrium irio L. - - Veg Fl - Fr - PRe - - - -
Continued…
80
142 Solanum nigrum var. nigrum L. - - Veg Fl Fr - - - - PRe - -
143 S. surattense Burm. f. - - - - Veg Fl - Fr - - - PRe
144 Sonchus asper (L.) Hill - - Fl Fr - - PRe - - - - Veg
145 Sorgham halepense (Linn) Bres - - - - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - -
146 Stellaria media L. - Veg - Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -
147 Tagetes minuta L - - Veg - - Fl Fr PRe - - - -
148 Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber. - - Fl Fr - - PRe - - - - -
149 Tetrapogon villosus Desf. - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -
150 Torularia afghanica (Gilli) Hedge. - - Veg Fl - Fr - PRe - - - -
151 Tribulus terrestris L. - - - - Veg Fl - Fr - - - PRe
152 Trifolium alexandrinum L. - - - Fl Fr Pre - - Veg - - -
153 T. repens L. - - - Fl Fr Pre - - Veg - - -
154 Trigonella incisa Benth. - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - - - -
155 Tulipa clusiana DC. - Veg - Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -
Continued…
81
156 Valeriana wallichii DC. - Veg - Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -
157 Verbascum thapsus L. - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - - - -
158 Verbena officinalis L. - PRe - - - - - Veg - Fl - Fr
159 Veronica anagallis-aquatica L. - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - - - -
160 Vicia monantha Retz. - Veg - Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -
161 V. sativa L. - Veg - Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -
162 Viola stocksii Boiss. - - - - Veg Fl - Fr - - - PRe
163 Xanthium strumarium L. - - Fl Fr - - PRe - - - - Veg
Shrubs
164 Alhagi maurorum Medic. - - - - - Veg - - Fl Fr - PRe
165 Berberis lycium Royle. - Fl - - Fr - PRe - Veg - - -
166 Buddleja crispa Benth. - Fl - - Fr - PRe - Veg - - -
167 Calotropis procera Aiton. - - Veg - Fl - - Fr - - - PRe
Continued…
82
169 Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Edgew. - - - Veg - - - Fl - Fr - PRe
170 C. spinosa L. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -
171 Cassia occidentalis hort. ex Steud. - - - Veg - Fl - - PRe - - -
172 Cotoneaster microphyllsus Wall. Ex
Lindl. - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - -
173 Daphne mucronata L. - Veg - Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -
174 Debregeasia salicifolia (D.Don) - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -
175 Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. - - Veg Fl - Fr - - - - - PRe
176 Isodon rugosus (Wall ex Benth) - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -
177 Justicia adhatoda L. - Veg - Fl - Fr - - PRe - - -
178 Lantana camara L. - Veg - Fl - Fr - - PRe - - -
179 Lonicera griffithii Hook. f. and
Thoms. - - Veg Fl Fr - PRe - - - - -
180 Maytenus royleanus Wall. Ex
Lawson. - - - Veg - Fl - Fr - PRe - -
181 Monotheca buxifolia (Falc.) A.DC - - Veg - Fl - Fr PRe - - - -
Continued…
83
182 Myrsine africana L. - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - - - -
183 Nerium oleander Linn. - - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - -
184 Opuntia dillenii Haw. - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - -
185 Rydingia limbata (Benth.) Scheen &
V.A.Albert - - - - - Veg Fl Fr - PRe - -
186 Parkinsonia aculeate L. Veg - Fl - - Fr - PRe - - - -
187 Periploca aphylla Decne. - - - - - - - Fl Fr - - PRe
188 Prosopis juliflora Swartz. - - - - Veg Fl Fr - - - PRe -
189 Ranunculus laetus Wall. ex Royle - Veg - Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -
190 Rhazya stricta Decne. - - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - -
191 Ricinus communis L. - - Veg Fl - Fr PRe - - - - -
192 Rubus fruticosus L. - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - -
193 Spiraea corymbosa Raff. Fl Fr - PRe - - - - - Veg - -
194 Vitex negundo L. - - - - Veg - Fl - Fr - PRe -
195 Vitis jacquemontii Parker. - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - - - -
Continued…
84
196 Withania coagulans (Stocks) Dunal. - - - Veg - - - Fl Fr - - PRe
197 W. somnifera (L.) Dunal. - - - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - -
198 Zanthoxylum armatum DC. - PRe - - - - - - Veg - Fl Fr
199 Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. - Veg Fl - Fr - - PRe - - - -
Trees
200 Acacia modesta Wall. - - - Veg Fl Fr - - Fr - PRe -
201 A. nilotica (L.)Wild. ex Delile - - - - Veg - - Fl Fr - PRe -
202 Ailanthus altissima (Mill) Swingle - - - Veg Fl - - - Fr PRe - -
203 Boerhavia procumbens Banks ex
Roxb. Fl - Fr PRe - - - - - - Veg -
204 Broussonetia papyrifera Vent. - - Veg - Fl - Fr - PRe - - -
205 Celtis eriocarpa Decne. - - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - - -
206 Cornus macrophylla Wall. Ex Roxb. - - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - - -
207 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Veg - - Fl Fr - PRe - - - - -
Continued…
85
208 Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. Veg - - Fl - Fr - PRe - - - -
209 Ficus carica L. - Veg - Fl - Fr - PRe - - - -
210 Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de
Wit. - Veg - Fl - Fr - PRe - - - -
211 Melia azedarach L. - - Veg - Fl - - Fr - - - PRe
212 Morus alba L. - Veg Fl Fr - - - - - PRe - -
213 M. nigra L. - Veg Fl Fr - - - - - PRe - -
214 Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata
(Wall. & G.Don) Cif. Veg - Fl - Fr - PRe - - - - -
215 O. ferruginea Wall. ex G. Aitch. Veg - Fl - Fr - PRe - - - - -
216 Phoenix dactylifera L. - - - Fl - - Fr - - - - Veg
217 Populus nigra L. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -
218 Tamarix dioica Roxb. ex Roth. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -
219 Ziziphus nummularia Burm. f. - - - Fr - Pre - Veg - Fl - -
Parasite
220 Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. - Veg Fl - Fr - - - - PRe - -
Key: Veg = Vegetative, Fl = Flowering, Fr = Fruiting, PRe = Post Reproductive
86
Table-3.4: Summary of phenological stages
S. No. Phenological stage
Number of species in different months of the year
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
1. Vegetative (Veg) 08 50 41 24 26 21 02 03 05 04 12 11
2. Flowering (Fl) 05 04 53 48 28 31 24 11 02 03 01 07
3. Fruiting (Fr) 04 07 04 51 41 27 28 28 17 05 02 02
4. Post Reproductive (PRe) 01 06 03 05 30 42 32 32 25 19 10 15
87
Figure-3.2: Phenological behaviour of plants at district Nowshera
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Nu
mb
er o
f p
lan
ts
Vegetative
Flowering
Fruiting
Post Reproductive
88
3.3 Vegetation structure
During quantitative study of vegetation 134 species belonging to 53
families were reported throughout the year. From the research area 42, 43, 69
and 48 species were reported in autumn, winter, spring and summer
respectively. The percentage shared by species in different seasons was 31.34
% in autumn, 32.08 % in winter, 51.49 % in spring and 35.82 % in summer.
The highest number of species (69) and families (38) were recorded in spring
followed by summer (48 spp. and 35 families).
Vegetation, soil and environmental conditions are inter-connected with
each other. The variation in any one of these factors cause change in other
associated factors. To determine the possible effect of these factors at least
two factors must be pre-explained. The establishment and existence of
community structure reflects the type and condition of plants and area where
they develop (Felting, 1956). Biotic interaction especially human activities
change the community shape and structure (Badshah et al., 2010a).
Community is defined as a group of living plants and their mutual relationship
among themselves and with environment (Hussain & Sher, 1998; Ahmad et
al., 2006).
The area under investigation was semi-arid with mountains and flat
plains. The existing survey recognized 20 different plant communities during
four different seasons of the year. The observed changes in plant communities
were due to different seasons and other aspects like temperature, soil type and
time of sampling. The woody and perennial plant species almost remained
unchanged; however, slight changes occurred in their existing cover due to
their seasonal growth.
The plant communities investigated during different seasons of a year
at district Nowshera are discussed as follows:
89
3.3.1 Autumn aspect
According to the floristic survey, total numbers of families during
autumn were 28. The Families with number of species were as: Rhamnaceae
and Mimosaceae with 03 species each, and Lamiaceae with 2 species. Rest of
the families shared 01 species each. While considering the family importance
value (FIV), it was reported that Mimosaceae was the leading family with
260.58 FIV followed by Oleaceae with FIV of 183.03, Acanthaceae (174.21),
Lamiaceae (165.94), Rhamnaceae (135), Cactaceae (90.96), Sapotaceae
(72.99), Poaceae (61.05), Celastraceae (41.71), Malvaceae (41.03),
Caprifoliaceae (38.24), Solanaceae (33.31), Papilionaceae (29.36),
Amaranthaceae (22.83), Bignoniaceae (16.65), Asclepiadaceae (14.82),
Cornaceae (12.96), Asteraceae (12.20), Apocynaceae (7.20), Buddlejaceae
(6.65), Vitaceae (6.58), Cypraceae and Euphorbiaceae (each with 6.28)
Convolvulaceae (5.84), Verbenaceae (4.57), Chenopodiaceae (4.54),
Aspodeliaceae (3.45) and Nyctiginaceae (3.33). There were five plant
communities with the following structure during autumn.
Olea-Rydingia-Justicia community
Olea-Rydingia-Justicia community was present at subtropical areas of
the district where temperature remains a little lower than the plains. The soil
was sandy-loam in texture. Among 08 recorded species, there were 02 tree
species, 04 shrubs species and 2 herb species (Appendix 1). The total
importance value (TIV) contributed by 03 dominant species was 179.5, while
TIV of 120.4 was shared by remaining species (Table 7). The contribution to
importance values by tree species was 92.27, by shrubs it was 179.0 and by
herbs it was 28.7 (Table 7).
Ahmad et al. (2009d) reported ten Olea communities from Dir, Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa.
The vegetation consisted predominantly of phanerophytes
(nanophanerophytes with 62.5%), followed by microphanerophytes (12.5%).
90
The vegetation was dominated by nanophylls and leptophylls each
with 37.5% followed by microphylls (25%). Malik & Malik (2004), Malik &
Hussain (2008), Tripathi & Shukla (2007) and Guo et al. (2009) reported that
geophytes and leptophylls were the dominant class in the communities of their
respective areas. Hadi et al. (2009) worked at Botanical Gardan, Azakhel
where nanophylls were dominant. Khan et al. (2010) reported that Olea
ferruginea and Acacia modesta were the dominant species at foot hills in
lower Dir, where the scarcity of water occurred and sandy-clay loam was the
soil textural class.
Justacia-Ziziphus-Corchorus community
Justacia-Ziziphus-Corchorus community occupied the foot hills, where
water availability was less, conditions were xeric and soil was sandy-clay
loam. There were 13 species among which 04 were trees, 04 were shrubs and
05 were herbs (Appendix 2). The total importance value contributed by 03
dominant species was 133.66 and the remaining species shared a total
importance value (TIV) of 166.35. The TIV contributed by trees was 110.07,
by shrubs 131.31 and by herbs it was 58.62 (Table 7).
The dominant life form was nanophanerophytes (30.76%), followed by
chamaephytes (23.07%), microphanerophytes (15.38%), therophytes and
hemicryptophytes (each with 7.69%). The dominant leaf sizes were
nanophylls (36.76%), followed by leptophylls, microphylls each of which
represensting 23.07% and aphyllous (7.69 %).
Shah & Rozina (2013) observed that therophytes (30%) and
microphylls (42%) were the dominant life form and leaf size from Peer Taab
Graveyard. Amjad & Hameed (2012) observed that chameophytes (26.38%)
and microphylls (24%) were dominant biological spectra at Basu Valley of
district Sakardu. Khan & Shah (2013) carried out the eco-taxonomic study of
family Brassicaeae of district Mardan in which therophytes (66%) were
dominant.
91
Opuntia-Ziziphus-Desmostachya community
Opuntia-Ziziphus-Desmostachya community was recorded at the
sandy-clay loam site with 14 major types of plant species including 03 trees,
04 shrubs and 07 herbs (Appendix 3). The 03 dominant species shared a
combine importance value of 187.01 and rest of the species with the
importance value of 113.4. The importance value contributed by trees was
124.93, by shrub it was 112.01 and by herb it was 63.53 (Table 7). Badshah et
al. (2010) studied the vegetation structure of district Karak where
Desmostachya was the dominant species. Dasti et al. (2013) while working on
vegetation of Suleiman Ranges reported the Calotropis procera and Capparis
decidua as dominant species. Hussain et al. (1993) sampled the community
structure at Graveyard of Swabi where Ziziphus was the dominant species.
Nanophanerphytes and therophytes each with 28.57%, represent the
dominant life form, followed by hemicryptophytes, microphanerophytes (each
with 14.28%). The dominant leaf size spectra was nanophylls (71.42%)
followed by leptophylls (14.28%). Shukla (2009) stated that therophytes were
dominant followed by chaemophytes from their respected study area. Khan &
Musharaf (2014) recognized in tehsil Katlang that the dominant life form was
therophytes (47.27%) and the dominant leaf size spectra was microphylls
(47.27%).
Olea-Rydingia-Acacia community
At upper mountainous region with sandy-clay loam soil class the Olea-
Rydingia-Acacia community consisted of 13 different species, among which
04 were tree species, 05 were shrub species and 04 were herb species
(Appendix 4). Total importance value for the dominant species was 188.8 and
111.2 for the rest of species. Tree species contributed total importance value
(TIV) of 149.06, shrubs shared TIV of 131.4 and herbs shared TIV of 19.53
(Table 7). Scrub community was found due to the xeric and harsh
environment. The similar scrub community was reported by Perveen and
Hussain (2007), Ahmad et al. (2008) and Khan et al. (2010) from their
92
respective study areas. Khan et al. (2010) also reported the Olea as dominant
species from lower Dir, which also supported our results.
Nanophanerophytes were the dominant life form (46.15%) followed by
microphanerophytes (30.76%), hemicryptophytes, geophytes and therophytes
(each with 7.69%). The result was in contradiction to many other workers
(Hussain et al., 2009; Malik & Hussain, 2008; Hussain et al., 2005). Amjed &
Hameed (2012) investigated that chameophytes were dominant life form while
dominant leaf size spectrum was microphylls and nanophylls (each with
38.76%), followed by leptophylls (23.07%) at Basu Hills, district Sakardu.
Arshad et al. (2008), Hussain et al. (2005) and Badshah et al. (2010) reported
that nanophylls were the dominant species in their respective sites. Shah &
Rozina (2013) observed from Dheri Baba Hill Gohati and at Peer Taab
Graveyard that microphylls (42%) was the dominant leaf size spectrum which
supported our findings.
Prosopis-Justacia-Acacia community
Along the arid area and sandy-clay loam soil textural classes the
Prosopis-Justacia-Acacia community was recognized. It consisted of 04 trees,
03 shrubs and 05 herbs species (Appendix 5). The total importance value
(TIV) contributed by three dominant plant species was 202.4, and by
remaining species it was 97.57. The contribution of importance value by trees
was 103.26, by shrubs 162.58 and by herbs it was 34.20 respectively (Table
7). Qureshi (2008) reported that Prosopis is dominant species from Sawan
Wari of Nara desert. Abbas et al. (2009) from Greg Gord Azad Kashmir also
reported Acacia among the dominant species. The result was also in
accordance to Arshad et al. (2008) from Cholistan Desert, where prosopis was
dominant species.
Nanophanerophytes were the dominant (41.66%) life form followed by
microphanerophytes (25.0%), chamaephytes (16.66%), therophytes and
geophytes (each with 8.33 %). The leaf size spectra showed that leptophylls
93
were the dominant leaf size class (100%). Shah & Hussain (2009) from
Hayatabad investigated that leptophylls were co-dominant.
3.3.2 Winter aspect
In winter 05 plant communities with a total of 43 plant species
belonging to 28 families were recorded. The most important family in term of
number of species was Mimosaceae and Rhamnaceae with 03 species each,
followed by Sapotaceae with 2 species and the rest of the families shared 01
species each.
However, when family importance value (FIV) was considered, again
Mimosaceae was the leading family with a FIV of 226.23. The remaining
families were recorded in order of importance as: Oleaceae (211.25),
Lamiaceae (182.57), Acanthaceae (168.54), Rhmnaceae (147.31), Cactaceae
(82.22), Poaceae (79.9), Sapotaceae (51.01), Simarubaceae (36.03), Fabaceae
(28.19), Papilionaceae (27.38), Asphodelaceae (23.85), Cannabinaceae
(21.48), Salicaceae (19.11), Chenopodiaceae (18.09), Bignoniaceae (17.46),
Solanaceae, Berberidaceae and Polygonaceae (each with 16.00), Moraceae
(15.88), Brassicaceae, Caprifoliaceae and Capparaceae (each with 14.00),
Celastraceae and Amaranthaceae (each with 12.96), Malvaceae (7.37) and
Asparagaceae (6.89). The details of communities are as under:
Olea-Rydingia-Justicia community
Olea-Rydingia-Justicia community consisted of 10 plant species at
sandy-loam soil class. It included 03 trees, 05 shrubs and 02 herb species
(Appendix 6). Trees shared the importance value of 149.09; shrubs shared
126.9, while herbs shared 23.91. The importance value of three dominant
species was 210.72, while 89.27 was shared by the rest of the species
(Table 7).
Khan et al. (2010) reported that Olea community was emerged as
dominant tree species from lower Dir in 04 stands. The life form reported that
nanophanerphytes (80%) were the dominant life form in the area followed by
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microphanerophytes and therophytes (each with 10% share). Similarly,
Hussain & Perveen (2009), Bocuk et al. (2009) reported the
nanophanerophytes as dominant species from their respective sites. The leaf
size spectra was dominated by nanophylls and microphylls (each with 40%)
followed by leptophylls (20%).
Shah & Rozina (2013) observed from Dheri Baba Hill where the
microphylls (42%) dominated the community and his findings supported our
results. Amjed et al. (2012) also reported from district Sakardu that
microphylls (24%) were the second dominant leaf size spectra of the area.
Justicia-Ziziphus-Acacia community
Justicia-Ziziphus-Acacia community was recorded at foot hills at
sandy-clay loam soil. The stand totally comprised of 11 species, among which
04 were trees, 03 were shrubs and 04 were herbs with importance values of
146.7, 110.3 and 42.9 respectively (Table 7). The dominant species shared the
importance value of 186.7 and the remaining species shared a total importance
value of 113.2. Family Rhamnaceae had the highest family importance value
of 181, followed by Acanthaceae (150), Mimosaceae (60) and Sapotaceae
(30). Shah & Rozina (2013) recorded at Peer Taab Graveyard that Ziziphus
maruitiana was among the dominant species. Ahmad et al. (2008) reported
from Soon valley of Punjab that Justicia and Acacia were the dominant
species. The area was dominated by nanophanerophytes (45.45%), followed
by microphanerophytes (27.2%), therophytes (18.18%) and chamaephytes
(9.09%). Amjad & Hameed (2012) reported that chamaephyte (26.38%) were
the dominant life form followed by nanophanerophytes (19.17%) from
Skardu. The leaf size spectra show that nanophylls (54.5%) dominated the
area followed by microphylls (27.2%), and leptophylls l (18.18%). Amjad &
Hameed (2012) investigated that leptophylls (52%) were the dominant leaf
size class. Hussain et al. (2009) from Azakhel reported that leptophylls
(42.32%) and nanophylls (40.32%) were the dominant leaf size spectra. Costa
et al. (2007), Sher & Khan (2007) and Hussain & Perveen (2009) reported that
nanophylls were the dominant leaf size which strengthened our findings.
95
Opuntia-Ziziphus-Acacia community
Opuntia-Ziziphus-Acacia community consisted of 11 species. Among
11 plants species 04 were trees, 03 were shrubs, and 04 were herbs at sandy-
clay loam soil (Appendix 8). Total importance value (TIV) by 03 dominant
species was 166.04 and 133.75 by the remaining species (Table 7). TIV
contributed by trees was 120.4, by shrubs it was 118.2 and by herbs it was
61.6 (Table 7). Malik & Malik (2004) recorded that Acacia and Olea were the
dominant species in Kotli Hills during monsoon.
The life form indicated that microphanerophytes and
nanophanerophytes (each with 36% share) dominated the habitat followed by
therophytes and geophytes (9.09% share), while the dominant leaf size spectra
was nanophylls (36.36%), followed by leptophylls and nanophylls (each with
18.18%). Nanophanerophytes life form indicated that it was due to sandy
condition where soil had poor water retaining capacity (Manhas et al., 2010).
The leaf size spectra showed that leptophylls dominancy was due to the
drought and dry conditions. It was also supported by various workers (Nazir
and Malik, 2006; Badshah et al., 2010), they also investigated the lepto-
nanophylls communities from Azad Kashmir and South Waziristan.
Olea-Acacia-Rydingia community
Olea-Acacia-Rydingiacommunity was recorded at the top hills with
sandy-clay loam soil, which comprised a total of 12 species. Among total
species 03 were trees, 05 were shrubs and 04 were herbs (Appendix 9). The
dominant species shared the total importance value of 163.5 and 136.4 by the
remaining species. The trees contributed the total importance value of 139.8,
shrubs shared 109.9 and herbs shared a total importance value of 50.2 (Table
7). The total family importance value shared by Lamiaceae (154), followed by
Oleaceae (152), Mimosaceae (105), and Caprifoliaceae (92).
The life form revealed that nanophanerophytes (58.3%) were dominant
class followed by microphanerophytes (25%) and geophytes and
hemicryptophytes (each with 8.3%). The leaf size spectra showed that
96
nanophylls (41.6%) were dominating the area followed by microphylls
(33.33%), mesophyll (16.6%) and leptophylls (8.3%). Guo et al. (2009)
reported that phanerophytes (73.2%) dominated their study area.
Prosopis-Justacia-Acacia community
Prosopis-Justacia-Acacia community was recorded at xeric area on the
top of hills having sandy-clay loam soil, which comprised a total of 15 plant
species. Among the total species 04 were trees, 03 were shrubs and 08 were
herbs (Appendix 10). The dominant species shared the importance value of
136.1 and 163.8 by the remaining species. The trees contributed the total
importance value of 111.4, 110.8 by the shrubs and 77.6 by herbs (Table 7).
The family importance value shared by Mimosaceae (281) was greater
followed by Acanthaceae 174 and Oleaceae 28.
The life form revealed that nanophanerophytes (33.3%) dominated the
area, followed by microphanerophytes, therophytes (each with 26.6%) and
geophytes and chamaephytes (each with 6.6%). Khan & Musharaf (2014)
reported that nanophanerophytes were among the dominant species at Shahbaz
Garhi Mardan area.
The leaf size spectra showed that leptophylls, nanophylls and
microphylls were 33.33% each. This may be probably due to xeric habitat and
harsh environmental conditions. Shah and Rozina (2013) observed that
microphylls (42%) were dominant at Dheri Baba Hill. Amjad & Hameed
(2012) investigated that leptophylls (52%) were dominant from Basu valley
district Sakardu. Khan & Musharaf (2014) reported the Microphylls (46.97%)
were the dominant species.
3.3.3 Spring aspect
Total numbers of plant species recorded in spring were 63 belonging to
38 families. Families Asteraceae and Mimosaceae had more species (03
species each) followed by Brassicaceae (02 spp), Lamiaceae (02 spp),
Geraniaceae (02 spp), Rhamnaceae (02 spp), Papilionaceae (02 spp) and the
97
rest of families shared 01 species each. While considering the family
importance value (FIV), it was noted that family Brassicaceae was the leading
family with total FIV of 209.31 followed by Asteraceae (126.44),
Papilionaceae (113.31), Lamiaceae (105.19), Euphorbiaceae (85.48),
Mimosaceae (74.96), Rhamnaceae (72.62), Crassulaceae (57.92), Geraniaceae
(56.01), Sapidaceae (55.34), Oleaceae (50.16), Amamllidaceae (45.16),
Poaceae (40.19), Scrophulariaceae (39.58), Cannabinaceae (26.23),
Acanthaceae (20.2), Celastraceae and Cactaceae (each with 19.45), Liliaceae
(17.55), Caprifoliaceae (16.61), Oxalidaceae (15.89), Moraceae (14.77),
Rosaceae (12.02), Solanaceae and Amaranthaceae (each with 10.20),
Capparaceae and Asclepidaceae (each with 9.09), Caryophyllaceae,
Sapotaceae and Rubiaceae (each with 8.50), Fabaceae and Polygonaceae (each
with 6.11), Berberidaceae (5.38).It was noted that families Plantaginaceae,
Chenopodiaceae, Caryophyllaceae, and Papaveraceae had the least family
importance values (4.32each). The communities established during spring
season are as under:-
Microsisymbrium-Torularia-Olea community
Microsisymbrium-Torularia-Olea community was recorded at xeric
habitat at hilly areas having sandy loam soil, which consisted a total of 14
species. Of the total 14 species isolated from the area 02 were tree, 05 were
shrubs and 07 were herbs (Appendix 11). The importance value shared by the
dominant species was 162.33. All the remaining species shared only 138.07
importance values indicating their low degree of distribution, less coverage
values and less number of individuals in the community (Table 7). The total
importance value of 36.37, 85.67 and 178.35 were contributed by trees, shrubs
and herbs respectively.The family Brassicaceae shared the maximum
importance value (374), followed by Sapindaceae (182), Oleaceae (105),
Lamiaceae and Acanthaceae (104each), Celastraceae (51), Sapotaceae (45),
Moraceae (18) and Oxalidaceae (16). Durrani et al. (2005) investigated from
Harboi rangeland, Kalat that family Brassicaceae was the dominant family.
Durrani et al. (2010) evaluated that Asteraceae and Brassicaceae were the
dominant families from Aghberg land of Quetta.
98
Results revealed that nanophanerophytes was the dominant life form
having 57.14% share followed by therophytes (35.71%) and hemicryptophytes
(7.14%). Similarly the leaf size spectrum showed that microphylls (57.14%)
were the dominant leaf size spectrum followed by nanophylls (35.71%) and
leptophylls (7.14%). Hussain et al. (2009) from Azakhel Gardan reported that
nanophylls were dominant. Khan & Musharaf (2014) from Tehsil Katlang
investigated that microphylls (78%) plants were the dominant species.
Sedum-Geranium-Indigofera community
Sedum-Geranium-Indigofera community was present at foot hills. The
textural class of soil was sandy clay loam. Total number of species recorded
was 16. Among the 16 recorded species 03 were trees, 05 were shrubs and 08
were herbs (Appendix 12). The total importance value contributed by herbs
was 190.8, followed by trees (57.46) and shrubs (51.73) (Table 7). The total
importance value shared by all 03 dominant species was 145.8 and 154.2 by
the rest of species (Table 7). While considering the family importance value
(FIV) family Geraniaceae (202) was the dominant family followed by
Crassulaceae (179), Papilionaceae (173), Rhamnaceae (167), Acanthaceae
(165), Sapindaceae (169), Solanaceae (168), Mimosaceae (84), Liliaceae (41),
Capparaceae (38), Sapotaceae (34), Asclepidaceae (13) and Rubiaceae (15).
The life form recorded revealed that therophytes (50%) were dominant
life form followed by the nanophanerophytes and microphanerophytes (each
with 18.75%) and chamaephytes (12.5%). The nanophylls, leptophylls and
microphylls (each with 31.25%) was the dominant leaf size spectra followed
by aphyllous species (6.25%). Sher et al. (2011) reported from village Lahore,
district Swabi that therophytes (82.5%) and nanophylls (22.5%) were the
dominant biological spectra from the area.
Lactuca-Salvia-Allium community
Lactuca-Salvia-Allium was present at partial hilly area having sandy-
clay loam soil. Total number of plants species were 18, among which 03 were
trees, 02 were shrubs and 13 were herbs (Appendix 13). The total importance
99
value contributed by trees was 56.98, by shrubs 45 and by herbs it was 197.63
(Table 7). The total importance value shared by the dominant species was
141.35 and 158.64 was shared by the rest of species (Table 7). While
considering the family importance value the Asteraceae (290) was leading
family followed by Amamllidaceae (190), Lamiaceae (188), Rhamnaceae
(172), Cannabiaceae (150), Cactaceae (108), Mimosaceae (69), Fabaceae (31)
and Scrophulariaceae (12). Mendez (2005) reported that at Laguna family
Asteraceae was the leading family. Durrani et al. (2005) from Harboi
Rangeland investigated that family Asteraceae were the dominant family.
Khan & Musharaf (2014) also reported that Asteraceae was the dominant
family from Shahbaz Garhi Mardan.
The life form spectra revealed that therophytes (55.55%) were the
dominant life form followed by nanophanerophytes (22.22%),
microphanerophytes (16.66%) and chamaephytes (5.55%). The leaf size
spectra reported that nanophylls and leptophylls (each with 38.88%) were the
dominant class followed by leptophylls (16.66%) and nanophylls (5.55%).
Hussain et al. (2009) investigated that therophytes (85.48%) and nanophylls
(40.32%) were the leading classes in biological spectrum from Azakhel
Botanical Gardan. Sher et al. (2011) from village Lahore, district Swabi
reported that therophytes (82.5%) and nanophylls (22.5) were the dominant
classes.
Phgnalon-Torularia-Kicksia community
Phagnalon-Torularia-Kicksia was an annual community that was
present on high green luxury hills. The soil textural class was sandy-loam. The
community comprised of 18 plant species among which 02 were trees, 04
were shrubs and 12 were herbs (Appendix 14). The total importance value
shared by trees was 36.78, by shrub it was 75.69 and 187.52 by herbs (Table
7). The total importance value share by the 03 dominant species was 129.63
and 170.36 by the remaining species (Table 7). Considering the family
importance value family, Asteraceae (209) was the leading family followed by
Brassicaceae (170), Srophulariaceae (161), Oleaceae (149), Lamiaceae (128),
100
Mimosaceae (99), Caprifoliaceae (90), Rosaceae (38), Celastraceae (34) and
Amranthaceae (30). Mendez (2005), Durrani et al. (2005) and Khan &
Musharaf (2014) reported that family Asteraceae was the dominant family at
their respective sites. Dhole et al. (2013) supported our results by investigating
that Asteraceae was the dominant family from their respective study area.
The life form showed that therophytes (50%) were the dominant life
form followed by nanophanerophytes (27.77%), microphanerophytes
(16.66%) and geophytes (5.55%). Microphylls and nanophylls (38.88%) were
the dominant leaf size spectrum followed by leptophylls and mesophylls (each
with 11.11 2%).
Euphorbia-Pennisetum-Indigofera community
Euphorbia-Pennisetum-Indigofera community was present at xeric
habitat away from the cultivated land. The soil textural class was sandy-clay
loam. Total number of plant species was 17 among which 02 were trees, 01
shrub species and 14 species were herbs (Appendix 15). The total importance
value shared by trees was 25.6, by shrubs it was 10.85 and by herbs it was
263.54. The family importance value showed that Mimosaceae (276) was the
leading family followed by Papalionaceae (207), Euphorbiaceae (188),
Poaceae (186) and Oleaceae by 43 (Table 7). Hussain et al. (2009) also
recorded that at Azakhel garden the therophytic communities were found
during spring which supported our results. Khan et al. (2013) also reported
that therophytic communities were found during spring from Mardan, which
strengthened our findings.
The life form spectrum revealed that therophytes (58.82%) were the
dominant class followed by microphanerophytes, nanophanerophytes,
haemicryptophytes (each with 11.76%) and Chamaephytes (5.88%).
Nanophylls (58.82%) were the leading leaf size class followed by leptophylls
(23.52%) and microphylls (17.64%). Costa et al. (2007) supported our result
in terms that therophytes (42.9%) were the dominant class from their
respective area.
101
3.3.4 Summer aspect
The study of floristic list during the survey in the season of summer,
the total number of families was 34. The Families, in terms of greater number
of species, were Asteraceae, Mimosaceae and Rhamnaceae (each with 3
species) followed by Sapindaceae, Celastraceae, Oleaceae, Sapotaceae,
Acanthaceae, Solanaceae, Cannabiaceae, Cactaceae, Amaranthaceae,
Caprifoliaceae, Rosaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Ranunculaceae (each with 1
sp.). The Family, in terms of maximum family importance value, was
Sapindaceae (138.68), followed by Asteraceae (125.24), Mimosaceae
(122.92), Ranunculaceae (107.98), Rhamnaceae (102.04), Oleaceae (96.12),
Lamiaceae (95.43), Euphorbiaceae (93.33), Cannabiaceae (83.70),
Acanthaceae (69.58), Poaceae (60.12), Solanaceae (52.53), Amaranthaceae
(46.74), Sapotaceae (32.29), Rosaceae (28.05), Myrtaceae (24.60), Salicaceae
(23.78), Celastraceae (23.41), Bignoniaceae (22.22), Moraceae (21.89),
Cornaceae (19.62), Nyctiginaceae (17.51), Caprifoliaceae (16.50), Cyperaceae
(14.49), Chenopodiaceae (12.17), Cactaceae (11.63), Papilionaceae (9.47),
Asclepiadaceae, Lythraceae, Asparagaceae, Liliaceae, Brassicaceae and
Cucurbitaceae have importance value less than 7.82. Dhole et al. (2013)
supported our results that family Asteraceae had maximum number of species
(04) at Marathwada region.
Dodonaea-Rydingia-Olea community
Dodonaea-Rydingia-Olea community was present at xeric habitat
having sandy loam soil. A total of 13 plant species were isolated. Among these
03 were trees, 05 were shrubs and 05 were herbs (Appendix 16). The total
importance value (TIV) contributed by 03 dominant species was 173.68, while
TIV of 126.32 was shared by the remaining species (Table 7). The
contribution of total importance value by tree species was 95.19, by shrubs
162.94 and by herbs it was 41.85. Ahmad et al. (2009) reported 10 Olea
communities from Dir lower Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
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The life form showed that the area was occupied by
nanophanerophytes (69.23%) followed by therophytes (15.38),
microphanerophytes and geophytes (each with 7.69%). The leaf size spectrum
indicated that nanophylls and microphylls (46.15%) were the dominant class
followed by leptophylls (7.69%). Costa et al. (2007) investigated that
nanophanerophytes (26.3%) were among the dominant species. Guo et al.
(2009) supported our results by reporting the nanophanerophytes (73.2%) as
leading class.
Dodonaea-Withania-Justicia community
Dodonaea-Withania-Justicia community was present at foot hills. The
soil textural class was sandy-clay loam. Total number of plant species was 14
among which 04 were trees, 04 were shrubs and 06 were herbs (Appendix 17).
The total importance value (TIV) contributed by the dominant species was
164.26 while 135.73 were shared by the rest of the species. The contribution
of total importance value shared by the tree species was 80.05, by shrubs it
was 172.06 and by herbs it was 47.85 (Table 7). Nazir et al. (2012) reported
from Lesser Himalayan sub tropical forest of Kashmir where Dodonaea was
the dominant species in some stand.
The life form showed that the area was dominated by
nanophanerophytes, Therophytes and Chamaephytes (each with 21.42%)
followed by microphanerophytes (14.28%) and haemicryptophytes and
geophytes (each with 7.14%). The leaf size spectra revealed that the area was
dominated by nanophylls (42.85%), followed by microphylls (21.42%),
leptophylls (14.28%) and mesophylls and aphyllous each with 7.14%.
Cannabis-Alternanthra-Ageratum community
Cannabis-Alternathra-Ageratum community was present at low hills
and at foot hills. The soil textural class was sandy-clay loam. Total number of
species was 17 among which 03 were trees, 04 were shrubs and 10 were herbs
(Appendix 18). The tree species shared the total importance value of 57.81, by
shrubs it was 113.46 and 128.72 was shared by the herb species. The total
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importance value (TIV) contributed by the dominant species was 154.70 and
145.29 was shared by the remaining species (Table 7).
The life form revealed that therophytes (47.05%) were the dominant
life form followed by nanophanerophytes, microphanerophytes with 17.64%
each and geophytes, haemicryptophytes each with 5.88%. While the leaf size
spectra revealed that nanophylls (52.94%) was the conducting class followed
by microphylls (35.29%) and leptophylls (5.88%). Durrani et al. (2005)
reported from Harboi Rangeland Kalat that therophytes and microphylls were
the dominant classes.
Malik et al. (2007) investigated that microphylls were the dominant
class at their respective area that were in conformity to our result.
Euphorbia-Delphinium-Olea community
Euphorbia- Delphinium- Olea community was present at the top of
hilly area. The soil textural class was sandy-clay loam. Total number of plant
species was 15 among which 03 were tree species, 05 were shrubs and 08
were herbs (Appendix 19). The contribution of total importance value shared
by the tree species was 65.63 followed by shrubs (62.84) and herbs (171.52)
(Table 7). The total importance value (TIV) contributed by three dominant
species was 155.29 and 144.70 by the rest of species (Table 7).
The life form revealed that nanophanerophytes (33.33%) were the
dominant class followed by microphanerophytes (26.66%), therophytes
(20.00%), chamaephytes (13.33%) and haemicryptophytes (13.33%). The leaf
size spectra showed that microphylls (46.66%) were the dominant class
followed by nanophylls (33.33%), laptophylls (13.33%) and mesophylls
(6.66%). The results were in contradiction with Costa et al. (2007) which
revealed that therophytes was the leading class. The results were also in
contradiction with Manhas et al. (2010) who supported that therophytes were
the dominant class.
104
Malik et al. (2007) supported our result that microphylls were the
dominant class at Ganga Chotti and Bedori Hills.
Delphinium-Dittrichia-Prosopis community
Delphinium-Dittrichia-Prosopis community was present at low hilly
area near cultivated land. The soil textural class was sandy-clay loam. Total
number of plant species was 18 among which 04 were trees species, 04 were
shrubs and 10 were herbs (Appendix 20). The total importance value shared
by tree species was 63.50, by shrubs it was 79.15 and by herbs it was 157.34.
The total importance value shared by the three dominant species was 158.67
while the rest of species shared 141.32 (Table 7). While considering the family
importance value (FIV), Mimosaceae (270) was leading followed by
Ranunculaceae (182), Asteraceae (180), Acanthaceae (168) and Oleaceae (34).
The life form showed that nanophanerophytes (27.77%) was the
dominant class followed by microphanerophytes (22.22%), therophytes
(14.44%) and geophytes (5.55%). The leaf size spectra indicated that
microphylls, nanophylls (each with 33.33%) were the leading class followed
by laptophylls (27.77%) and mesophylls (5.55%). Malik et al. (2007) from
Ganga Chotti hills reported that microphanerophytes were the dominant class,
which supported our results.
105
Table-3.5: Number of species and Total Importance Values (TIV) of trees, shrubs and herbaceous species in different communities
and seasons
Seasons Autumn Winter Spring Summer
Community 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Number of species
Trees 2 4 3 4 4 3 4 4 3 4 2 3 3 2 2 3 4 3 3 4
Shrubs 4 4 4 5 3 5 3 3 5 3 5 5 2 4 1 5 4 4 5 4
Herbs 2 5 7 4 5 2 4 4 4 8 7 8 13 12 14 5 6 10 7 10
Total 8 13 14 13 12 10 11 11 12 15 14 16 18 18 17 13 14 17 15 18
Total Importance Value (TIV)
TIV of 3
dominants
species
179.5 133.6 187.0 188.7 202.4 210.7 186.7 166.0 163.5 136.1 162.3 145.7 141.3 129.6 202.2 173.6 164.2 154.7 155.2 158.6
Continued…
106
TIV of
remaining
species
120.4 166.3 113.4 111.2 97.5 89.2 113.2 133.7 136.4 163.8 138.0 154.2 158.6 170.3 97.7 126.3 135.7 145.2 144.7 141.3
TIV of
Trees 92.2 110.0 124. 149.0 103.2 149.0 146.7 120.4 139. 111.4 36.3 57.4 56.9 36.7 25.6 95.1 80.0 57.8 65.6 63.5
TIV of
Shrubs 179.0 131.3 112.0 131.4 162.5 126.9 110.3 118.2 109.9 110.8 85.6 51.7 45.3 75.6 10.8 162.9 172.0 113.4 62.81 79.1
TIV of
Herbs 28.7 58.6 63.5 19.5 34.2 23.9 42.9 61.0 50.2 77.6 178.3 190.8 197.6 187.5 263.5 41.8 47.8 128.7 171.5 157.3
107
Table-3.6: Physico-chemical features of soil of different stands
S.No. Soil Textural class pH Ec (dS/m) Organic matter (%) N% P (ppm) K (ppm) CaCo3% Ca+Mg
(Mequ/l)
Zn (ppm) Fe (ppm)
1 Sandy loam 7.38 0.62 3.68 0.16 16 100 12.5 25 4.4 11.5
2 Sandy-clay loam 7.83 1.8 7.16 0.27 15 130 17.25 35 3.8 10.2
3 Sandy-clay loam 7.55 7.25 0.4 0.02 7 180 14.37 21 2.19 9.45
4 Sandy-clay loam 7.9 0.5 3.75 0.17 9 130 11.2 16.5 2.14 9.88
5 Sandy-clay loam 8.11 0.37 1.47 0.06 7 110 11.7 17 2.11 10.01
108
Figure-3.3: Some views of the research area
109
3.4 Ethnobotany
A sum of 71 plant species belonging to 65 genera and 39 families were
reported from district Nowshera. Different plant parts i.e. roots, rhizomes,
tubers, leaves, stem, wood and fruits were used by the locals for various
purposes in their daily life. Leaves were the most favored plant part used by
indigenous community comprised of 50 species (70.42%) followed by stems
(47 species, 66.87%), whole plant (13 species, 20.52%), fruits (09 species,
14%) and roots (04 species, 5.71%). During survey family Asteraceae was
found to contribute the highest number of plant species (08) to the local usage.
It was followed by family Papilionaceae (06 species), Poaceae (05 species),
Mimosaceae and Solanaceae (04 species each), Euphorbiaceae (03 species),
Apocynaceae, Amaranthaceae, Brassicaceae, Capparaceae, Chenopodiaceae,
Polygonaceae, Rhamnaceae, Malvaceae and Myrtaceae shared 02 species each
while family Arecaceae, Acanthaceae, Cactaceae, Asclepiadaceae,
Boraginaceae, Convolvulaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Cyperaceae, Canabaceae,
Caryophyllaceae, Fumariaceae, Lamiaceae, Liliaceae, Primulaceae, Oleaceae,
Sapindaceae, Sapotaceae, Temaraceae, Oxalidaceae, Meliaceae, Moraceae,
Soliaceae, Apiaceae and Zygophyllaceae were represented by one species
each. Zereen & Sardar (2013) reported from Punjab a total of 48 plant species
belonging to 23 families used for various purposes by the local community.Jan
et al. (2010) reported from lower Dir that family Asteraceae was the most
important family with regards to its ethnobotanical value. He documented 26
weed species belonging to 16 families. Haq (2012) reported a total of 172
medicinal taxa from Allai Valley, Pakistan used by the indigenous people for
treatment of various illnesses. Popularly used 31 medicinal plants by the
indigenous were reported from Northern Ethopia (Mesfin et al., 2013)
At district Nowshera the indigenous people mainly used wild herbs (44
spp., 61.11%), followed by wild trees (16 spp., 23.61%) and wild shrubs (11
spp., 15.06%). These plants were used for different purposes such as fodder,
furniture, fuel, oil, edible fruits and vegetables. Most of the reported species
110
were used for multipurpose. In the present study it was concluded that 45
species (63.5%) were used as fodder, 30 species (41.66%) for fuel, 10 species
(14.69%) for furniture, thatching species were 08 (11.95%), 07 species
(9.58%) were used as vegetable, 04 species (7.04%) for hedge purpose, fruit
species were 04 (6.04%), 03 species (4.10%) were grown for ornamental
purposes and 01 species (1.36%) for each of the following purposes; coloring
the clothes, oil for hairs, perfume, in surf industries and in making basket,
ropes and hand fan. Barkatullah & Ibrar (2011) reported 31 plants species
from Malakand agency which were used in the area for fuel, 14 plant species
for making furniture, 15 species for house construction particularly for
thatching purpose, 47 species were most frequently used for fodder/forage, 40
species (23.68%) were consumed as vegetable and fruit. There were 19
species grown around houses and crop fields as fence. Khan et al. (2003)
conducted survey in district Buner and reported 21 fuel plant species, 13
vegetables, 7 roof thatching species, 6 timber wood species and 40 species for
medicinal purpose. 10% of plant species were used for fuel and furniture from
district Mana Angetu (Lulekal et al., 2008). 16 plant species were used as fuel
at Jandool Valley, Dir Lower (Nasrullah et al., 2012). Khan (2011) reported
15 plant species used for furniture and 9 plant species used for ornamental
purpose at Ushairy Valley, district Dir (Upper). Cones of gymnosperm were
used for decoration at Poonch valley Azad Kashmir Pakistan (Khan, 2008).
04 spiny and bushy species were used as hedge around the fields and
houses (Table 15). The oil of Eruca sativa is used as hair tonic while oil of
Pongamia pinnata is used for cooking purpose. The Ocimum bacilicum is used
in perfumes due to its fragrance. Aloe vera fleshy leaves are used in surf
industries. The ash of Calotropis procera is used as cloth coloring agent.
Lack of proper education and poor economic condition of the area has
led to deforestation of natural vegetation, which is added by unavailability of
alternative fuel.
111
Table-3.7: List of ethnobotanically important plants
S. No Botanical Name Vernacular
Name Family Habit Parts Uses
01 Justicia adhatoda L. Baza Acanthaceae Shrub Leaves and
Stems Its dried leaves and stems are used as fuel.
02 Amaranthus viridis L. Ranzaka Amaranthaceae Herb Stems and
Leaves
Stems are used as fodder while its leaves are
used as vegetable.
03 Scandix pecten- veneris
L. Ziri Amaranthaceae Herb
Stems and
Leaves Used as fodder.
04 Foeniculam vulgare
Miller. Sonf, Kaga Apiaceae Herb
Fruits and
Leaves Used as food.
05 Nerium oleander L. Ganderai Apocynaceae Shrub Stems and
Leaves
Plant is used for ornamental purpose.
Also used as fuel.
06 Rhazya stricta Decne. Kaneer Apocynaceae Shrub Stems and
Leaves Stems and leaves are used as fuel.
07 Phoenix dactylifera L. Kajora Arecaceae Tree Leaves and
Fruits
Leaves are used for making ropes, baskets
and hand fans.
Fruits used as food.
08 Calotropis procera
Aiton. Spilmaka Asclepiadaceae Shrub
Roots, Stems
and Leaves Ash is used as cloth coloring agent.
Continued…
112
09 Sonchus asper L. Hill Tariza Asteraceae Herb Leaves and
Stems
Leaves are used as fodder while
dried stems are used as fuel.
10 Calendula arvensis (L.)
Vaill Zyer Gulay Asteraceae Herb
Stems and
Leaves Grazed by cattle.
11 Conyza aegyptiaca L. Lala hozah Asteraceae Herb Stems and
Leaves
Dried stems are used as fuel.
Leaves are used as fodder.
12 Parthenium
hysterophorus L.
Lewanai
Bang Asteraceae Herb
Leaves and
Stems Leaves and stems are used as fuel.
13 Silybum marianum L. Churg azghy Asteraceae Herb Leaves, Stems
and Seeds
Leaves and stems are used as fodder.
Seeds are used as food.
14 Taraxacum officinale
(L.) Weber. Ziarrguli Asteraceae Herb Whole plant It is used as fodder.
15 Xanthium strumarium
L. Kata sora Asteraceae Herb Whole plant Used as fuel.
16 Artemisia vulgaris L. Tarkha Asteraceae Herb Whole plant Used as fuel.
17 Heliotropium
europaeum L. Wangai Boraginaceae Shrub Leaves Grazed by animals.
18 Eruca sativa Mill. Jamama Brassicaceae Herb Seeds
Oil obtained from seeds and used as hair
tonic.
Used raw as salad.
19 Coronopus didymus L. Kakorai Brassicaceae Herb Whole plant Used by grazing animals.
Continued…
113
20 Opuntia dillenii Haw. Ghanzka Cactaceae Herb Stems Used as hedge around cultivated fields.
21 Cannabis sativa L. Bhang Cannabaceae Herb Leaves and
Stems Used as fodder and fuel.
22 Capparis decidua
(Forssk.) Edgew Jaba Capparaceae Herb Whole plant Used as fuel.
23 Stellaria media (L.)
Vill. Gulpullan Caryophyllaceae Herb
Stems and
Leaves
Used as fodder.
Leaves are used as vegetable.
24 Chenopodium album L. Spin Soba Chenopodiaceae Herb Leaves Green leaves are used as vegetable.
Used by grazing animals.
25 C. murale L. Tor Soba Chenopodiaceae Herb Whole plant Used as vegetable.
Used as fodder.
26 Convolvulus arvensis L. Prewatye Convolvulaceae Herb Whole plant Whole plant is used as fodder.
27 Citrullus colocynthis
(L.) Schrad Tarha Mara Cucurbitaceae Herb
Stems and
Leaves Used as fodder.
28 Cyperus rotundus L. Dela Cyperaceae Herb Whole plant Used as fuel and fodder.
29 Chrozophora tinctoria
(L) Raf. Skhabotay Euphorbiaceae Herb
Roots, Leaves
and Stems Used as fuel and fodder.
30 Euphorbia helioscopia
L. Ghanda Booti Euphorbiaceae Herb Whole plant Used as fuel.
31 Ricinus communis L. Rund Euphorbiaceae Shrub Leaves and
Stems Used as fuel.
Continued…
114
32 Fumaria indica
Hausskn.
Lewanai
Gazara Fumariaceae Herb Whole plant Used as fodder.
33 Ocimum bacilicum L. Bobrai Lamiaceae Shrub Stems and
Leaves
Used as fodder.
Plant used for ornamental purposes.
34 Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Zargeya Liliaceae Herb Stems and
Leaves
The fleshy leaves are used in detergent
industries.
35 Abutilon bidentatum
Hochst. ex A.Rich. ziary Malvaceae Shrub Whole plant Used as fuel.
36 Malva neglecta Waler. Tor Peshtara Malvaceae Herb Leaves and
Stems Used as vegetable and fodder.
37 Acacia arabica (Lam.)
willd. Kiker Mimosaceae Tree
Stems and
Leaves
Used as fuel, fodder, timber, in furniture
industries.
38 A. modesta Wall. Palosa Mimosaceae Tree Leaves Stems
and Gums
Used as fuel, fodder, timber, in furniture
industries.
Dried stems are used in thatching.
Gums are used by honey bees for collecting
nectar.
39 Albizia lebbeck Benth. Sirin Mimosaceae Tree Stems, Leaves
and Flowers
Stems are used as fuel, furniture and for
thatching.
Leaves are used as fodder.
Flowers are used for fragrance.
40 Prosopis juliflora
Swartz. Angrizi Kikar Mimosaceae Tree Stems
Stems are used in timber, as fuel, for
making furniture and in thatching.
Continued…
115
41 Morus nigra Shahtoth Moraceae Tree Leaves, Stems
and Fruits
Leaves are used as fodder.
Stems are used as fuel and for timber.
Fruits are edible.
42 Eucalyptus
camaldulensis Dehnh. Lachai Myrtaceae Tree Stems
Used as fuel and in furniture.
Wood is used as timber.
43 Boerhavia procumbens
Bank ex Roxb. Pendrawush Myrtaceae Herb
Stems and
Leaves Used as fodder and fuel.
44 Melia azedarach L. Bakara Meliaceae Tree Stems and
Leaves
Used as fuel and for furniture purpose.
Leaves are also used as fodder.
45 Olea ferruginea Wall.
ex G. Aitch. Shona
Oleaceae
Tree Leaves and
Stems
Wood is used in furniture industry.
Stems and leaves are used as a fuel.
46 Oxalis corniculata L. Gulbasho Oxalidaceae Herb Leaves Used as vegetable.
47 Pongamia pinnata L. Sukh chain Papilionaceae Tree Seeds Seeds yield edible oil.
48 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Shawa Papilionaceae Tree Leaves and
Stems
Leaves are used as fodder.
Wood is used as furniture, timber and fuel
purpose.
49 Medicago denticulata
Willd. Peshtara Papilionaceae Herb
Leaves and
Stems Used as fodder and vegetable.
Continued…
116
50 Melilotus indica (L.)
All. Uzmai Papilionaceae Herb
Leaves, Stems
and Flowers
Used as fodder.
Flowers are used by bees for collecting
nectar.
51 Trifolium alexandrinum
L. Shotall Papilionaceae Herb
Leaves and
Stems The whole plant used mainly as fodder.
52 T. resupinatum L. Zierawona Papilionaceae Herb Leaves and
Stems Leaves and stems are used as fodder.
53
Cenchrus
pennisetiformis Hochst
And Steud.
Shamloha Poaceae Herb Stems and
Leaves Used as fodder, fuel and thatching.
54 C. ciliaris L. Mumloha Poaceae Herb Stems and
Leaves
Sticks are used as thatching.
Used as fodder and fuel.
55
Cymbopogon
jwarancusa (Jones.)
Schult
Sargarra Poaceae Herb Whole plant It is used as thatching.
56 Cynodon dactylon L. Kabal Poaceae Herb Leaves, Stems
and Roots
Used as fodder.
Plant grown in lawns for
ornamental/beautification purpose.
57 Eragrostis cilianensis
(All.) Janchen. Mumloha Poaceae Herb Stems Used as fodder and in thatching.
58 Calligonum
polygonoides L. Balanza Polygonaceae Shrub
Leaves and
Stems
It is used as fodder.
Its ash is used in making snuff.
Continued…
117
59 Rumex dentatus L. Shalkhy Polygonaceae Herb Leaves and
Stems Used as vegetable and fodder.
60 Anagallis arvensis L. Sheen starga Primulaceae Herb Leaves and
Stems Used as fodder.
61 Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Bera Rhamnaceae Tree Fruits, Leaves
and Stems
The fruits are eadible and are largely
consumed by local people. Most valuable in
honey industry.
Leaves are used as fodder.
Its branches are used for making hedges
around cultivated fields.
Its stems are used as fuel.
62 Z. nummularia Burm. Badabera Rhamnaceae Tree Leaves and
Fruits
Fruits are eadible.
Leaves are used as fodder.
The plant is also used as hedges around
cultivated farms and is also used as fuel.
63 Populus nigra L. Sufaida Salicaceae Tree Leaves and
Stems It is mostly used for timber and also as fuel.
64 Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. Ghrasky Sapindaceae Shrub Stem
The branches are used in manufacture of
roofs.
Wood is used as fuel.
65 Monotheca boxifolia
Falc. Gurgura Sapotaceae Tree
Leaves, Stems
and Fruits
Used as fuel and fodder.
Fruits are edible.
Continued…
118
66 Datura alba Rumph. ex
Nees. Daltura Solanaceae Shrub
Leaves and
Stems Used as fodder and fuel
67 Solanum surattense
Burm.f. Speenazghai Solanaceae Herb Whole plant
Used in erecting hedges around cultivated
fields and also as fuel.
68 Withania somnifera L. Shapyanga Solanaceae Herb Leaves, Stems
and Fruits
Used as fodder.
Fruits are edible.
69 Solanum nigrum L. Kachmacho Solanaceae Herb Leaves and
Fruits Mainly used as vegetable.
70 Tamarix aphylla (L.)
Karst. Ghaz Tamaricaceae Tree Stems Mainly used for fuel and timber purposes.
71 Peganum harmala L. Spalanay Zygophyllaceae Herb Stems and
Leaves Used as fuel.
119
Table-3.8: Plants used as fodder
S.
No.
Botanical Name Local
Name Family Habit
1 Amaranthus viridis L. Ranzaka Amaranthaceae Herb
2 Scandix pecten- veneris L. Ziri Amaranthaceae Herb
3 Foeniculam vulgare Miller Sonf,
Kagah Apiaceae Herb
4 Sonchus asper (L.) Hill Tariza Asteraceae Herb
5 Calendula arvensis (L.) Vaill Zyer Gulley Asteraceae Herb
6 Conyza aegyptiaca L. Lalahozah Asteraceae Herb
7 Parthenium hysterophorus L. Lewanai
Bang Asteraceae Herb
8 Silybum marianum L. Sohadaky Asteraceae Herb
9
Taraxacum officinale (L.)
Weber. Ziarrguli Asteraceae Herb
10 Heliotropium europaeum L. Wangai Boraginaceae Shrub
11 Coronopus didymus L. Kakorai Brassicaceae Herb
12 Cannabis sativa L. Bhang Cannabaceae Herb
13 Stellaria media (L.) Vill. Gulpullan Caryophyllaceae Herb
14 Chenopodium album L. Spin Soba Chenopodiaceae Herb
15 C. muraleL. Tor Soba Chenopodiaceae Herb
16 Convolvulus arvensis L. Prewatye Convolvulaceae Herb
17
Citrullus colocynthis (L.)
Schrad Tarha Mara Cucurbitaceae Herb
18 Cyperus rotundus L. Dela Cyperaceae Herb
19
Chrozophora tinctoria (L.)
Raf. Skhabotay Euphorbiaceae Herb
Continued…
120
20 Fumaria indica Hausskn. Lewanai
Gazara Fumariaceae Herb
21 Ocimum bacilicum L. Bobrai Lamiaceae Shrub
22 Malva neglecta Wallr. Tor
Peshtara Malvaceae Herb
23 Acacia arabica (Lam.) Willd. Kiker Mimosaceae Tree
24 A. modesta Wall. Palosa Mimosaceae Tree
25 Albizia lebbeck Benth. Sirin Mimosaceae Tree
26 Morus nigar L. Shahtoth Moraceae Tree
27
Boerhavia procumbens Bank
ex Roxb. Pendrawush Myrtaceae Herb
28 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb Shawa Papilionaceae Tree
29 Medicago denticulta Willd. Speshtara Papilionaceae Herb
30 Melilotus indica (L.) All. Uzmai Papilionaceae Herb
31 Trifolium alexandrinum L. Shotall Papilionaceae Herb
32 T. resupinatum L. Zierawona Papilionaceae Herb
33
Cenchrus pennisetiformis
Hochst. And Steud. Shamloha Poaceae Herb
34 C. ciliaris L. Mumloha Poaceae Herb
35 Cynodon dactylon L. Kabal Poaceae Herb
36 Eragrostis cilianensis All. Mumloha Poaceae Herb
37 Calligonum polygonoides L. Balanza Polygonaceae Shrub
38 Rumex dentatus L. Shalkhay Polygonaceae Herb
39 Anagallis arvensis L. Sheen
starga Primulaceae Herb
40 Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Bera Rhamnaceae Tree
41 Z. nummularia Burm. Badabera Rhamnaceae Tree
Continued…
121
42 Monotheca boxifolia Falc. Gurgura Sapotaceae Tree
43 Datura alba Rumph. ex Nees. Daltura Solanaceae Shrub
44 Withania somnifera L. Shapyanga Solanaceae Herb
45 Peganum harmala L. Spalanay Zygophyllaceae Herb
122
Table-3.9: Plants used as fuel
S.No. Botanical Name Local
Name Family Habit
1 Justicia adhatoda L. Baza Acanthaceae Shrub
2 Nerium oleander L. Ranzai Apocynaceae Shrub
3 Rhazya stricta Decne. Ganderai Apocynaceae Shrub
4 Parthenium hysterophorus L. Lewanai
Bang Asteraceae Herb
5 Silybum marianum L. Sohadaky Asteraceae Herb
6 Xanthium strumarium L. Kata sora Asteraceae Herb
7 Artemisia vulgaris L. Tarkha Asteraceae Herb
8 Capparis decidua (Forssk.)
Edgew Jaba Capparaceae Herb
9 Cyperus rotundus L. Dela Cyperaceae Herb
10 Chrozophora tinctoria (L.)
Raf. Skhabotay Euphorbiaceae Herb
11 Euphorbia helioscopia L. Ganda
Booti Euphorbiaceae Herb
12 Ricinus communis L. Rund Euphorbiaceae Shrub
13 Acacia arabica (Lam.) Willd. Kiker Mimosaceae Tree
14 A. modesta Wall. Palosa Mimosaceae Tree
15 Albizia lebbeck Benth. Sirin Mimosaceae Tree
16 Prosopis juliflora Swartz. Angrizi
Kikar Mimosaceae Tree
17 Eucalyptus camaldulensis
Dehnh. Lachai Myrtaceae Tree
18 Boerhavia procumbens Bank
ex Roxb. Pendrawush Myrtaceae Herb
19 Olea ferruginea Wall. ex G.
Aitch. Shona Oleaceae Tree
20 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb Shawa papilionaceae Tree
21 Cenchrus pennisetiformis
Hochst. And Steud. Shamloha Poaceae Herb
Continued…
123
22 C. ciliaris L. Mumloha Poaceae Herb
23 Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Bera Rhamnaceae Tree
24 Z. nummularia Burm. Badabera Rhamnaceae Tree
25 Populus nigra L Sufaida Saicaceae Tree
26 Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. Ghrasky Sapindaceae Shrub
27 Monotheca boxifolia Falc. Gurgura Sapotaceae Tree
28 Solanum surattense Burm.f. Speenazghai Solanaceae Herb
29 Tamarix aphylla (L.) Karst. Ghaz Tamaricaceae Tree
124
Table-3.10:Plants used in furniture industries
S.No. Botanical Name
Local
Name Family Habit
1 Melia azedarach L. Bakara Meliaceae Tree
2 Acacia arabica (Lam.) Willd. Kiker Mimosaceae Tree
3 A. modesta Wall. Palosa Mimosaceae Tree
4 Albizia lebbeck Benth. Sirin Mimosaceae Tree
5 Prosopis juliflora Swartz. Angrizi
Kikar Mimosaceae Tree
6 Eucalyptus camaldulensis
Dehnh. Lachai Myrtaceae Tree
7 Olea ferruginea Wall. ex G.
Aitch. Shona Oleaceae Tree
8 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb Shawa Papilionaceae Tree
9 Populus nigra L Sufaida Saicaceae Tree
10 Tamarix aphylla (L.) Karst. Ghaz Tamaricaceae Tree
Table-3.11: Plants used in thatching
S.No. Botanical Name
Local
Name Family Habit
1 Acacia modesta Wall. Palosa Mimosaceae Tree
2 Albizia lebbeck Benth. Sirin Mimosaceae Tree
3 Eucalyptus camaldulensis
Dehnh. Lachai Myrtaceae Tree
4 Cenchrus pennisetiformis
Hochst. And Steud. Shamloha Poaceae Herb
5 C. ciliaris L. Mumloha Poaceae Herb
6 Cymbopogon jawarancusa
(Jones.) Schult. Sargarra Poaceae Herb
7 Eragrostis cilianensis All. Mumloha Poaceae Herb
8 Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. Ghrasky Sapindaceae Shrub
125
Table-3.12:Plants used as vegetables
S.No. Botanical Name
Local
Name Family Habit
1 Chenopodium album L. Spin Soba Chenopodiaceae Herb
2 C. murale L. Tor Soba Chenopodiaceae Herb
3 Malva neglecta Wallr. Tor
Peshtara Malvaceae Herb
4 Rumex dentatus L. Shalkhay Polygonaceae Herb
5 Solanum nigrum L. Kachmacho Solanaceae Herb
6 Stellaria media (L.) Vill. Gulpullan Caryophyllaceae Herb
7 Oxalis corniculata L. Gulbasho Oxalidaceae Herb
Table-3.13: Plants used in hedge
S.No. Botanical Name Local
Name Family Habit
1 Opuntia dillenii Haw. Ghanzka Cactaceae Herb
2 Ziziphus nummularia Burm. Badabera Rhamnaceae Tree
3 Z. jujuba Mill. Bera Rhamnaceae Tree
4 Solanum surattense Burm.f. Speenazghai Solanaceae Herb
126
Table-3.14: Percentage of ethnobotanical usage of plants in district
Nowshera
S.No. Ethnobotanical Usage No. of Plants Percentage
1 Plants used as fodder 45 62.5 %
2 Plants used as fuel wood 29 41.66 %
3 Plants used for furniture 10 13.69 %
4 Plants used for ornamental
purpose
03 4.10 %
5 Plants used as coloring cloths 01 1.36 %
6 Oil yielding plants 01 1.36 %
7 Plants used as vegetable 07 9.58 %
8 Used as hedge 04 5.55 %
9 Plants producing edible fruit 04 5.47 %
10 As perfumes 01 1.36 %
11 For roof thatching purpose 08 10.95 %
127
Figure-3.4: Percentage of ethnobotinical usage of plants in district
Nowshera
128
Figure-3.5: Sheep and Goat of local breed grazing on meager forage in
the range land of district Nowshera
Figure-3.6: Ziziphus, Olea, Acacia, Dodonaea and Prosopis largely used
as fuel wood that further reduces local vegetations
129
Figure-3.7: Stem branches of Ziziphus used as fences
Figure-3.8: Gum of Acacia used in market
130
3.5 Ethnomedicine
Survey was carried out to explore the indigenous knowledge of
medicinal plants of the research area. 90 ethnomedicinal plant species were
recorded from the area belonging to 84 genera and 37 families. The wild
plants were mostly used by the local community for treatment of various
ailments. Indigenous medicinal plants of 66 species of wild herbs (73.95%),
followed by wild trees (13 spp., 14.58 %) and wild shrubs (11 spp., 12.45 %)
were in use by the locals. The highest number of indigenous medicinal plants
were contributed by family Asteraceae (12 spp), followed by Papilionaceae
with 07 species, Poaceae with 06 species, Solanaceae 05 species,
Mimosaceaeand Brassicaceae 04 species each,Amaranthaceae,
Malvaceae,Polygonaceae, Zygophyllaceae and Lamiaceae 03 species each,
Myrtaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Rhamnaceae, Apocynaceaeand Chenopodiaceae
02 species each. Rest of the families i-e Berberidaceae,Capparaceae,
Moraceae, Asclepidaceae,Caryophyllaceae, Cactaceae, Acanthaceae,
Verbenaceae, Alliaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Oxalidaceae, Convulvulaceae,
Cyperaceae, Cannabaceae, Oleaceae, Temaraceae, Plantaginaceae and
Sapindaceae were represented by one species each. Ethnomedicinal
information particularly for asthma, stimulant, dysentery, diarrhea, fever,
emollient, snake bite and for piles was documented from the study area.
During the survey maximum number of plants species (30 spp) were used for
fever treatment followed by diarrhea (09 spp), anthelmintic, stimulant and
dysentery (08 spp each), asthma (06 spp), snake bite (04 spp) and as emollient
(02 spp). Qamar et al. (2010) reported 32 species used against human diseases
(14 spp., used as antiseptic, 9 spp., used as tonic, and 9 spp., used as
anthelmintic)from Neelum valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Lulekal et al.
(2008) documented 78.7% of plant species for different ailments (Asthma,
cough and piles etc). Zereen & Sardar (2013) reported 38 plant species used
for asthma, cough and as stimulantfrom central Punjab. Haq (2012)
documented 47 plant species used for asthma, cough and as stimulantfrom
Allai Valley, Western Himalaya, Pakistan. Khan et al. (2009) reported
131
Tamarix and Calatropis species used against coughfrom F.R. Bannu. Jabbar et
al. (2006) reported 5 plant species used for asthma, cough and as
stimulantfrom Chapursan Valley, district Mian Wali. 22 medicinal weeds
belonging to 13 families were used by the local community for treatment of
various illnessesfrom district Shangla (Ishtiaq et al., 2007). 24 plants species
belong to 16 families were used for medicnal purpose by the local inhabitant
of Manipur, India (Rasila et al., 2013). Mahmood et al. (2013) investigated 71
ethnomedicinal plants belonging to 38 families from Gujranwala district,
Pakistan. Ghulam et al. (2015) documented a sum of 120 plant species
belonging to 50 families from Thar Desert of Sindh, Pakistan. There were 61
medicinal plants belonging to 40 families from 17 sites of Leepa valley, Azad
Jammu and Kashmir (Mahmood et al., 2012). Tag et al. (2012), Mahmood et
al. (2012) and Ghulam et al. (2015) reported the maximum usage of wild
herbaceous medicinal plants from their research area. During the present study
ethnomedicinal information of each species along other botanical data were
recorded in different seasons of the year (Table 17). Choudhury et al. (2015)
and Meena & Yadav 2010 reported 49 plant species from Southern Assam,
India used against the digestive system disorder. Ahmad et al. (2009) recorded
49% plant species used in research area as anti-diabetic.
Plant parts used for the treatment of various ailments comprised of
leaves, seeds, stems, flowers, roots, fruits, whole fresh and whole dry plant.
Leaves (62.12%) were the most preferred plant part used as indigenous
medicine, followed by stems (33.18%), roots (21.16%), seeds (17.50%), fruits
(16.37%), whole plant (15.37%), and flowers (3.08 %) (Fig.2). Mahmood et
al. (2013) from Gujranwala district, Mahmood et al. (2012) from Leepa
valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Ghulam et al. (2015) from Islamabad and
Thar Desert of Sindh, Pakistan and Choudhury et al. (2015) reported from
Southern Assam, India, that leaves are the most prominent part used by the
local community. The extensive use of leaves in indigenous recipes may be
probably due to their highest healing potential possessing secondary
metabolites (Verpoorte, 1998; Verpoorte & Memelink, 2002).
132
Sardar & Khan (2009) investigated that medicinal halophytes were
used to cure about 30 to 35 types of diseasesfrom tehsil Shakargarh, district
Narowal, Pakistan. About 27% species have been used as blood purifier, 13%
species are painkiller, 13% are laxative whereas 22% species specially used as
fodder. 11% species in the remaining have been used against asthma, 08%
species against ulcer while, 06% species have been used in soap industry.
Researchers are actively engaged in exploring plants that have important
medicinal properties such as anti-ulcer, anti-diabetes, antioxidant and anti-
inflammatory (Haq, 1983).
Plant extracts contain chemicals which ceased the formation and
development of crystals. Due to this character plants play a positive role to
avoid kidney stones and crystals accumulation (Goodman & Gafoor, 1992).
The present pharmacopoeia comprises of about 25% medications extracted
from plants (Shinwari, 2010). Hara & Williams (1997) reported 66 medicinal
plant species used to treat various diseases and ailments grouped under 11
disease categories.
133
Table-3.15: List of ethnomedicinal plants
S.No. Botanical name Vernacular
name Family name Habit Part use Ethnomedicinal Uses
1. Justicia adhatoda L. Baza Acanthaceae Shrub
Leaves,
Roots,
Flowers and
Fruits
Extracts of crushed leaves and roots are used in
asthma,cough, rheumatism, bronchitis, dysentery in animals
and also as anti-inflammation.
Extracts of flowers and fruits are used as anthelmintic.
2. Allium
griffithianum Boiss. Piazaky Alliaceae Herb
Leaves and
Bulbs
Bulbs are used as aphrodisiac. Leaves extract is used in optic
pain, flatulence and skin diseases.
3. Amaranthus viridis L. Ranzaka Amaranthaceae Herb Roots, Stems
and Leaves
Roots and stems decoctions are used in inflammation and
dysentery.They are also used as pain killer and in fever
Leaves decoctions are used as emollient and against snake
bite and in scorpion sting.
4. Foeniculam vulgare
Miller. Sonf, Kaga Apiaceae Herb
Fruits and
Leaves Used as carminative and stimulant.
5. Achyranthes aspera L. Spy boty Amaranthaceae Herb Whole plant
Decoctions of whole dry plant are useful in excessive
menstruation, diarrhea, dysentery, and piles.
Decoctions of leaves are used as remedy for toothache and
abdominal pain.
6. Scandix pecten- veneris
L. Ziri Amaranthaceae Herb Whole plant Whole plant extract is used for cooling of animal body.
Continued…
134
7 Nerium oleander L. Ranzai Apocynaceae Shrub Roots and
Leaves
Dried roots are grinded to make paste and usedin snake
bite, scorpion sting and for skin diseases.
Leaves decoctions are used for the treatment of skin
inflammation.
8. Rhazya stricta
Decne. Ganderai Apocynaceae Shrub
Roots, Stems
and Leaves
Decoctions of plant are used in blood purification, skin
diseases and for fever.
9. Calotropis procera
Aiton. Spalmy Asclepiadaceae Shrub
Stems and
Leaves
Dried leaves are grinded into powder, mixed with ghur
(local name of sugar) and their paste is used for snake
bite.
Latex is useful for ringworm and skin disease.
Leaves are heated in water. Extract obtained is used in
ear pain and against fever.
10. Calendula arvensis
(L.) Vaill Zyer Gulley Asteraceae Herb Flowers
The dried flowers are crushed and their extract is used for
toothache.
11.
Taraxacum
officinale (L.)
Weber.
Boda sary Asteraceae Herb Roots, Stems
and Leaves Decoctions are used for fever and stomachache
12. Cichorium intybus
Linn. Kashnee Asteraceae Herb Whole plant
Extract of whole plant is used for abdominal disorders,
indigestion, headache, asthma, gout, and joint pain.
13. Eclipta prostrata L. Daryai boti Asteraceae Herb Whole plant Whole plant decoctions have a tonic effect on the
circulatory, nervous and digestive system.
Continued…
135
14. Lactuca serriola L. Pae gully Asteraceae Herb Leaves and
Stems
The tea prepared from its leaves is used by pregnant
woman to keep them cool.
Decoctions of dried leaves and stems are used as cooling
agent, sedative and diaphoretic.
15. Carthamus
oxycantha L. Ghzanka Asteraceae Herb
Stems,
Flowers and
Seeds
Seeds and flowers are used in measles, as stimulant, for
fever and eruptive skin disease.
Oil obtained from its seeds is used as hair tonic.
Stems are dried, crushed and powder is made which is
used as antipyretic.
16. Conyza aegyptiaca
L. Lalahozah Asteraceae Herb
Stems and
Leaves
Extraction of stems is used as a stimulant.
Dried leaves decoctions are made which is used in
dysentery, diarrhea and is used as antipyretic.
17. Sonchus asper (L.)
Hill Tariza Asteraceae Herb Whole plant
Whole plant decoctions are used in asthma.
Extractions of roots and leaves are used in constipation,
inflammation of skin and for fever.
18. Xanthium
strumarium L. Kata sora Asteraceae Herb
Fruits and
whole plant
Fruits are dried and grinded into powder which is used
for urinary tract infection and as antipyretic.
19. Parthenium
hysterophorus L.
Lewanai
Bang Asteraceae Herb
Leaves and
Stems
Leaves and stems decoctions are used as blood purifier
and fever.
Continued…
136
20. Silybum marianum
L. Sohadaky Asteraceae Herb
Leaves, Stems
and Seeds
Leaves and stems are used as diaphoretic.
Seeds are emollient and are used for hemorrhage
(bleeding).
21. Artemisia vulgaris
L. Tarkha Asteraceae Herb Leaves
Leaves decoctions are used as antiperiodic and as
carminative.
22.
Coronopus didymus
(L.) Sm.
Kakorai Brassicaceae Herb Stems and
Roots
Grounded roots are used as anthelmintic while powder
form of stems is used for fever.
23. Berberis lycium
Royle Ziarlargy Berberidaceae Herb
Stems, Leaves
and Roots
Decoctions of leaves and stems with honey are given
twice a day for 7-15 days in jaundice.
Roots extract is given twice a day for 3-6 months for
jaundice.
24. Heliotropium
europaeum L. Wangai Boraginaceae Shrub Leaves
Fresh leaves are grinded and decoctions are made which
is used as diuretic and purgative
25.
Eruca sativa Mill.
Jamama Brassicaceae Herb Seeds and
Leaves
The dried seeds are grinded and squeezed to extract oil. It
is given to the cattle’s as anthelmintic and also used as
hair tonic.
Fresh leaves are crushed, boiled and decoctions are made
which is used for fever.
26. Lepidium sativum L. Haliyon Brassicaceae Herb Seeds and
Fruits
Dried seeds are mixed with water, heated and upon
cooling are given for abdominal pain.
Roasted fruits are mixed with curd and usedfor fever and
in diarrhea.
Continued…
137
27. Sisymbrium irio L. Badal Bang Brassicaceae Herb Seeds and
Leaves
The dried seeds and leaves are grinded and used for
throat infection, as diaphoretic and fever.
Powder of the grinded seeds is used as expectorant and
stimulant.
28. Opuntia dillenii
Haw. Ghanzka Cactaceae Herb Seeds
Infusion of seeds is used in asthma, fever, as stimulant
and antispasmodic.
29. Cannabis sativa L. Bhang Cannabaceae Herb Leaves Used as sedative, diuretic and for fever.
30. Capparis decidua
(Forssk.) Edgew Jaba Capparaceae Herb Leaves
Leaves decoctions are used as carminative, for piles and
for fever.
31. Stellaria media (L.)
Vill. Gulpullan
Caryophyllacea
e
Herb Leaves and
Stems Dried leaves and stems are used as antipyretic.
32. Chenopodium
album L. Spin Soba Chenopodiacea Herb
Roots and
Seeds
Decoctionsare made of dried roots, which are used for
urinary tract infection.
Dried seeds are grinded into powder and this powder is
used in rheumatism.
33. C. murale L. Tor Soba Chenopodiacea Herb Seeds Extracts of its seeds are used in asthma, as aromatic, as
stimulant and as antispasmodic.
Continued…
138
34. Convolvulus
arvensis L. Prewatye Convolvulaceae Herb Whole plant
Dried fruits are grinded into powder and used for hair
washing to remove dandruff.
Whole plant decoctions are used for pain worms.
Dried roots are crushed and decoctions are made and
used as laxative.
35.
Citrullus
colocynthis (L.)
Schrad.
Tarha Mara Cucurbitaceae Herb Stems and
Roots
Stems and roots decoctions are used in dysentery and
diarrhea.
36. Cuscuta reflexa
Roxb. Chambal Cuscutaceae Herb Whole plant
Fresh plant decoctions are made which is used as
diuretic, anthelmintic, carminative andfor toothache,
Plant extraction is used in vomiting and as antipyretic
37. Cyperus rotundus L. Dela Cyperaceae Herb Leaves Leaves are used in back-ache, weakness and in
inflammation.
38. Euphorbia
helioscopia L. Ganda Booti Euphorbiaceae Herb
Stems, Roots
and Leaves
Dried stems are powdered and used in constipation.
Roots decoctions are used as anthelmintic.
Fresh leaves of the plant are grinded and decoctions are
made which is used in hepatitis.
Continued…
139
39. Ricinus communis
L. Arhund Euphorbiaceae Shrub
Seeds and
Stems
Seeds are crushed into powder and a paste is made which
is given to cattle in constipation and fever
The oil extracted from its seeds is used in snake bite and
also used to expel out the poison.
The bark of the stems is grinded into powder; paste is
prepared and is used for healing wounds.
40.
Fumaria indica
Hausskn.
Lewanai
Gazara Fumariaceae Herb Whole plant
Dried plant is crushed into powder and is used for
constipation. It is also used for purification of blood.
Extraction of plant is used as antipyretic,vermifuge,
antiperiodic and in skin eruption.
Leaves decoctions are used for diabetes, dyspepsia,
jaundice and joint pains.
41. Ocimum bacilicum
L. Bobrai
Lamiaceae
Shrub Leaves, Stems
and Seeds
Leaves and stems areheated and wrapped over the wound
till recovery in case of injury.
Seeds decoctions are used in dysentery and diarrhea.
42. Mentha spicata L. Bodina Lamiaceae Herb Leaves Used in wound healing, constipation, abdominal
disorders and as condiments.
43. M. longifolia L. Vinaly Lamiaceae Herb Whole plant Used as carminative also in indigestion, gastric troubles
vomiting and as antipyretic.
Continued…
140
44. Aloe vera (L.)
Burm.f. Zargeya Liliaceae Herb Leaves
Leaves extraction is mixed with salt and used in hepatitis
and fever
Heated leaves are used to treat the inflamed part of the
body.
45. Malva neglecta
Wallr. Tor Peshtara Malvaceae Herb
Leaves and
Roots
Leaves are crushed and decoctions are made which is
used in dysentery.
Grinded roots are used as anthelmintic.
46. Abutilon bidentatum
Hochst. ex A.Rich. Ziary Malvaceae Shrub Leaves
The decoctions of leaves are useful for diarrhea,
inflammation of bladder and for fever.
47.
Malvastrum
coromandelianum
L.
Balla Malvaceae
Herb
Leaves
Leaves paste is applied on minor wounds.
Leaves are used by the sugar patients to normalize biood
sugar level.
48. Melia azedarach L. Bakara Meliaceae Tree Roots and
Leaves
Leaves are given to cattles as carminative.
Leaves of the plant are grinded and decoctions are made
which is used as anthelmintic and antipyretic
Decoctions of roots are used as a vermifuge.
49. Acacia arabica
(Lam.) Willd. Kiker Mimosaceae Tree
Roots and
Stems
Stems and roots decoctions are used in dysentery and
diarrhea.
Stems decoctions are used in constipation.
50. A. modesta Wall. Palosa Mimosaceae Tree Leaves and
Gum
Leaves extract is used for animals as carminative.
Gum acts as a demulcent material that serves to sheathe
cuts, wounds and inflamed part of skin also used as
aromatherapy and as food.
Continued…
141
51. Prosopis juliflora
Swartz.
Angrizy
Kikar Mimosaceae Tree Stems Bark decoctions are used in rheumatism and for fever.
52. Albizia lebbeck
Benth. Sirin Mimosaceae Tree
Leaves and
stems Used as antipyretic and for ulcers.
53. Morus nigra L. Shahtoth Moraceae Tree Fruits, Leaves
and Roots
Decoctions of fruits and leaves are used for throat
infection.
Extracts of roots and barks is used to kill abdominal
worms.
54.
Eucalyptus
camaldulensis
Dehnh.
Lachai Myrtaceae Tree Leaves Leaves decoctions are used as antiperiodic, carminative,
expectorant and antiseptic.
55.
Boerhavia
procumbens Bank
ex Roxb.
Pendrawush Myrtaceae Herb Roots
Dried roots are grinded into powder and used to treat
hepatitis.
Roots decoctions are used as purgative, diuretic and also
used for fever.
56. Olea ferruginea
Wall. ex G. Aitch. Shona
Oleaceae
Tree
Fruits and
Leaves
Oil is obtained from its fruits which are used in
rheumatism, for back ache and for burns.
Leaves extracts are used as diuretic and antiseptic.
57. Oxalis corniculata
L. Gulbasho Oxalidaceae Herb
Leaves and
Roots
Used in wound healing, stomachache, as cooling agent
and antipyretic.
58. Dalbergia
sissooRoxb Shawa Papilionaceae Tree
Leaves and
stems
Decoctions of leaves are used for fever.
Wood is used in asthma.
Continued…
142
59. Pongamia pinnata
L. Sukh chain Papilionaceae Tree
Seeds and
Roots
Oil extracted from its seeds is used externally to cure
herpes and eczema.
Roots extract cures ulcer and fistula.
60. Lathyrus aphaca
Linn. Jangli matter Papilionaceae Herb Seeds Seeds extract is used as narcotics.
61. Alhagi maurorum
Medic. Spulmaka Papilionaceae Herb whole plant
Decoctions of plant are used in skin allergies and also
used as blood purifier.
62. Medicago denticulta
Willd. Speshtara Papilionaceae Herb
Leaves and
Stems
Leaves and stems are crushed and extraction is obtained
which is used as carminative.
63. Melilotus indica (L.)
All. Uzmai Papilionaceae Herb
Leaves and
Roots
Decoctions of leaves are used for toothache and
abdominal pain.
Roots decoctions are used for fever.
64. Trifolium
alexandrinum L. Shotall Papilionaceae Herb
Leaves ,Stems
and Fruits
Fruits are used in constipation.
Decoctions of leaves and stems are used for fever.
65. Plantago major L. Spinghol Plantaginaceae Herb Seeds and
Leaves
Decoctions of seeds are used in diarrhea, dysentery, and
constipation.
Leaves decoctions are used for skin diseases.
Crushed leaves are used as anti-coagulant.
Continued…
143
66.
Cymbopogon
jawarancusa
(Jones.) Schult.
Sargarra Poaceae Herb Stems and
Leaves
Extraction of crushed stems and leaves are used as
antipyretic.
67. Avena sativa L. Judar Poaceae Herb Leaves Leaves extract is used as stimulant.
68. Cynodon dactylon
L. Kabal Poaceae Herb
Leaves, Stems
and Roots
Plant decoctions are used as blood purifier and diuretic.
Mixture of leaves and milk is used for bleeding piles
vomiting, and irritation of urinary tract.
Leaves are given to cows for increasing milk production.
69. Eragrostis
cilianensis All. Mumloha Poaceae
Herb
Leaves Fruits are used to treat gas troubles and as antipyretic.
70. Cenchrus ciliaris L.
Mumloha
Poaceae
Herb
Seeds and
Leaves
Dried seeds and leaves are grinded and used as
diaphoretic and in fever.
71. C. pennisetiformis
Hochst. And Steud.
Shamloha
Poaceae Herb Stems and
Leaves Used in digestive disorders and as antipyretic.
72. Rumex dentatus L. Shalkhay Polygonaceae Herb Leaves and
Stems
Dried leaves and stems powder are mixed with honey and
used in fever.
Continued…
144
73. Polygonum
plebeium R. Br Adranaky Polygonaceae Herb Whole plant Plant decoctions are used in digestive disorders.
74. Calligonum
polygonoides L. Balanza Polygonaceae Shrub Leaves
Dried leaves are crushed, a powder is made which is used
to treat diabetes and in fever.
75. Anagallis arvensis
L. Sheen starga Primulaceae Herb Leaves Leaves extract is mixed with milk and used for fever.
76. Ranunculus
scleratus L. Ziara gaya Ranunculaceae Herb Whole plant Decoctions are used in skin diseases.
77. Ziziphus
nummularia Burm. Badabera
Rhamnaceae
Tree Fruits Fruits are used for constipation.
78. Z. jujuba Mill. Bera Rhamnaceae
Tree
Leaves and
Fruits
Fruits are used in constipation.
Dried leaves are crushed and a powder is made which is
used to treat diabetes.
79. Dodonaea viscosa
Jacq. Ghrasky Sapindaceae Shrub Whole plant
Decoctions are used to treat inflammation of skin and
wound healing.
Decoctions of leaves are used as astringent, stimulant
rheumatism and for burns.
Continued…
145
80. Verbascum thapsus
L. Khrghwagy
Scrophulariacea
e Herb
Seeds and
Leaves
Oil from seeds is used as demulcent and emollient.
Leaves are used as stimulants and also used in diarrhea,
cough and fever..
81. Solanum nigrum
var. nigrum L. Kachmacho Solanaceae Herb Fruits Fruits are used for cardiac diseases and as antipyretic.
82. S. surattense
Burm.f. Speenazghai Solanaceae Herb
Fruits,
Leaves, Stems
and Flowers
Fruits are used for sore throat, as purgative and in
constipation.
Leaves extractions are used as rheumatism.
Decoctions of stems, flowers are used as antipyretic and
carminative.
83. Withania somnifera
L. Odagy Solanaceae Herb Seeds Seeds are given to cattles to treat digestive disorders.
84. W. coagulans
(Stock) Dunal Shapyanga Solanaceae Herb
Leaves. Stems
and Fruits
Leaves, stems and fruits are given to cattle to treat gas
troubles.
85. Datura alba
Rumph. ex Nees. Daltura Solanaceae Shrub
Leaves and
Fruits
Dried fruits are grinded into powder and are given to
cattle to treat digestive disorder. The extractions of fruits
are used as hair tonic.
Decoctions of leaves are used in skin diseases and in
fever.
Continued…
146
86. Tamarix aphylla
(L.) Karst. Ghaz Tamaricaceae Tree
Leaves and
Stems
Stems decoctions are used for toothache.
Dried leaves are used for curing of burn spots.
87. Verbena officinalis
L. Shomokha Verbenaceae Herb Whole plant
Verbena, Fumaria indica and Solanum nigrum are dried
and crushed into powder, mixed with water and used
thrice a day before meals. it is effective in itching, warts,
in blood purification and for fever.
88. Peganum harmala
L. Spalanay Zygophyllaceae Herb Fruits Fruits are used in gas troubles.
89. Fagonia cretica L. Sperlaghzai Zygophyllaceae Herb Leaves and
Stems
Stems and leaves extractions are used for blood
purification and also used for skin diseases and fever.
90. Tribulus terrestris
L. Melai Zygophyllaceae Herb Fruits Fruits are used as diuretic and tonic.
147
Table-3.16: Plants used against asthma
S.No. Palnt Name Vernacular name Family
1 Justicia adhatoda L. Baza Acanthaceae
2 Cichorium intybus Linn. Kashnee Asteraceae
3 Sonchus asper (L.) Hill Tariza Asteraceae
4 Chenopodium murale L. Tor Soba Chenopodiacea
5 Opuntia dilleni Haw. Ghanzka Cactaceae
6 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Shawa Papilionaceae
Table-3.17: Plants used in dysentery
S.No. Plant name Vernicular name Family
1 Achyranthes aspera L. Spy boty Amaranthaceae
2 Amaranthus viridis L. Ranzaka Amaranthaceae
3 Conyza aegyptiaca L. Lalahozah Asteraceae
4 Justicia adhatoda L. Baza Acanthaceae
5 Citrullus colocynthis (L.)
Schrad
Tarha Mara Cucurbitaceae
6 Ocimum bacilicum L. Bobrai Lamiaceae
7 Malva neglecta Wallr. Tor Peshtara Malvaceae
8 Acacia arabica (Lam.) Willd. Kiker Mimosaceae
148
Table-3.18: Plants used as anthelmintic
S.No. Plant name Vernacular name Family
1 Justicia adhatoda L. Baza Acanthaceae
2 Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm. Kakorai Brassicaceae
3 Eruca sativa Mill. Jamama Brassicaceae
4 Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Chambal Cuscutaceae
5 Euphorbia helioscopia L. Ganda Booti Euphorbiaceae
6 Malva neglecta Wallr. Tor Peshtara Malvaceae
7 Melia azedarach L. Bakara Meliaceae
Table-3.19: Plants used as stimulant
S.No. Plant name Vernacular name Family
1 Foeniculam vulgare Miller. Snof, Kagah Amaranthaceae
2 Carthamus oxycantha L. Ghzanka Asteraceae
3 Conyza aegyptiaca L. Lalahozah Asteraceae
4 Sisymbrium irio L. Badal Bang Brassicaceae
5 Opuntia dillini Haw. Ghanzka Cactaceae
6 Chenopodium murale L. Tor Soba Chenopodiacea
7 Avena sativa L. Judar Poaceae
8 Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. Ghrasky Sapindaceae
9 Verbascum thapsus L. Khrghwagy Scrophulariaceae
149
Table-3.20:Plants used in diarrhea
S.No. Plant name Vernacular name Family
1 Achyranthes aspera L. Spy boty Amaranthaceae
2 Conyza aegyptiaca L. Lalahozah Asteraceae
3 Lepidium sativum L. Haliyon Brassicaceae
4 Fumaria indica Hausskn. LewanaiGajar Fumariaceae
5 Ocimum bacilicum L. Bobrai Lamiaceae
6 Abutilon bidentatum Hochst. ex
A.Rich.
Ziary Malvaceae
7 Acacia arabica (Lam.) Willd. Kiker Mimosaceae
8 Plantago major L. Spinghol Plantaginaceae
9 Verbascum thapsus L. Khrghwagy Scrophulariaceae
Table-3.21: Plants used as emollient
S.No. Plant name Vernacular name Family
1 Amaranthus viridis L. Ranzaka Amaranthaceae
2 Verbascum thapsus L. Khrghwagy Scrophulariaceae
Table-3.22: Plants used in snake bite
S.No. Plant name Vernacular name Family
1 Amaranthus viridis L. Ranzaka Amaranthaceae
2 Nerium oleander L. Ranzai Apocynaceae
3 Calotropis procera Aiton. Spilmaka Asclepiadaceae
4 Ricinus communis (L.) Rund Euphorbiaceae
150
Table-3.23: Plants used in fever
S.No. Plants name Vernacular
name Family
1 Amaranthus viridis L. Ranzaka Amaranthaceae
2 Rhazya stricta Decne. Ganderai Apocynaceae
3 Calotropis procera Aiton. Spilmaka Asclepiadaceae
4 Carthamus oxycantha L. Ghzanka Asteraceae
5 Sonchus asper (L.) Hill. Tariza Asteraceae
6 Taraxacum officinale (L.)
Weber.
Zyr gully Asteraceae
7 Parthenium hysterophorus L. Lewanai Bang Asteraceae
8 Eruca sativa Mill. Jamama Brassicaceae
9 Lepidium sativum L. Haliyon Brassicaceae
10 Sisymbrium irrioL. Badal Bang Brassicaceae
11 Coronopus didymus L. Kakorai Brassicaceae
12 Opuntia dillenii Haw. Ghanzka Cactaceae
13 Cannabis sativa L. Bhang Cannabaceae
14 Capparis decidua (Forssk.)
Edgew
Jaba Capparaceae
15 Ricinus communis L. Rund Euphorbiaceae
16 Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Zargeya Liliaceae
17
Abutilon bidentatum Hochst. ex
A.Rich.
Ziary Malvaceae
18 Prosopis juliflora Swartz. Angrizi Kikar Mimosaceae
19 Boerhavia procumbens Bank. Pendrawush Mytraceae
20 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Shawa Papilionaceae
Continued…
151
21 Melilotus indica (L.) All. Uzmai Papilionaceae
22 Trifolium alexandrinum L. Shotall Papilionaceae
23 Cenchrus ciliarus L. Mumloha Poaceae
24 Anagallis arvensis L. Sheen starga Primulaceae
25 Rumex dentatus L. Shalkhay Polygonaceae
26 Calligonum polygonoides L. Balanza Polygonaceae
27 Verbascum thapsus L. Khrghwagy Scrophulariaceae
28 Datura alba Rumph. ex Nees. Daltura Solanaceae
29 Verbena officinalis L. Shomokha Verbenaceae
30 Fagonia cretica L. Sperlaghzai Zygophyllaceae
Table-3.24: Percentage of ethnomedicinal uses of plants
S.No. Ethnomedicinal Uses No. of Plants Percentage
1 For Asthma 06 6.59%
2 As Anthelmintic 07 7.62%
3 In Dysentery 08 8.79%
4 As Stimulant 09 8.79 %
5 In Diarrhea 09 9.37 %
6 As Emollient 02 2.08 %
7 For Snake bite 04 4.39 %
8 For Fever 30 33.11 %
152
Figure-3.9: Percentage of Ethnomedicinal usage of plants at district
Nowshera
153
3.6 Phytochemical screening
Pharmacognostic study is of utmost importance to correctly identify
crude drugs. For this purpose, emphasis is laid down on standardization of
medicinal plants used in health problems. Pharmacognostic techniques still
play an important role for identification and standardization of important
chemicals (Najafi & Deokule, 2010). Pharmacognosy is primarily the study of
physical, chemical, biochemical and biological properties of drugs of natural
origin as well as the search for new drugs from natural sources (Tyler, 1999).
It is a long established discipline of finding, characterization, manufacturing
and standardization of plant material in term of their morphological,
anatomical and biochemical features (Kinghorn, 2002). Plants contain several
active constituents of pharmacological importance (Ming et al., 2005). In the
present study qualitative phytochemical tests were carried out at two
phenological stages of ten selected plants Olea ferruginea, Chenopodium
album, Plantago lanceolata, Lactuca serriola, Parthenium hysterophorus,
Carthamus oxycantha, Chrozophora tinctoria, Achyranthes aspera, Withania
somnifera and Cichorium intybus. Preliminary phytochemical screening is
important and useful for isolation of pharmacologically active compounds
present in the plants (Sugumaran & Vetrichelvan, 2008). The anti-oxidant
activity of plants is due to the presence of secondary metabolites such as
flavonoids, terpenoids, tannins, phenolics and saponins (Ghias Uddin et al.,
2011; Rauf et al., 2012).
3.6.1 Alkaloids
Alkaloids are nitrogen containing secondary metabolites with
bitter/acrid taste providing safety to plants against grazing and browsing.
Alkaloids are physiologically and therapeutically active compounds (Tyler,
1999). Phytochemical screening for alkaloids at vegetative stage revealed
presence of alkaloids in the selected plants in methanolic and chloroform
fractions while absence in Chrozophora tinctoria and Achyranthes aspera in
chloroform fraction. Alkaloids were present in n-hexane fraction in all plants
except Chenopodium album, Lactuca serriola, Withania somnifera and
154
Cichorium intybus (Samuelsson, 2004; Trease et al., 1989). Siddiqui et al.
(2010) reported the absence of alkaloids in n-hexane fraction of Euphorbia
milli and their presence in n-butanol fraction. Naz & Bano (2013) investigated
high concentration of alkaloids, phenolics and flavonoids in leaves of Lantena
camara at fruiting stage which is in conformity with our findings. Methanol
and ethanol extracts showed the presence of more secondary metabolites than
other extracts (Naz & Bano, 2013).
3.6.2 Tannins
Tannins act as feeding deterrents against herbivores due to their
astringent effects. Presence of tannins also suggests a major curative role in
treatment of some human disorders (Asquith & Butler, 1986). At vegetative
stage the tannins were observed in the selected plants in methanolic fraction
while in chloroform fraction they showed their presence except Achyranthes
aspera and Withania somnifera. Tannins were absent in n-hexane fraction
except Lactuca and Carthamus (Table 3.25). The present results are similar to
the investigations of Urmila et al. (2013) who reported more active secondary
metabolites in methanolic and aqueous extracts as compared to other extracts.
At fruiting stage tannins were observed in the selected plants in all fractions.
Magaji et al. (2007) reported phytochemical constituents in methanolic extract
of various parts of Securinega virosa. Rauf et al. (2014) reported that ethyl
acetate contained the maximum phytochemicals than n-hexane and aqueous
extracts of Euphorbia milli. Skimmia laureola aqueous and ethanolic extracts
contained alkaloids, flavonoids and tannins, while they were absent in n-
hexane fraction (Barakatullah & Ibrar, 2011) which are in conformity with the
present study. Similarly Arjun et al. (2009) explored phytochemical
composition of Hygrophila spinosa leaves reporting the maximum
concentration of secondary metabolites in methanolic fraction.
3.6.3 Sugars
Sugars were found in methanolic fraction (extract) of all the tested
plants while their absence was recorded at vegetative stage. Such findings
155
were reported by Siddiqui et al. (2010). In chloroform fraction Chenopodium,
Parthenium and Carthamus showed their presence while rest of the plants
showed their absence. At fruiting stage sugars were found in all the tested
plants in methanolic fraction. In chloroform fraction sugars were absent in
Plantago, Achyranthes, Withania and Cichorium while in n-hexane fraction
their absence was recorded in all tested plants (Table 27). Ethyl alcohol extract
showed more plants chemicals than the choloroform and n-hexane (Rauf et al.,
2014)
3.6.4 Saponins
Saponins, special classes of glycosides that has a soapy characteristics,
acts as an antifungal agent (Fluck, 1973; Sodipo et al., 1991). Phytochemical
study revealed the presence of saponins in both methanolic and chloroform
fractions in all plants except Chrozophora. N-hexane fraction shows the
presence of saponins only in Chenopodium, Plantago and Parthenium and
absence in rest of the plants. At vegetative and post reproductive stage
saponins were present in methanolic and chloroform fractions, while in n-
hexane fraction maximum plants like Olea, Chenopodium, Lactuca,
Parthenium and Carthamus showed their presence and Plantago,
Chrozophora, Achyranthes, Withania and Cichorium showed absence of
saponins (Table 26). The qualitative phytochemical screening was carried out
using different extracts of whole plant at vegetative and post reproductive
phase. Nijveldt et al. (2001) investigated that flavonoids and phenolics were
present at higher concentration in native plant compared to exotic species.
Chirikova et al. (2010) investigated that maximum concentration of secondary
matabolites were present in methanolic fraction of Scutellaria baicalensis.
3.6.5 Flavoniods
Flavoniods in plants prevent oxidative cell damage; possess antiseptic,
anticancer, anti-inflammatory effects and mild hypersensitive properties which
help in preventing oxidative cell damage (Okwu, 2004). Havsteen (2002)
reported some biological activities of flavonoids like antimicrobial,
156
antioxidant, anti-viral, cardio-protective and neuro-protective properties. The
phytochemical screening for flavonoids in vegetative stage showed their
presence in all the tested plants in methanolic and chloroform fractions but n-
hexane fraction showed their absence in the selected plants. Siddiqui et al.
(2010) reported absence of flavonoids in n-hexane fraction of Euphorbia milli.
At fruiting stage the flavonoids were present in methanolic and chloroformic
fractions, while in n-hexane they were also found in some plants except
Chenopodium, Plantago, Chrozophora and Withania. The presence and
absence of flavonoids depended on plant material collection site (Mandindi,
2015). Ethanolic extract analysis of Clitoria ternatea seeds showed the
maximum presence of flavonoids (Kalyan et al., 2011).
3.6.6 Terpenoids
Terpenoids are known to possess anti-microbial activities mainly anti-
bacterial and anti-fungal (Ghias Uddin et al., 2011; Rauf et al., 2012).
Diterpenes like gibberellins have role in plant growth and development. At
vegetative stage methanolic fraction showed the presence of terpenoids in all
tested plants, also in chloroform and n-hexane fraction. Plantago, Carthamus
and Achyranthes showed absence of terpenoids in both fractions. The
terpenoids at fruiting stage showed its presence in methanolic and chloroform
fractions in all plants, while the result for n-hexane indicated their presence in
all tested plants except Plantago and Parthenium. Highest concentration of
tannins, phenolics and sugar contents were investigated in ethyl acetate and
methanolic fractions and less concentration in n-hexane fraction of selected
plant materials (Skerget et al., 2005).
3.6.7 Cardiac glycosides
Cardiac glycosides are plant secondary metabolites having volatile
poisons and toxins which are feeding deterrents to many insects and other
herbivores. The results at vegetative stage revealed that cardiac glycosides
were found in all tested plants except Carthamus and Withania in methanolic
and chloroform fraction. The n-hexane tests indicated the presence of cardiac
157
glycosides in Olea, Plantago and Cichorium, while their absence was recorded
at vegetative stage for rest of the tested plants. The absences of cardiac
glycosides were investigated in n-hexane fraction of Euphorbia milli (Siddiqui
et al., 2010). At fruiting stage methanolic and n-hexane fractions contained
cardiac glycosides in all the selected plants, while absent in n-hexane fraction
of Chenopodium, Plantago, Parthenium and Achyranthes. Less amount of
secondary metabolites were reported in n-hexane and methanolic fraction of
berries of Manitoba (Canada), choke cherries and sea buck thorn (Hosseinian
et al., 2007). Phenols and cardiac glycosides were found in leaves of
Euphorbia milli possessing anti-oxidant activity (Piett, 2000).
3.6.8 Phenolics
Phenolics compounds are responsible for antioxidant activity (Piett,
2000). Phenolics play an important role in pollinations, fruit and seeds
dispersal. Phenolics also contribute to allelopathic potential. The tests for
phenolics at vegetative stage revealed the presence of phenolics in methanolic
fractions in all selected plants, while Achyranthes showed their absence in
chloroform fraction. In n-hexane fraction, phenolics were present in
Parthenium and Chrozophora, their absence was observed in rest of the plants.
The present result was supported by Siddiqui et al. (2010). At fruiting stage
phenolic were found in all plants in methanolics, n-hexane and chloroform
fractions.Chenopodium album contained less phenolic than Solanum nigrum at
fruiting stage (Mandindi, 2015).
3.6.9 Anthraquinones
At vegetative stage in methanolic fraction anthraquinones were found
in Chenopodium, Parthenium, Carthamus, Chrozophora and Withania and
their absence were observed in Olea, Plantago, Lactuca, Achyranthes and
Cichorium. In chloroform fraction these were only found in Chrozophora and
absence was recorded in rest of all the tested species. While in n-hexane
fraction anthraquinones were absent in all tested plants. Euphorbia hirta is a
rich source of bioactive substances, which might be helpful in combating
158
diseases. There bioactive substances were mainly found in methanolic fraction
and absent in n-hexane (Bhagwat, 2008). Gu et al. (2004) reported that less
amount of secondary metabolites were present in n-hexane than methanol
fraction. At fruiting stage Cichorium showed the absence of anthraquinones
while their presence in rest of test plants. The n-hexane fraction showed
absence of anthraquinones in Olea, Achyranthes, Withania and Cichorium and
presence in the rest of test plants. Amaranthus dubius contained more
secondary metabolites than Urtica lobulata, Solanum nigrum, and
Chenopodium album (Mandindi, 2015). Ethanolic fraction of Hygrophila
spinosa leaves showed the presence of anthraquinones, alkaloids, steroids,
proteins, flavonoids, fats, oils, tannins, mucilage and organic acids (Patra et
al., 2009).
The findings of various researchers suggest that preliminary
phytochemicals screening play a significant role in providing ease in isolation
of pharmacological active plant constituents.
159
Table-3.25: Different phytochemical tests of selected ten plant species at vegetative stages
Chemical Test Test Name
Methanol fraction Chloroform fraction n-Hexane fraction
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Alkaloids + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - + + - - - - - - - - - - Dragon drof
Tannins + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + - - + - - - + - + - - - - Ferric chloride
Sugars + + + + + + + + + + - + - - + + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Fehling
Saponins + + + + + + - + + + + + + + + + - + + + - + + - + - - - - - Frothing test
Flavonoides + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - - - - - - - - - Alkali reagent
Terpenoids + + + + + + + + + + + + - + + - + - + + + + - + +
+ - + - + + Salkowiski
Cardiac
Glycosides + + + + + - + + - + + + + + + - + + - + + - + - - - - - - + Killaer killani
Phenolics + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + + - - - - + - + - - - Ferric chloride
Anthraquin
ones - + - - + + + - + - - - - - - - + - - - - - - - - - - - - - HCl detection
test
1= Olea ferruginea, 2= Chenopodium album, 3= Plantago lanceolata, 4= Lactuca serriola, 5=Parthenium hysterophorus, 6= Carthamus
oxycantha, 7= Chrozophora tinctoria, 8= Achyranthes aspera, 9=Withania somnifera, 10= Cichorium intybus
160
Table-3.26: Different phytochemical test of selected plant species at fruiting stage
Chemical Test Test Name
Methanol fraction Chloroform fraction N-Hexane fraction
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Alkaloids + + + + +
+
+
+
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + - + + + + - - Dragon drof
Tannins + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
Ferric
chloride
Sugars + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + - + + + + - - - - - - - - - - - - - Fehling
Saponins +
+ + + + + + - + + + + + + + + + - + + + + + - + + + - - - - Frothing test
Flavonoides +
+ + + + +
+
+ + + + +
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + - - + + + - + + -
Alkali
reagent
Terpenoids +
+ + + + + + + + + +
+
+ + + + + + + + + +
+
+ + - + - + + + + + Salkowiski
Cardiac
Glycosides
+
+ + + + + +
+
+ + + +
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + - - + - + + - + +
Killaer
killani
Phenolics +
+ + +
+
+ + + + + + +
+
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + +
Ferric
chloride
Anthraquin
ones + + + + + + + + + - + + + + + + + + + - - + + + + + + - - -
HCl
detection test
1= Olea ferruginea, 2= Chenopodium album, 3= Plantago lanceolata, 4= Lactuca serriola, 5=Parthenium hysterophorus, 6= Carthamus
oxycantha, 7= Chrozophora tinctoria, 8= Achyranthes aspera, 9= Withania somnifera, 10= Cichorium intybus
161
3.7 Chemical evaluation of some selected plants
Plants play a significant role in providing primary health care services
to rural people and are used by about 80% of the marginal communities
around the world (Dastagir et al., 2013). All medicinal plants have specific
nutritional value in spite of medicinally important chemicals. These
phytochemicals plays a vital role for proper development of living body
(Adnan et al., 2010). Most of the researchers investigated the proximate
composition of several plants; Amaranthus viridis by Falade et al. (2004);
Sonchus eruca, Withania coagulans and Fagonia indica by Hussain et al.
(2010); Zingiber officinale, Allium sativum and Parkia biglobosa by
Odebunmi et al. (2010). Forages have always been an extremely important
source of nutrients of livestock. Additionally, they provide fibers which
enhance proper digestion in forage-consuming animals. Through their
conversion into milk and meat products, forages continue to be one of the
primary sources of nourishment in the human diet (Khan & Musharaf, 2014).
During periods of initial plant growth in the spring and summer all forage
species are high in nutrient content, although moisture content may also be
high and limit dry matter intake (Khan & Musharaf, 2014). The proximate
composition of some range forage has been carried out to find out its possible
role in the research area.
3.7.1 Proximate analysis
Moisture contents (%)
The moisture content in the test species ranged from 2.31% to 59.23%
in Olea ferruginea, Plantago lanceolata at vegetative stage and 1.46% to
62.51% in Chrozophora tinctoria and Plantago lanceolata at reproduction
stage. In Olea ferruginea and Plantago lanceolata and Chenopodium album
the moisture content increased from vegetative stage to fruiting stage from
2.92% to 60.87%. While in rest of the species the moisture content decreased
as the plant passed from vegetative to fruiting stage (Table 29). The result is in
conformity with Saidu & Jideobi (2009) where moisture contents decreased at
162
fruiting stage. Adnan et al. (2010) reported that in Rydingia limbata the
moisture contents decreased with age. Sowemimo et al. (2011) reported that
seeds of Detarium senegalense contained 5.89% moisture contents. Acharya
& Shrivastava (2011) reported less moisture contents in seeds of Arachis
hypogea than their leaves.
Ash contents (%)
In test species ash contents ranged from 0.9% to 18.50% in
Parthenium hysterophorus and Chenopodium album at vegetative stage, while
at reproductive stage it ranged from 2.1% to 20% in Parthenium, Plantago and
Chenopodium. The overall average ash contents ranged from 1.5% to 19.25%
in Parthenium and Chenopodium respectively. Ash contents increased with
developing phenological stages in Withania somniferai.e. 3.00% at vegetative
stage and 5.93% at fruiting stage. Khan & Musharaf (2014) also reported such
findings. Ash contents vary according to the part and age of plant (Vermani et
al., 2010). Dastagir et al. (2013) reported that ash contents in leavesof
Chrozophora tinctoria is highest (16.0%) then its roots (8.3%). According to
Zain Ullah et al. (2013) low concentration of ash contents were recorded in
Withania while high in Chenopodium. Hussain et al. (2010) reported that ash
contents declined towards maturity of plant which is in inconsistency to our
findings because ash contents increased with developing phenological stages
in all test species.
Crude fats (%)
Crude fat contents ranged from 0.98% to 23.45% at vegetative stage in
Achyranthes aspera and Carthamus oxycantha. While at fruiting stage it
ranged from 1.20% to 28.93% in Plantago and Carthamus. The average of
crude fatsin Achyranthes and Carthamus ranged from 1.14% to 26.19%.
Crude fat contents increased with increasing phenological stage in all test
species. Khan & Musharaf (2014) reported maximum percentage of crude fats
in Chrozophora obliqua (5.46%) at vegetative stage. It was observed that with
age of plant crude fat contents increased. Dastagir et al. (2013) reported
highest fat contents (13.0%) in leaves and lowest in stem and root of
163
Chrozophora tinctoria. Low concentration of crude fats was recorded in
Withania coagulans while highest in Datura alba and Chenopodium album
(Zain Ullah et al., 2013). Marconiet al. (2003) reported that the crude fats in
chicory seed ranged from 21% to 22% which is higher than that of
Achyranthes bidentata seeds.
Crude fibers (%)
Result revealed that crude fiber ranged from 0.2% to 15.11% in
Chenopodium album and Carthamus oxycantha at vegetative stage. At fruiting
stage it ranged from 0.3% to 20.68% in Chenopodium album and Cichorium
intybus. The average crude fibers ranged from 0.25% to 17.76% in
Chenopodium and Cichorium. According to Khan & Musharaf (2014)
minimum fiber percentage at vegetative stage was 2.42%, reproductive stage it
was 2.46% and 2.78% at post reproductive stage in Chrozophora.
Epidemiological evidence revealed that use of minimum amount of dietary
fibers from 20 to 35 g/day lower the risk of heart diseases and obesity (Ishida
et al., 2000; Abidemi, 2013). Gharibzahedi et al. (2011) reported high value of
proteins and fibers in Ricinus communis.Fibers in Chenopodium album
showed quite different result from the present study and may be due to
environmental condition (Zain Ullahet al., 2013). Hussain et al. (2011)
reported the highest fiber contents (40.15%) in Nepa suavis.
Protein contents (%)
In test species the crude protein contents ranged from 2.31% to 27.56%
at vegetative stage in Withania coagulans and Parthenium hysterophorus.
Whilein Plantago and Chenopodium album it ranged from 4.71% to 28.56% at
fruiting stage. Overall average ranged from 3.65% to 27.49% in Plantago and
Chenopodium album. Protein contents increased with increasing in
phenological stages except in Olea ferruginea which showed decreased
tendency from vegetative to fruiting stage. According to Jan et al. (2010)
reported that the highest values (18.55%) of crude proteins are found in seeds
and lowest (5.54%) in roots which are not in conformity to our results.
Heinrich et al. (2004) compaired Cichorium intybus with Trifolium repens for
164
their nutritional value in forage and investigated that Cichorium intybus
contained 3.74% of crude proteins. Khan & Musharaf (2014) reported the least
protein percentage at vegetative stage was 2.11% and 3.14% at fruiting stage.
Bukush et al. (2007) reported high protein contents in cultivated plants as
compared to wild plants and significantly high protein contents in leaves of
Eruca sativa as compared to Carthamus oxycantha and Plantago. The present
study also demonstrates the minimum amount of proteins in Plantago
lanceolata. Shah & Hussain (2009) investigated the highest protein contents
varied from 22% to 23% in Chenopodium and Plantago. Hussain & Durrani
(2009) stated that protein contents vary with progressing phenological stages.
The present results of test species are in line with James et al. (2010).
Carbohydrate contents (%)
Carbohydrate contents showed variation from vegetative stage to
fruiting stage. At vegetative stage it ranged from 28.39% to 83.53% in
Parthenium hysterophorus and Withania somnifera. At fruiting stage it ranged
from 20.14% to 74.95% in Parthenium and Chrozophora, while the overall
average value ranged from 29.35% to 78.83% in Plantago lanceolata and
Withania somnifera. The result showed that carbohydrate contents decreased
with progressing phenological stages, except in Carthamus oxycantha which
showed an increase of 32.34% to 33.17%. Audu et al. (2007) reported
carbohydrate contents in leaves of Lophira lanceolata. Lee & lim (2006)
isolated new glycoproteins from Solanum nigrum which contained 69.74% of
carbohydrate contents. Aberoumand (2012) reported that Solanum indicum
contained 40.67% carbohydrates. Abbasi (2013) recorded 7.680%
carbohydrate contents in Chenopodium album and 54.88% in Plantago
lanceolata.
165
Table-3.27: Proximate composition of the selected plants species
S.N
o. Plant Name
Phenological
Stage
Moisture
(%)
Avera
ge
Ash
(%)
Avera
ge
Crude
fat
(%)
Avera
ge
Crude
fiber
(%)
Avera
ge
Crude
protei
n (%)
Avera
ge
Carbohy
drate
(NFE)
(%)
Avera
ge
1
Olea ferruginea
Wall. ex G.
Aitch.
Vegetative
stage 2.31
2.92
4.62
4.92
20.12
21.56
9.47
9.49
15.25
13.89
48.23
47.17 Fruiting
stage 3.54 5.23 23.00 9.51 12.53 46.11
2 Chenopodium
album L.
Vegetative
stage 3.51
4.27
18.50
19.25
3.21
3.85
0.2
0.25
26.43
27.49
48.15
44.87 Fruiting
stage 5.04 20 4.5 0.3 28.56 41.59
3 Plantago
lanceolata L.
Vegetative
stage 59.23
60.87
1.5
1.8
1.20
1.56
2.31
2.75
2.60
3.65
33.16
29.35 Fruiting
stage 62.51 2.1 1.93 3.20 4.71 25.55
4 Lactuca
serriola L.
Vegetative
stage 33.35
27.67
3.61
4.42
8.24
12.82
3.9
5.5
13.25
15.39
37.66
30.04 Fruiting
stage 22.00 5.23 17.41 7.1 17.53 30.43
5 Parthenium
hysterophorus L
Vegetative
stage 30.11
24.94
0.9
1.5
3.54
7.37
9.50
10.90
27.56
31.01
28.39
24.26 Fruiting
stage 19.78 2.1 11.20 12.31 34.47 20.14
Continued….
166
6
Carthamus
oxycantha M.B
TH Mie
Vegetative
stage 17.85
12.22
1.0
1.85
23.45
26.19
15.11
15.67
10.25
11.31
32.34
32.75 Fruiting
stage 6.6 2.7 28.93 16.23 12.37 33.17
7 Chrozophora
tinctoria L. Raf.
Vegetative
stage 4.98
3.22
5.13
6.54
5.20
5.95
2.35
2.72
3.91
4.86
78.43
76.69 Fruiting
stage 1.46 7.96 6.71 3.10 5.82 74.95
8 Achyranthes
aspera L.
Vegetative
stage 5.00
4.47
10.32
10.91
0.98
1.14
9.51
10.02
18.38
20.01
55.81
53.44 Fruiting
stage 3.94 11.50 1.3 10.54 21.65 51.07
9
Withania
somnifera L.
Dunal
Vegetative
stage 4.10
3.55
3.00
4.46
2.13
2.64
4.93
5.96
2.31
4.54
83.53
78.83 Fruiting
stage 3.00 5.93 3.15 7.00 6.78 74.14
10 Cichorium
intybus Linn.
Vegetative
stage 11.25
9.59
2.56
4.33
9.63
10.74
14.85
17.76
17.29
20.36
44.42
37.21 Fruiting
stage 7.93 6.10 11.86 20.68 23.43 30.00
Average 15.37
5.99
9.38
8.10
15.25
45.86
167
Figure-3.10: Proximate composition of selcted plant species at vegetative stage
168
Figure-3.11: Proximate composition of selcted plant species at fruiting stage
169
3.8 Elemental nutrient analysis of selected plants
a) Macronutrients
Calcium (Ca)
Plants contain high amount of Ca that may be their natural composition
(Hussain et al., 2010). In present study Ca contents showed variation from
9.05ppm to 28.12 ppm in Achyranthes aspera and Lectuca serriola
respectively. While in Chenopodium album and Olea ferruginea it ranged
from 7.5 ppm to 14.51 ppm at vegetative and reproductive stage respectively
(Table 29). The results revealed that calcium contents decreased with
progressing phenological stages except Achyranthes aspera, where it
increased by 9.05 ppmat vegetative stageand 13.7 ppm at reproductive stage.
Calcium contents were invariably present in the tested plants. Similar results
were reported by Zafar et al. (2010). The concentration of certain elements
decreased with the maturity of plants (Hussain & Durrani, 2008). Generally
Ca content increases with maturity of herb plants. Ashraf et al. (2005) and
Khan & Shaukat (2005) reported significant increase in Ca towards maturity
of investigated plants. Hanif et al. (2006) found high Ca content (76 ppm) in
spinach; James et al. (2010) reported higher Ca level in Saba florida; Hussain
et al. (2009) reported higher concentration of Ca in Hypericum perforatum and
among the vegetables species.
Potassium (K)
Potassium plays significant role in activating enzymes which influence
the plant growth and development (Sultan et al., 2007, 2008; Hussain and
Durrani, 2007; Khan & Khatoon, 2007). Potassium varied from 3.06 ppm to
4.7 ppm in Withania somnifera and Lectuca serriola respectively at vegetative
stage and 0.87 ppm to 1.62 ppm at fruiting stage. Overall average ranged from
1.96 ppm to 3.16 ppm in Withania somnifera and Lectuca
serriolarespectively. The results showed that potassium contents decreased
with progressing phenological stages. Our results are in line with the findings
170
of Ahmad et al. (2008) and Pareet al. (1995). Hussain & Durrani (2008) and
Akhtar et al. (2007) reported that herbaceous plants are nutritionally rich in
potassium at early growing stages. Sultan et al. (2008) also stated that
potassium contents were higher at early stage than at maturity.
Magnesium (Mg)
Mg an important component of cell acts as enzyme cofactor. It
constitutes about 0.05% of the body mass of living cell (Hameed et al., 2008).
Mg contents exhibited variation at various phenological stages. It fluctuated
from 12.32 ppm to 35.13 ppm in Withania somnifera and
Carthamusoxycantha respectively at vegetative stage. The overall average
ranged from 1.71ppm to 23.31ppm in Withania somnifera and Carthamus
oxycantha repectively. Mg ranged from 8.96 ppm to 16.53 ppm at fruiting
stage of Parthenium hysterophorus and Plantago lanceolata respectively. Mg
contents showed a decreased trend toward maturity stage in all tested species.
Akubugwo et al. (2007) reported the decreasing order of Mg> Fe> Ca> Na>
Mn> Zn at fruiting stage of Solanum nigrum var. virginicum.
Sodium (Na)
Sodium contents varied at vegetative and fruiting stages in the tested
species. At vegetative stage Carthamus and Chenopodium showed variation in
Na from 23.89 ppm to 36.74 ppm respectively. At fruiting stage it varied from
32.53ppm to 48.86 ppm in Lectuca serriola and Parthenium hysterophorus
respectively. The overall average of Na contents ranged from 28.22 ppm to
42.28 ppm in Lectuca serriola and Chenopodium album respectively. Na
contents showed an increased trend towards plant maturity (Table 3.28).
Hussain et al. (2009) recorded highest Na concentration (458 ppm) in
Amaranthus viridis, followed by Chenopodium album (373 ppm). Highest Na
contents were recorded at reproductive stages. Similar results were reported by
Hussain & Durrani (2008). Na contants varied from 26.30 ppm and 9.10 ppm
in Withania somnifera at vegetative and fruiting stage respectively. Na
contents showed decreased trend toward plant maturity in Withania
171
somnifera.Amjad & Hameed (2012) reported highest Na contents (119.3 ppm)
in flowers followed by leaves (98.50 ppm) of Withania somnifera.
Phosphorous (P)
In the bodies of living organisms a minimum level of 0.16% to 0.37%
phosphorus is required for various metabolic reactions (Anonymous, 1991).
Phosphorus contents showed fluctuation at vegetative stage from 0.20ppm to
0.36ppm in Carthamus oxycantha, Olea ferruginea and Lectuca serriola. At
fruiting stage, it ranged from 0.08 ppm to 0.41 ppm in Carthamus and
Plantago respectively while the overall average ranged from 0.14 ppm to 0.37
ppm in Carthamus and Olea respectively. The study showed no significant
difference among herbs and woody plant species at different phenological
stages (Table 3.28).
172
Table-3.28: Macronutrients of the selected plant species
S.No. Plant Name Phenological
Stage
Ca
(ppm) Average K
(ppm) Average
Mg
(ppm) Average
Na
(ppm) Average
P
(ppm) Average
1
Olea ferruginea
Wall. ex G.
Aitch.
Vegetative
stage 21.68
18.09
4.38
2.68
23.86
19.90
29.81
31.71
0.36
0.37
Fruiting stage 14.51 0.99 15.95 33.62 0.39
2 Chenopodium
album L.
Vegetative
stage 15.03
9.76
3.96
2.53
19.56
15.39
36.74
42.28
0.24
0.25
Fruiting stage 7.5 1.10 11.23 47.83 0.27
3 Plantago
lanceolata L.
Vegetative
stage 19.56
16.40
3.8
2.39
21.61
19.07
29.52
32.1
0.31
0.36
Fruiting stage 13.25 0.98 16.53 34.68 0.41
4 Lactuca serriola
L.
Vegetative
stage 28.12
20.82
4.7
3.16
20.00
15.75
23.91
28.22
0.36
0.27
Fruiting stage 13.53 1.62 11.51 32.53 0.19
5 Parthenium
hysterophorus L
Vegetative
stage 24.37
19.09
3.90
2.44
26.58
17.77
31.67
40.26
0.27
0.20
Fruiting stage 13.81 0.98 8.96 48.86 0.14
Continued…
173
6
Carthamus
oxycantha M.B
TH Mie
Vegetative
stage 25.61
18.48
4.3
2.65
35.13
23.31
23.89
30.7
0.20
0.14
Fruiting stage 11.35 1.0 11.50 37.51 0.08
7
Chrozophora
tinctoria (L.)
Raf.
Vegetative
stage 17.01
12.62
4.50
2.86
22.01
18.84
28.39
34.81
0.21
0.18
Fruiting stage 8.23 1.23 15.68 41.23 0.16
8 Achyranthes
aspera L.
Vegetative
stage 9.05
11.38
4.67
2.92
17.21
13.53
35.48
41.59
0.23
0.2
Fruiting stage 13.71 1.18 9.86 47.71 0.17
9
Withania
somnifera (L.)
Dunal
Vegetative
stage 18.32
13.98
3.06
1.96
12.32
10.71
26.30
32.40
0.34
0.27
Fruiting stage 9.65 0.87 9.10 9.10 0.20
10 Cichorium
intybus Linn.
Vegetative
stage 16.81
12.35
4.00
2.66
17.83
14.54
33.30
39.94
0.31
0.23
Fruiting stage 7.90 1.32 11.26 46.58 0.16
174
Figure-3.12: Macronutrients of selected plant species at vegetative stage
175
Figure-3.13: Macronutrients of selected plant species at fruiting stage
176
b) Micronutrients
Nickle (Ni)
Results showed fluctuation of Ni at different phenological stages.
Lowest and highest values of Ni at vegetative stages ranged between 1.90 ppm
and 5.01 ppm in Olea ferruginea and Lactuca serriola respectively (Table
3.29). At fruiting stage lowest and higest values were recorded as 0.86 ppm
and 2.32 ppm in Olea ferruginea and Lactuca serriola respectively.
Nickel contents progressively increased at various phenological stages
except Achyranthes aspera showed an increased level (3.01 pmm) from
vegetative stage to fruiting stage (4.56ppm). Badshahet al. (2010) reported the
highest Ni quantity in Calotropis procera.
Iron (Fe)
Among the micronutrients Iron plays pivotal role in metabolism of
almost all living organisms. In humans, iron is an essential component of most
proteins and enzymes.
Iron contents showed variation at different phonological stages. In
Carthamus oxycantha and Achyranthes aspera it ranged from 51.62 ppm to
19.18 ppm at vegetative stage and from 18.53 ppm to 7.81 ppm at fruiting
stage while overall average ranged from 35.07 ppm to 13.46 ppm in
Carthamus oxycantha and Achyranthes aspera respectively. The results
revealed that Fe contents progressively decreased with developing
phenological stages. Plants which grow in polluted areas accumulate more
iron in their leaves (Rehman & Iqbal, 2008). Adnan et al. 2010 stated that
plant species and soil conditions influence iron level, as in Valeriana officinale
higher level (2787 ppm) of iron has been reported from their research area.
177
Copper (Cu)
Copper is an essential trace element that exists in Cu2+
form. It takes
part in redox reactions and is also scavenger of free radicals. In plants the
permissible limit of Cu is 10 ppm (Khuda et al., 2012). Result revealed
variation in Cu contants at different phonological stages of the selected plants.
At vegetative stage, it varied from 1.28 ppm to 11.3 ppm in Withania
somnifera and Olea ferruginearespectively while at fruiting stage; it fluctuated
from 3.67 ppm to 13.5 ppm in W. somnifera and O. ferruginea respectively.
The overall average value varied from 2.47 ppm to 12.4 ppm in W. somnifera
and O. ferruginea (Table 3.29). Results revealed that copper contents showed
an increased trend with progressing phenological stages. Badshah (2011)
reported decreased copper contents toward plant maturity. Gonzalez et al.
(2006) also reported a decrease trend in copper concentration towards maturity
stage in legumes and grasses. Herbaceous plant species are generally copper
deficient (Akhtar et al., 2007; Khan et al., 2006).
Zinc (Zn)
Zinc is the important component of approximately 200 enzymes. Zinc
plays significant role in structure and function of protein and cell membrane.
Loss of zinc from biological membranes increases their susceptibility to
oxidative damage (Erukainure et al., 2011). The permissible limit of zinc is 50
ppm in medicinal plants (Khuda et al., 2012). At vegetative stage zinc varied
from 27.61 ppm to 51.6 ppm in Parthenium hysterophorus and Chenopodium
album respectively. At fruiting stage, it varied from 24.34 ppm to 60.0 ppm in
Carthamus oxycantha and Chenopodium album. Results revealed that zinc
contents varied at different phenological stages. In some cases it increased
with increasing phenological stages while in some plants it showed a
decreasing trend. In Olea ferruginea zinc contents increased from 34.9 ppm to
42.1 ppm at vegetative and fruiting stage respectively. Our findings are
supported by Hussain & Durrani (2008), where significant increase in zinc
contents of herbaceous and woody plants has been reported. Amjad & Hameed
178
(2012) reported the highest zinc contents (0.628 ppm) in stem of Solanum
surattense, followed by Withania somnifera (0.245 ppm) at vegetative stage.
Khan et al. (2006) investigated variable concentration of zinc towards
progressive stage of plants.
Manganese (Mn)
Mn plays significant role in physiological processes of living
organisms as enzyme activator. Its quantity showed variation in all the
investigated plant species. At vegetative stage Mn exhibited variation from
7.53 ppm to 13.3 ppm in Withania somnifera and Olea ferruginea. At fruiting
stage, it varied from 3.14 ppm to 7.33 ppm in Carthamus oxycantha and
Lectuca serriola respectively. The overall average values ranged from 5.46
ppm to 10.87 ppm in C. oxycantha and O. ferruginea respectively. Mn
contents showed a decreased trend with increasing phenological stages in all
the tested plant species. Similar results were reported by Amjad & Hameed
(2012). Garg et al. (2007) reported that Nordostachys jatamansi contained rich
quantity of Co, Cr, Cu, Na, Mn, Fe, Rb, and Zinc. Present study showed that
herbs contained more Mn contents than woody plants (Table 3.29). These
findings are similar to the investigation of Hussain & Durrani (2008) who
reported high concentration of Mn in herbs than woody plants.
Chromium (Cr)
Biologically active form of chromium participates in glucose
metabolism. Results revealed that Cr contents varied at different phenological
stages. In present finding Cr contents varied from 1.7 ppm to 18.5 ppm in
Parthenium hysterophorus and Withania somnifera at vegetative stage
respectively. At fruiting stage, Cr varied from 1.9 ppm to 24.2 ppm in
Parthenium hysterophorus and Withania somniferarespectively. While as a
whole average values ranged from 1.8 ppm to 21.35 ppm in P. hysterophorus
and W. somniferarespectively. Result showed that Cr increased from
vegetative stage towards reproductive stage except Chenopodium album where
Cr decreased from 3.4 ppm (vegetative stage) to 2.1 ppm (reproductive stage)
179
and Cichorium intybus exhibited decreased trend from 11.01 ppm (vegetative
stage) to 6.53ppm (fruiting stage). Amjad & Hameed (2012) reported
increased Cr contents from vegetative to reproductive stage and then
decreased contents at post- reproductive stage. Rehman & Iqbal (2008)
evaluated accumulation of Cr contents in foliage of naturally growing plants
of Prosopis juliflora, Abutilon indicum and Senna holosericea. Hameed &
Hussain (2015) reported higher Cr contents (0.065 ppm) in leaves of Datura
anoxia, followed by leaves of Withania coagulans (0.115 ppm). Narendhira et
al. (2005) found low level of Cr in leaves of Murraya koenigii, Mentha
piperita, Ocimum sanctum and Aegle marmelos. Rehman & Iqbal (2008)
reported high concentration of Cr in Prosopis juliflora, Abutilon indicum and
Senna holosericea.
180
Table-3.29: Micronutrients of the selected plant species
S.No. Plant Name Phenological
Stage Fe
(ppm) Average
Cr
(ppm) Average Mn
(ppm) Average Ni
(ppm) Average Zn
(ppm) Average Cu
(ppm) Average
1
Olea
ferruginea
Wall. ex G.
Aitch.
Vegetative
stage 41.36
30.44
8.0
10.5
13.13
10.87
1.90
1.38
34.9
38.5
11.3
12.4 Fruiting stage 19.52 13.0 8.62 0.86 42.1 13.5
2 Chenopodium
album L.
Vegetative
stage 38.71
30.06
3.4
2.75
12.53
9.36
3.56
2.77
51.0
55.5
6.8
7.15 Fruiting stage 21.42 2.1 6.20 1.98 60.0 7.5
3 Plantago
lanceolata L.
Vegetative
stage 39.11
31.17
7.0
7.65
10.51
8.82
2.35
2.10
38.0
32.56
8.1
9.05 Fruiting stage 23.24 8.3 7.13 1.86 27.13 10.0
4 Lactuca
serriola L.
Vegetative
stage 43.81
32.02
2.0
3.5
11.61
9.47
5.01
3.66
39.94
32.58
6.3
6.65 Fruiting stage 20.23 5.1 7.33 2.32 25.23 7.0
5
Parthenium
hysterophorus
L
Vegetative
stage 29.91
22.14
1.7
1.8
8.65
6.83
3.50
2.75
27.61
30.06
8.0
8.65 Fruiting stage 14.37 1.9 5.02 2.0 32.51 9.31
Continued…
181
6
Carthamus
oxycantha
M.B TH Mie
Vegetative
stage 51.62
35.07
8.1
8.56
7.78
5.46
2.98
2.05
36.32
30.33
5.0
6.1 Fruiting
stage 18.53 9.03 3.14 1.13 24.34 7.20
7
Chrozophora
tinctoria (L.)
Raf.
Vegetative
stage 26.56
18.93
8.52
9.06
9.05
7.94
2.83
2.06
39.46
35.73
3.01
4.12 Fruiting
stage 11.31 9.61 6.83 1.30 32.01 5.23
8 Achyranthes
aspera L.
Vegetative
stage 19.18
13.49
8.0
8.55
8.70
7.01
3.01
3.78
41.23
38.88
2.56
3.62 Fruiting
stage 7.81 9.1 5.32 4.56 36.54 4.68
9
Withania
somnifera
(L.) Dunal
Vegetative
stage 25.98
16.17
18.5
21.35
7.53
6.38
2.67
2.32
48.60
45.65
1.28
2.47 Fruiting
stage 6.36 24.2 5.23 1.98 42.71 3.67
10 Cichorium
intybus Linn.
Vegetative
stage 47.56
27.99
11.01
8.11
9.11
7.16
5.0
3.66
32.50
30.05
2.91
4.74 Fruiting
stage 8.42 6.53 5.22 2.33 27.61 6.57
182
Figure-3.14: Micronutrients of selected plant species at vegetative stage
183
Figure-3.15: Micronutrients of selcted plant species at fruiting stage
184
CONCLUSIONS
1. This study was conducted during 2013-2015 to investigate the floristic
composition, vegetation structure, ethnobotanical usage, chemical
compositions and the interaction of people with plants in district
Nowshera.
2. The study revealed that flora is comprised of 221 species that belongs
to 75 families, in which 184 species belongs to dicot and 34 species to
monocot.
3. Seasonal variation of species diversity showed that the flora comprised
of 172 species (77.92%) in spring, followed by 119 species (54.5%) in
summer, 89 species (40.54%) in winter, and finally 83 species
(37.83%) in autumn.
4. Based on number of species, Poaceae with 28 species was the leading
family followed by Brassicaceae (15 spp.) and Papilionaceae (13 spp.).
5. Quantitatively, based on FIV, Mimosaceae and Rhamnaceae were
important families.
6. Therophytes were dominant in the area and were represented by 109
species (50.1%), followed by microphanerophytes with 24 species
(10.58%). Nanophylls were the leading leaf size spectra with 94
species (42.23%), followed by microphylls with 75 species (33.78%),
leptophylls with 32 species (14.41%), mesophylls with 16 species
(7.20%) and aphyllous with 04 species (2.25%).
7. As a whole, during the month of February, the major bulk of the flora
(22.52%) was in vegetative phase. In March 23.87% plants blossomed
and this number decreased towards the fall season. April was the peak
fruiting stage. The dormant period remained from November to
January.
185
8. The ethnobotanical data showed that there were 71 species that belong
to 65 genera and 39 families. Family Asteraceae contributed the
highest number of plant species (08). Leaves (50 spp; 70.42%) were
the commonly used plant part by the local community followed by
stems (44 spp; 61.16%), whole plant (16 spp; 23.22%), roots (11 spp;
15.17%) and fruits (10 spp; 14.27%). 45 species (63.38%) were used
as fodder followed by 29 species (41.25%) as fuel, 10 species
(14.69%) for furniture making, 08 species (11.95%) used for thatching
purpose, 07 species (9.58%) used as vegetables, 04 species (5.84%)
used in hedges, fruiting plant species were 04 (6.47%), and ornamental
species were 3 (4.22%).
9. Twenty plant communities were established in five habitats during
various seasons from 2013-2015. Among these Olea-Rydingia-
Justicia, Prosopis-Justicia-Acacia, Dodonaea-Rydingia-Olea,
Opuntia-Ziziphus-Acacia, Justicia-Ziziphus-Acacia, Microsisymbrium-
Dodonaea-Olea, Lactuca-Salvia-Allium and Euphorbia-Pennisetum-
Indigofera were the important communities.
10. The physico-chemical analysis of soil textural analysis showed thatsoil
was mostly sandy and clay-loamy with 7.3 to 8.1 pH and 0.3 to 7.2
electrical conductivity.
11. The ethnomedicinal data revealed that there were 90 plant species
belonging to 84 genera and 37 families. The plants used for treatment
of diseases by the local community were as under:
For fever 30 species, followed by diarrheaand stimulant (09 spp.
each),dysentery (08 spp.) as anthelmintic (07 spp.), asthma (06 spp.),
snake bite (04 spp.) and as emollient (02 spp.). Leaves were the most
preferred plant part used in indigenous medicine (57.12 %).
12. Qualitative analysis of secondary metabolites in selected plant species
revealed the presence of alkaloids, tannins, sugars, saponins,
flavonoids, terpenoids, cardiac glycosides, phenolics and
anthraquinones. These chemicals were mostly found at post
186
reproductive stage as compared to vegetative stage. Methanolic
fraction contained more secondary metabolites as compared to
chloroform and n-hexane fractions.
13. The proximate composition of the selected plants showed varied result
at two phenological stages.
14. Chemical analysis of forage plants, with a few exceptions, showed that
sufficient levels of macro- and micro-minerals and nutrients were
present in the investigated forage plants.
187
RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
1. Moderate and rotational grazing management needs to be enforced to
enhance the regeneration of primary producers i.e. vegetation.
2. There is severe deforestation pressure on woody and shrubby species
especially on Acacia nilotica, A. modesta, Dilbergia sissoo, Olea
ferruginea and Dodonaea viscosa for timber and fuel purposes.
Therefore, alternate sources of fuel/timber should be provided to the
local people and the area must be protected.
3. There is a tremendous need to promote principles of preservation and
development of natural vegetation which is indispensable for land
management.
4. There should be more avenues, such as exploration of research
activities for knowing the germination, seed production and growth
pattern for successful propagation and reintroduction of fodder, timber,
fuel wood and medicinal plants.
5. No marketing policies were prevalent in the investigated area;
therefore, marketing for livestock and medicinal plants should be
initiated and regulated.
6. Strong linkages among national, international, regional and sub-
regional research and developmental programs are required for
utilization of integrated management plans, so that ecological and
socio-economic conditions could be addressed appropriately.
7. Eco-tourism could be introduced in the area. It would be an additional
source of income for the local people and would uplift the overall
socio-economic condition of the area.
8. The local people must be responsive about the collection, preservation
and post-harvest loss of medicinal plants.
188
9. This is government responsibility to provide relief/aid to the local
people for cultivation and conservation of the valuable medicinal flora.
10. Awareness should be created among the local people about the
importance of vegetations and medicinal plants so as to reduce the
pressure of grazing and cutting (deforestration).
11. Cooperation and participation of local people is essential to implement
an effective management plan. It might become much easier with the
help of the elders and prominent personalities of the local area to
implement the effective management plan.
189
APPENDICES
Appendix-1: Phytosociological attributes of Olea ferruginea -Rydingia limbata -Justicia adhatoda community
S.No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size
Tree layer
1 Olea ferruginea Wall. ex G.
Aitch. 0.19 19 100 10.34 30.48 30.61 71.43
NP Mic
2 Acacia modesta Wall. 0.04 4 40 2.17 6.41 12.24 20.83 McP Lp
Shrub layer
3 Rydingia limbata (Benth.)
Scheen & V.A.Albert 0.484 12.1 60 26.35 19.41 18.36 64.13 NP Np
4 Justicia adhatoda L. 0.368 9.2 30 20.03 14.75 9.18 43.97 NP Lp
5 Maytenus royleanus Wall. Ex
Lawson 0.344 8.6 30 18.72 13.79 9.18 41.71
NP Mic
6 Monotheca buxifolia (Falc.)
A.DC 0.244 6.1 20 13.28 9.78 6.12 29.19
NP Np
Herb layer
7 Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. 0.0467 0.93 26.66 2.54 1.49 8.16 12.20 G Np
8 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. 0.12 2.4 20 6.53 3.85 6.12 16.50 H Lp
Total 1.8 62.33 326.67 100 100 100 300 - -
190
Appendix-2: Phytosociological attributes of Justicia adhatoda - Ziziphus nummularia - Corchorus tridens community
S.No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size
Tree layer
1 Ziziphus nummularia (Burm.
f.)Wight &Arn.
0.272 27.2 80 7.1654373 17.83607 11.50527 36.5067761 NP Np
2 Acacia modesta Wall. 0.226 22.6 60 5.95363541 14.81967 8.628955 29.4022625 McP Lp
3 Ziziphus mauritiana Lam 0.202 20.2 60 5.32139094 13.2459 8.628955 27.1962475 McP Np
4 Z. spinosa St. 0.122 12.2 40 3.21390938 8 5.752637 16.966546 McP Np
Shrub layer
5 Justicia adhatoda L 1.1 27.5 100 28.9778714 18.03279 14.38159 61.3922499 NP Lp
6 Withania coagulans (Stocks)
Dunal
0.544 13.6 70 14.3308746 8.918033 10.06711 33.3160215 Ch Mic
7 Monotheca Buxifolia (Falc.)
A.DC
0.476 11.9 60 12.5395153 7.803279 8.628955 28.9717489 NP Np
8 Periploca aphylla Decne. 0.044 1.1 40 1.15911486 0.721311 5.752637 7.63306296 Ch Ap
Herb layer
9 Corchorus tridens L 0.663333 13.2666667 66.66667 17.4745346 8.699454 9.587728 35.7617159 Ch Mic
10 Caryopteris odorata (D.
Don) B.L. Rob
0.043333 0.86666667 33.33333 1.14155251 0.568306 4.795683 6.50554198 NP Mic
11 Achyranthes aspera L. 0.06 1.2 33.33333 1.58061117 0.786885 4.796 7.16349642 Th Np
12 Aristidamonantha Michx 0.02 0.4 26 0.52687039 0.262295 3.741007 4.53017267 Th Np
13 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. 0.023333 0.46666667 26 0.61468212 0.306011 3.741 4.66169305 H Lp
Total 3.8 152.5 695 100 100 100 300
191
Appendix-3: Phytosociological attributes of Opuntia dillenii - Ziziphus nummularia - Desmostachya bipinnata community
S.No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size
Tree layer
1 Ziziphus nummularia (Burm.
f.)Wight &Arn.
0.374 37.4 80 16.251 36.5593 14.11 66.92 NP Np
2 Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile 0.128 12.8 60 5.562 12.5123 10.58 28.66 McP Lp
3 Dalbergia sissoo DC. 0.13 13 60 5.6489 12.7078 11 29.36 McP Np
Shrub layer
4 Opuntia dillenii Haw 1.08 27 100 46.929 26.393 17.64 90.96 NP Np
5 Calotropis procera Aiton 0.028 0.7 30 1.2167 0.68426 5.291 7.192 NP Mec
6 Rhazya stricta Decne. 0.028 0.7 30 1.2167 0.68426 5.3 7.201 Ch Np
7 Buddleja crispa Benth. 0.02 0.5 30 0.8691 0.48876 5.3 6.658 NP Np
Herb layer
8 Desmostachya bipinnata (L.)
Stapf
0.37 7.4 33 16.078 7.23365 5.82 29.13 H Np
9 Achyranthes aspera L. 0.023333 0.466667 20 1.0139 0.45618 3.527 4.997 Th Np
10 Verbena officinalis L. 0.016667 0.333333 20 0.7242 0.32584 3.527 4.577 Th Np
11 Convolvulus arvensis L. 0.02 0.4 26 0.8691 0.39101 4.586 5.846 Th Np
12 Euphorbia granulata Forssk. 0.026667 0.533333 26 1.1587 0.52134 4.6 6.28 H Lp
13 Cyperus rotundus L. 0.026667 0.533 26 1.1587 0.52102 4.6 6.28 G Np
14 Amaranthus viridis L. 0.03 0.533333 26 1.3036 0.52134 4.6 6.425 Th Np
Total 2.301 102.3 567 100 100 100 300
192
Appendix-4: Phytosociological attributes of Olea ferruginea -Rydingia limbata - Acacia modesta community
S.No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size
Tree layer
1 Olea ferruginea Wall. ex G. Aitch. 0.498 49.8 100 23.62429 44.90667 17.27116 85.80212 NP Mic
2 Acacia modesta Wall 0.212 21.2 60 10.05693 19.1169 10.36269 39.53652 McP Lp
3 Cornus macrophylla Wall. Ex Roxb. 0.044 4.4 40 2.087287 3.967658 6.908463 12.96341 McP Mic
4 Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile 0.028 2.8 40 1.328273 2.524873 6.908463 10.76161 McP Lp
Shrub layer
5 Rydingia limbata (Benth.) Scheen &
V.A.Albert
0.66 16.5 100 31.3093 14.87872 17.27116 68.57 NP Np
6 Lonicera griffithii Hook. f. &Thoms 0.356 8.9 60 16.88805 8.025489 10.36269 38.24 McP Mic
7 Isodon rugosus (Wall ex Benth) 0.18 4.5 40 8.538899 4.057832 6.908463 21.33 NP Np
8 Monotheca Buxifolia (Falc.)A.DC 0.02 0.5 30 0.948767 0.45087 5.181347 7.66 NP Np
9 Vitis jacquemontii Parker
0.02 0.5 30 0.948767 0.45087 5.1813 6.580937 NP Mic
Herb layer
10 Chenopodium album L. 0.0167 0.333 20 0.790639 0.30058 3.454231 4.54545 Th Np
11 Boerhavia diffusaL. 0.0167 0.33 13 0.790639 0.297574 2.24525 3.333464 H Np
12 Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze 0.03 0.6 20 1.42315 0.541044 3.454231 5.418426 NP Mic
13 Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. 0.0267 0.533 26 1.265022 0.480928 4.490501 6.236451 G Lp
Total 2.1 111 579 100 100 100 300
193
Appendix-5: Phytosociological attributes of Prosopis juliflora -Justicia adhatoda - Acacia modesta community
S. No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size
Tree layer
1 Acacia modesta Wall. 0.14 14 80 8.853288 23.58239 14.63424 47.06991 McP Lp
2 Olea ferruginea Wall. ex G.
Aitch.
0.064 6.4 60 4.047218 10.78052 10.97568 25.80342 NP Mic
3 Tecomela undulate 0.036 3.6 40 2.27656 6.064043 7.317118 15.65772 McP Mic
4 Ziziphus nummularia (Burm.
f.)Wight &Arn
0.032 3.2 40 2.023609 5.39026 7.317118 14.73099 NP Np
Shrub layer
5 Prosopis juliflora Swartz. 0.648 16.2 100 40.97808 27.28819 18.29279 86.55907 McP Lp
6 Justicia adhatoda L. 0.532 13.3 70 33.6425 22.40327 12.80496 68.85072 NP Lp
7 Monotheca buxifolia
(Falc.)A.DC
0.016 0.4 30 1.011804 0.673783 5.487838 7.173425 NP Np
Herb layer
8 Celosia argentea L 0.01 0.2 13.33333 0.632378 0.336891 2.439039 3.408308 NP Lp
9 Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. 0.01 0.2 13.33 0.672 0.348 2.43843 3.45843 G Lp
10 Aerva javanica (Burm. f.)
Juss.
0.0166667 0.333333 20 1.053963 0.561485 3.658559 5.274007 Ch Lp
11 Achyranthes aspera L. 0.02 0.4 20 1.264755 0.673783 3.659 5.597538 Th Np
12 Abutilon bidentatum Hochst.
ex A.Rich.
0.0166667 0.333333 20 1.053963 0.561485 3.659 5.274448 Ch Np
0.0166667 0.333 20 1.053963 0.560924 3.659 5.273887
Total 1.581 59.4 547 100 100 100 300
194
Appendix-6: Phytosociological attributes of Olea ferruginea-Rydingia limbata -Justicia adhatoda community
S.No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size
Tree layer
1 Olea ferruginea Wall. ex G.
Aitch.
0.57 57.8 100% 34.05 59.46 20.57 114.09 NP Mic
2 Salix tetrasperma 0.08 8 30% 4.713 8.23 6.17 19.11 McP Mic
3 Ficus carica L. 0.06 6 30% 3.53 6.17 6.17 15.88 NP Mic
Shrub layer
4 Otostegi limbata (Benth.)
Boiss
0.39 9.9 100% 23.33 10.18 20.57 54.09 NP Np
5 Maytenu sroyleanus Wall.
Ex Lawson
0.04 1.2 40% 2.82 1.23 8.23 12.29 NP Mic
6 Monotheca buxifolia (Falc.)
A.DC
0.03 0.8 20% 1.88 0.82 4.11 6.82 NP Np
7 Justicia adhatoda L. 0.31 9.4 70% 18.46 9.67 14.40 42.53 NP Lp
8 Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq 0.06 1.5 30% 3.53 1.54 6.17 11.25 NP Np
Herb layer
9 Aristidamonantha Michx 0.08 1.66 40% 4.90 1.71 8.23 14.85 Th Np
10 Anisomeles indica (L.)
Kuntze
0.046 0.93 26% 2.74 0.96 5.34 9.05 NP Mic
Total 1.69 97.2 486% 100% 100% 100 300
195
Appendix-7: Phytosociological attributes of Justicia adhatoda-Ziziphus nummularia- Acacia modesta community
S. No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size
Tree layer
1 Ziziphus nummularia
(Burm. f.) Wight & Arn.
0.168 16.8 100% 13.49036 27.3022752 16.83502 57.62766 NP Np
2 Acacia modesta Wall. 0.124 12.4 100% 9.957173 20.1516793 16.83502 46.94387 McP Lp
3 Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. 0.07 7 30% 5.620985 11.375948 5.050505 22.04744 McP Np
4 Z. spinusa 0.062 6.2 30% 4.978587 10.0758397 5.05051 20.10494 McP Np
Shrubs layer
5 Justicia adhatoda L. 0.54 13.5 100% 43.36188 21.9393283 16.835 82.13621 NP Lp
6 Withania coagulans
(Stocks) Dunal
0.064 1.6 50% 5.139186 2.60021668 8.417508 16.15691 Ch Mic
7 Monotheca buxifolia (Falc.)
A.DC
0.044 1.1 40% 3.533191 1.78764897 6.734007 12.05485 NP Np
Herb layer
8 Aristida monantha Michx 0.07 1.4 46% 5.620985 2.2751896 7.744108 15.64028 Th Np
9 Caryopteris odorata (D.
Don) B.L. Rob.
0.05 1 46% 4.014989 1.62513543 7.74411 13.38423 NP Mic
10 Mentha longifolia (L.) 0.03 0.266667 26% 2.408994 0.43336945 4.377104 7.219467 NP Mic
11 Medicago laciniata (L.)
Mill.
0.023333 0.266667 26% 1.873662 0.43336945 4.377104 6.684135 Th Np
Total 1.24533 61.533 594% 100% 100% 100% 300
196
Appendix-8: Phytosociological attributes of Opuntia dillenii-Ziziphus nummularia- Acacia nilotica community
S. No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size
Tree layer
1 Ziziphus nummularia (Burm.
f.) Wight &Arn.
0.14 14 40% 12.26636 27.25503 8.032129 47.55351 NP Np
2 Acacia nilotica (L.) Wild. ex
Delile
0.1 10 40% 8.761682 19.46788 8.03213 36.26169 McP Lp
3 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. 0.052 5.2 30% 4.556075 10.1233 6.024096 20.70347 McP Np
4 Ailanthus altissima (Mill)
Swingle
0.028 2.8 40% 2.453271 5.451006 8.032129 15.93641 McP Mic
Shrub layer
5 Opuntia dillenii Haw 0.456 11.4 100% 39.95327 22.19338 20.08032 82.22697 NP Np
6 Cannabis sativa L. 0.084 2.1 50% 7.359813 4.088254 10.04016 21.48823 McP Np
7 Capparis decidua (Forssk.)
Edgew
0.048 1.2 40% 4.205607 2.336145 8.03213 14.57388 NP Ap
Herb layer
8 Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. 0.093333 1.866667 60% 8.17757 3.634004 12.04819 23.85977 G Lp
9 Chenopodium album L. 0.07 1.4 46% 6.133178 2.725503 9.236948 18.09563 Th Np
10 Cynodon dactylon 0.043333 0.866667 26% 3.796729 1.687216 5.220884 10.70483 H Lp
11 Eruca sativa Mill. 0.026667 0.533333 26% 2.336449 1.038287 5.022088 8.396823 NP Mic
Total 1.14133 51.36 498% 100 100 99.80121 299.8012
197
Appendix-9: Phytosociological attributes of Olea ferruginea- Acacia modesta-Rydingia limbata community
S. No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size
Tree layer
1 Olea ferruginea Wall. ex G.
Aitch.
0.18 18 100% 18.6593 34.3949 15.92357 68.97777 NP Mic
2 Acacia modesta Wall 0.156 15.6 30% 16.17139 29.80892 4.77707 50.75738 McP Lp
3 Ailanthus altissima (Mill)
Swingle
0.052 5.2 30% 5.390463 9.936306 4.77707 20.10384 McP Mic
Shrub layer
4 Rydingia limbata (Benth.)
Scheen & V.A.Albert
0.184 4.6 100% 19.07395 8.789809 15.9236 43.78736 NP Np
5 Lonicera griffithii Hook. f. &
Thoms
0.04 1 50% 4.14651 1.910828 7.961783 14.01912 McP Mic
6 Isodon rugosus Benth. 0.052 1.3 50% 5.390463 2.484076 7.96178 15.83632 NP Np
7 Berberis lycium Royle 0.056 1.4 50% 5.805114 2.675159 7.96178 16.44205 NP Np
8 Monotheca buxifolia
(Falc.)A.DC
0.068 1.7 60% 7.049067 3.248408 9.55414 19.85161 NP Np
Herb layer
9 Desmostachya bipinnata (L.)
Stapf.
0.07 1.4 53% 7.256393 2.675159 8.43949 18.37104 H Np
10 Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze 0.05 1 53% 5.183138 1.910828 8.43949 15.53346 NP Mic
11 Rumex hestatus L. 0.026667 0.533333 26% 2.76434 1.019108 4.140127 7.923576 NP Mec
12 Polygonum plebeium R. Br. 0.03 0.6 26% 3.1098 1.146497 4.1401 8.39650 G Mec
Total 0.96466 52.33 628% 100 100 100 300
198
Appendix-10: Phytosociological attributes of Prosopis juliflora -Justicia adhatoda - Acacia modesta community
S.No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size
Tree layer
1 Acacia modesta Wall. 0.08 8 80% 7.697242 19.01743 10.88435 37.59903 McP Lp
2 Olea ferruginea Wall. ex G.
Aitch.
0.06 6 60% 5.772931 14.26307 8.163265 28.19927 NP Mic
3 Tecomela undulate 0.036 3.6 40% 3.463759 8.557845 5.442177 17.46378 McP Mic
4 Albezia lebbeck 0.06 6 60% 5.772931 14.26307 8.163265 28.19927 McP Np
Shrub layer
5 Prosopis juliflora Swartz. 0.264 6.6 100% 25.4009 15.68938 13.60544 54.69572 McP Lp
6 Justicia adhatoda L. 0.212 5.3 80% 20.39769 12.59905 10.88435 43.88109 NP Lp
7 Monotheca buxifolia (Falc.)
A.DC
0.044 1.1 40% 4.233483 2.614897 5.442177 12.29056 NP Np
Herb layer
8 Aristida monantha Michx 0.05 1 46% 4.810776 2.377179 6.258503 13.44646 Th Np
9 Celosia argentea L 0.046667 0.933333 46% 4.490058 2.2187 6.258503 12.96726 NP Lp
10 Anisomeles indica (L.)
Kuntze
0.053333 1.066667 46% 5.131495 2.535658 6.258503 13.92566 NP Mic
11 Abutilon bidentatum
Hochst. ex A.Rich.
0.026667 0.533333 26% 2.565747 1.267829 3.537415 7.370991 Ch Np
12 Ajuga bracteosa Wall.ex
Benth
0.036667 0.733333 33% 3.527903 1.743265 4.489796 9.760963 Th Mic
13 Coronopus didymus (L.)
Smith
0.02 0.4 26% 1.92431 0.950872 3.537415 6.412597 Th Mic
14 Asparagus asiaticus L. 0.023333 0.466667 26% 2.245029 1.10935 3.537415 6.891794 G Np
15 Poa annua L. 0.026667 0.333333 26% 2.565747 0.792393 3.537415 6.895555 Th Lp
Total 1.039333 42.06667 735% 100 100 100 300
199
Appendix-11: Phytosociological attributes of Microsisymbrium-Torularia afghanica- Dodonaea viscosa community
S. No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life
form
Leaf
size
Tree layer
1 Olea ferruginea Wall. ex G.
Aitch.
0.052 5.2 60 0.001265207 14.3185 7.2874789 21.60723883 NP Mic
2 Ficus carica L. 0.036 3.6 40 0.000875912 9.9128 4.85831926 14.77199922 NP Mic
Shrub layer
3 Maytenus royleanusWall. Ex
Lawson
0.435 0.15 60 1.04 0.41303 7.2874789 8.740512398 NP Mic
4 Rydingia limbata (Benth.)
Scheen & V.A.Albert
0.805 0.29 100 1.95 0.99828 12.1457982 15.09407699 NP Np
5 Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. 0.476 11.9 80 1.36 32.7673 9.71663853 43.84396299 NP Np
6 Monotheca buxifolia (Falc.)
A.DC
0.335 0.12 60 0.815085158 0.41308 7.2874789 8.51564495 NP Np
7 Justicia adhatoda L 0.635 0.19 60 1.54 0.65404 7.2874789 9.481523647 NP Lp
Herb layer
8 Microsisymbrium O.E. Schulz 18 2.38 80 45 6.55346 9.71663853 61.27010342 Th Mic
9 Oxalis corniculata L. 1.53 3.17 33.33 3.12 8.72877 4.04819453 15.89696919 Th Np
10 Torularia afghanica (Gilli)
Hedge
18.2 2.05 60 44.28223844 5.64479 7.2874789 57.21450853 Th Mic
11 Tulipa clusiana DC. 0.236667 4.733333333 86 0.579109639 13.0335 10.4453864 24.05 Th Mic
12 Eragrostis ciliaris (L.) R.Br. 0.026667 0.533333333 26 0.06525179 1.46856 3.15790752 4.691722874 NP Mic
13 Enneapogon persicus Boiss. 0.036667 0.733333333 26 0.089721212 2.01927 3.15790752 5.26690363 Th Mp
14 Cymbopogon jwarancusa
(Jones) Schult.
0.03 0.6 26 0.073408264 1.65213 3.15790752 4.88 H Np
Total 40.9 36.3167 823.33 99.9985 100 100 300
200
Appendix-12: Phytosociological attributes of Sedum hispanicum-Geranium rotundifolium- Indigofera linifolia community
S. No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size
Tree layer
1 Ziziphus nummularia
(Burm. f.) Wight & Arn.
0.06 6 60 2.667457024 9.972299 6.9364162 19.57617238 NP Np
2 Acacia modesta Wall. 0.07 7 60 3.112033195 11.63435 6.9364162 21.68279841 McP Lp
3 Ziziphus mauritiana
Lam.
0.044 4.4 60 1.956135151 7.313019 6.9364162 16.20557073 McP Np
Shrub layer
4 Dodonaea viscosa (L.)
Jacq.
0.052 1.3 60 2.311796088 2.160665 6.9364162 11.40887709 NP Np
5 Withania coagulans
(Stocks) Dunal
0.056 1.4 50 2.489626556 2.32687 5.7803 10.59679636 Ch Mic
6 Justicia adhatoda L. 0.044 1.1 60 1.956135151 1.828255 6.9364162 10.72080618 NP Lp
7 Capparis spinosa L 0.048 1.2 50 2.133965619 1.99446 5.7803468 9.908772274 McP Mic
8 Periploca aphylla
Decne.
0.052 1.3 40 2.311796088 2.160665 4.6242775 9.096738364 Ch Ap
Herb layer
9 Sedum hispanicum L. 0.596666667 11.9333 100 26.52637819 19.8338 11.560694 57.92086684 Th Lp
10 Geranium rotundifolium
L.
0.47 9.4 80 20.89508002 15.62327 9.2485549 45.76690364 Th Mic
11 Indigofera linifolia
(Linn.f.) Retz
0.433333333 8.666667 73 19.2649674 14.40443 8.4393064 42.10870589 Th Np
Continued…
201
12 Linum corymbulosum
Rchb.
0.136666667 2.733333 60 6.075874333 4.542936 6.9364162 17.55522681 Th Np
13 Erodium ciconium L. 0.093333333 1.866667 26 4.149377593 3.102493 3.0058 10.25767067 Th Mic
14 Galium tricornutum
Dandy.
0.05 1 40 2.222880854 1.66205 4.6243 8.509230715 Th Lp
15 Alyssum desertorum
Stapf.
0.023333333 0.466667 26 1.037344398 0.775623 3.0057803 4.818748014 Th Lp
16 Coronopus didymus (L.)
Smith.
0.02 0.4 20 0.889152341 0.66482 2.3121387 3.866111014 Th Mic
Total 2.2493 60.2 865 100 100 100 300
202
Appendix-13: Phytosociological attributes of Lactuca dissecta-Salvia moorcroftiana- Allium griffithianum community
S.No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size
Tree layer
1 Ziziphus nummularia (Burm.
f.) Wight & Arn. 0.052 5.2 60 1.4964 9.48774324 6.603081486 17.5872276
NP Np
2 Acacia nilotica (L.) Wild. Ex
Delile 0.064 6.4 60 1.84173 11.6772225 6.603081486 20.12203056
Mcp Lp
3 Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. 0.06 6 60 1.72662 10.947396 6.603081486 19.27709624 Mcp Np
Shrub layer
4 Cannabis sativa L. 0.6 0.089 80 17.2662 0.16238637 8.804108649 26.23268207 Mcp Np
5 Opuntia dillenii Haw 0.432 0.063 60 12.4317 0.11494766 6.603081486 19.14968382 NP Np
Herb layer
6 Lactuca dissecta D. Don 0.64 12.8 100 18.4173 23.3544449 11.00513581 52.77 Th Mic
7 Allium griffithianum Boiss. 0.496667 9.933333 100 14.2926 18.1240223 11.00513581 43.42 Th Np
8 Salvia moorcroftiana Wall.ex
Benth. 0.523333 10.46667 100 15.06 19.0971242 11.00513581 45.16
Th Mic
9 Phagnalon niveum Edgew. 0.296667 0.488888 40 8.53717 0.89200843 4.402054324 13.83123301 Th Lp
10 Oxytropis campestris (L.)
DC. 0.103333 0.111111 33.33333 2.97362 0.20272935 3.668378237 6.844728694
Th Np
11 Verbascum thapsus L. 0.04 0.055555 33.33333 1.15108 0.10136376 3.668378237 4.920821138 Th Mic
12 Eruca sativa Mill. 0.02 0.4 26 0.57554 0.7298264 2.860286029 4.165652
NP Mic
Continued…
203
13 Persicaria glabra (Willd.) M.
Gomez 0.02 0.4 26 0.57554 0.7298264 2.860286029 4.165652
NP Mic
14 Stellaria media L. 0.027 0.466667 26 0.77698 0.85146414 2.860286029 4.488728583 Th Np
15 Polypogon monspeliensis (L.)
Desf. 0.026667 0.466667 26 0.78 0.85146 2.860286029 4.491746029
Ch Mic
16 Setaria viridis (L.) P.Beauv. 0.02 0.4 26 0.58 0.7298264 2.860286029 4.170112432 Th Mic
17 Malcolmia africana (L.) R. Br. 0.03 0.6 26 0.86331 1.0947396 2.860286029 4.818334986 Th Np
18 Chenopodium ambrosioides L. 0.023333 0.466667 26 0.67146 0.85146414 2.860286029 4.383212995 Th Lp
Total 3.48 54.8 909 100 100 99.99 299.9
204
Appendix-14: Phytosociological attributes of Phagnalon niveum-Torularia afghanica-Kickxia ramosissima community
S.No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size
Tree layer
1 Olea ferruginea
Wall. ex G. Aitch. 0.066 6.6 60 2.52165053 9.99689296 7.731958763 20.25050226 NP Mic
2 Acacia modesta
Wall. 0.06 6 40 2.29240958 9.08808451 5.154639175 16.53513326 McP Lp
Shrub layer
3
Rydingia limbata
(Benth.) Scheen &
V.A.Albert
0.512 12.8 60 19.5618951 19.3879136 7.731958763 46.68176745 NP Np
4 Lonicera griffithii
Hook. f. &Thoms 0.068 1.7 60 2.59806419 2.57495728 7.73196 12.90498147 McP Mic
5 Maytenus royleanus
Wall. Ex Lawson 0.108 1.8 30 4.12633724 2.72642535 3.865979381 10.71874197 NP Mic
6 Berberis lycium
Royle 0.02 0.5 30 0.76413653 0.75734038 3.86598 5.387456902 NP Np
Herb layer
7 Phagnalon niveum
Edgew. 0.603333333 12.06667 100 23.0514519 18.2771477 12.88659794 54.21519754 Th Lp
8 Torularia afghanica
(Gilli) Hedge 0.42 8.4 93 16.046867 12.7233183 11.98453608 40.75472144 Th Mic
Continued…
205
9 Kickxia ramosissima
(Wall.) Janch. 0.31 7.153846 93 11.8441161 10.8357931 11.98453608 34.6644453 Th Np
10 Rubus fruticosus L. 0.126666667 2.533333 26 4.83953133 3.83719124 3.350515464 12.02723803 McP Mic
11 Artemisia scoparia
L. 0.103333333 2.066667 26 3.94803872 3.13034022 3.350515464 10.4288944 NP Np
12 Digera muricata (L.)
Mart. 0.1 2 26 3.82068263 3.0293615 3.35052 10.20056413 Th Mic
13 Valeriana wallichii
DC. 0.016666667 0.333333 20 0.63678044 0.50489358 2.577319588 3.71899361 Th Mec
14
Setaria pumila
(Poir.) Roem. &
Schult.
0.02 0.4 26 0.76413653 0.60606061 3.350515464 4.720712596 Th Mic
15 Oenanthe javanica
(Blume) DC 0.02 0.4 20 0.76414 0.60606061 2.577319588 3.947520194 Th Np
16 Bidens tripartite L. 0.02 0.4 26 0.76414 0.60606061 3.350515464 4.72071607 Th Np
17 Indigofera lignifolia
(Linn.f.) Retz 0.023333333 0.466667 20 0.89149261 0.70685102 2.577319588 4.175663219 Th Np
18 Polygonum plebeium
R. Br. 0.02 0.4 20 0.76414 0.60606061 2.577319588 3.947520194 G Mec
Total 2.61 66 776 100 100 100 300
206
Appendix-15: Phytosociological attributes of Euphorbia pilulifera-Pennisetum orientale-Indigofera lignifolia community
S.No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size
Tree layer
1 Acacia modesta Wall. 0.052 5.2 60 0.7585335 3.550295777 8.31793 12.3
Mcp Lp
2 Olea ferruginea Wall.
ex G. Aitch. 0.06 6 60 0.875231 4.096495128 8.31793 13.3
NP Mic
Shrub layer
3 Prosopis juliflora
Swartz. 0.08 2 60 1.1669746 1.365498376 8.31793 10.85040275
Mcp Lp
Herb layer
4 Euphorbia pilulifera
L. 2.566667 51.33333 100 37.440436 35.04779165 13 85.48822732
Th Np
5 Indigofera linifolia
(Linn.f.) Retz 1.486667 29.73333 60 21.686278 20.3 8.31793 50.30420808
Th Np
6 Pennisetum orientale
Rich. 1.936667 38.73333 86 28.250511 26.44515188 11.8 66.49566243
Th Np
7 Trifolium repens L. 0.083333 1.666667 40 1.2155986 1.137915313 5.545287 7.89880038
Th Np
8 Vicia monantha Retz. 0.396667 7.933333 40 5.7862491 5.416476891 5.545287 16.74801255
Th Np
9 Silene vulgaris
(Moench) Garcke 0.023333 0.466667 26 0.3403676 0.318616288 3.66886 4.32784387
Th Np
Continued…
207
10 Cymbopogon
jwarancusa (Jones)
Schult. 0.02 0.4 20 0.2917437 0.273099675 3.66886 4.233703316
H
Np
11 Papaver pavoninum
Schrenk 0.023333 0.466667 26 0.3403676 0.318616288 3.66886 4.327843871
Th Np
12 Cynodon dactylon
(L.) Pers. 0.02 0.4 26 0.2917437 0.273099675 3.66886 4.233703316
H Lp
13 Bromus
pectinatus Thunb. 0.02 0.4 26 0.2917437 0.273099675 3.66886 4.233703316
Th Mic
14 Artemisia vulgaris L. 0.023333 0.46667 26 0.3403676 0.318618564 3.66886 4.327846147
NP Np
15 Rorippa palustris (L.)
Besser 0.02 0.4 26 0.2917437 0.273099675 3.66886 4.233703316
Th Np
16 Misopates orontium
(L.) Raf 0.03 0.6 26 0.4376155 0.409649513 3.66886 4.516124981
Th Lp
17 Polygonum aviculerL. 0.013333 0.266667 13.33333333 0.1944958 0.18206645 1.802219 2.178781167
Ch Mic
Total 6.86 146 721.33 100 100 100 299.9
208
Appendix-16: Phytosociological attributes of Dodonaea viscosa-Rydingia limbata-Olea ferruginea community
S.No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size
Tree layer
1 Olea ferruginea Wall. ex G. Aitch. 0.09 9 60 20.0905 12.44395 16.97793 49.51237 NP Mic
2 Salix tetrasperma 0.036 3.6 40 4.886878 12.10762 6.791171 23.78567 Mcp Mic
3 Ficus carica L 0.032 3.2 40 4.343891 10.76233 6.791171 21.89739 NP Mic
Shrub layer
4 Rydingia limbata (Benth.) Scheen
& V.A.Albert
0.148 3.7 100 12.21719 30.26906 10.18676 52.67301 NP Np
5 Monotheca Buxifolia (Falc.)A.DC 0.028 0.7 50 3.800905 2.35426 8.488964 14.64413 NP Np
6 Maytenus royleanus Wall. Ex
Lawson
0.02 0.5 40 2.714932 1.681614 6.791171 11.18772 NP Mic
7 Justicia adhatoda L. 0.028 0.7 40 3.800905 2.35426 6.791171 12.94634 NP Lp
8 Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. 0.248 6.2 100 33.66516 20.85202 16.97793 71.49511 NP Np
Herb layer
9 Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. 0.01 0.2 13 1.357466 0.672646 2.207131 4.237243 G Np
10 Chenopodium album L. 0.02 0.4 20 2.714932 1.345291 3.395586 7.455809 Th Np
11 Caryopteris odorata (D. Don) B.L.
Rob.
0.02 0.4 20 2.714932 1.345291 3.395586 7.455809 NP Mic
12 Apluda mutica L.
0.026667 0.533333 33 3.61991 1.793722 5.602716 11.01635 Th Np
13 Chrysopogon gryllus (L.) Trin. 0.03 0.6 33 4.072398 2.017937 5.60272 11.69306 NP Mic
Total 0.736667 29.73333 589 100 100 100 300
209
Appendix-17: Phytosociological attributes of Dodonaea viscosa-Withania coagulans-Justicia adhatoda community
S.No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size
Tree layer
1 Acacia modesta Wall. 0.036 3.6 40 3.105233 8.918249 6.486487 18.50997 McP Lp
2 Ziziphus nummularia (Burm.
f.)Wight &Arn. 0.04 4 40 3.450259 9.909166 6.486487 19.84591
NP Np
3 Z. Spinosa 0.046 4.6 40 3.967798 11.39554 6.486487 21.84983 McP Np
4 Z. mauritiana Lam. 0.04 4 40 3.450259 9.909166 6.486487 19.84591 McP Np
Shrub layer
5 Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. 0.344 8.6 100 29.67223 21.30471 16.21622 67.19315 NP Np
6 Justicia adhatoda L. 0.224 5.6 70 19.32145 13.87283 11.35135 44.54563 NP Lp
7 Withania coagulans (Stocks )
Dunal 0.256 6.4 90 22.08166 15.85467 14.59459 52.53092
Ch Mic
8 Periploca aphylla Decne. 0.02 0.5 30 1.725129 1.238646 4.864865 7.82864 Ch Ap
Herb layer
9 Cyperus bulbosus Vahl 0.02 0.4 26.66667 1.725129 0.990917 4.324324 7.04037 G Np
10 Desmostachya bipinnata (L.)
Stapf 0.023333 0.466667 20 2.012651 1.156069 3.243243 6.411964
H Np
11 Lactuca serriola L. 0.023333 0.466667 26.66667 2.012651 1.15607 4.324324 7.493045 Th Mec
12 Carthamus oxycantha M.B
TH Mie 0.026667 0.533333 26.66667 2.300173 1.321222 4.324324 7.945719
Th Mic
13 Astragalus amherstianus
Benth. 0.03 0.6 33.33333 2.587694 1.486375 5.405405 9.479474
Th Np
14 Leucas cephalotes (Roth)
Spreng 0.03 0.6 33.33333 2.587694 1.486375 5.405405 9.479474
Ch Mic
Total 1.15933 40.36667 616.6667 100% 100% 100% 300
210
Appendix-18: Phytosociological attributes of Cannabis sativa-Alternanthera pungens- Ageratum conyzoide community
S.No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size
Tree layer
1 Acacia modesta Wall. 0.036 3.6 40 2.428058 8.269525 5.312085 16.00967 McP Lp
2 Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. f.)
Wight & Arn
0.04 4 40 2.697842 9.188361 5.312085 17.19829 NP Np
3 Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh 0.056 5.6 60 3.776978 12.86371 7.968128 24.60881 McP Np
Shrubs layer
4 Cannabis sativa L. 0.564 14.1 100 38.03957 32.38897 13.28021 83.70875 Th Mic
5 Opuntia dillenii Haw 0.04 1 50 2.697842 2.29709 6.640106 11.63504 McP Lp
6 Sorgham halepense (Linn) Bres 0.036 0.9 50 2.428058 2.067381 6.64011 11.13555 Th Np
7 Cotoneaster Microphyllsus Wall.
Ex Lindl.
0.024 0.6 30 1.618705 1.378254 3.984064 6.981023 Th Mic
Herb layer
8 Alternanthera pungens Kunth. 0.293333 5.8666667 66 19.78417 13.47626 8.76494 42.02538 Th Mic
9 Echinochloa colona (L.) Link. 0.02 0.4 40 1.348921 0.918836 5.312085 7.579842 Th Np
10 Serratula pallida DC. 0.016667 0.3333333 26 1.124101 0.765697 3.452855 5.342653 Th Mic
11 Ageratum conyzoides L. 0.17 3.4 73 11.46583 7.810107 9.694555 28.97049 Th Mic
12 Boerhavia diffusa L 0.043333 0.8666667 26 2.922662 1.990812 3.452855 8.366329 H Np
13 Chrozophora tinctoria (L.) Raf. 0.026667 0.5333333 33.333333 1.798561 1.225115 4.426738 7.450414 Th Mic
14 Lepidium ruderaleL. 0.026667 0.5333333 33.33333 1.798561 1.225115 4.426737 7.450413 Th Np
15 Cyperus rotundus L. 0.026667 0.5333333 33.33333 1.798561 1.225115 4.42674 7.450416 G Np
16 Cirsium arvense L. Scop 0.03 0.6 26 2.023381 1.378254 3.452855 6.854491 Th Mic
17 Cucumus melo vari aragratis 0.033333 0.6666667 26 2.248201 1.531394 3.452855 7.23245 Th Mic
Total 1.48266 43.5333 752.99999 100 100 100 300
211
Appendix-19: Phytosociological attributes of Euphorbia heterophylla-Delphinium kohatense-Olea ferruginea community
S.No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size
Tree layer
1 Olea ferruginea Wall. ex G.
Aitch. 0.052 5.2 60 4.4801838 15.3694581 8.823529412 28.67317 NP Mic
2 Acacia modesta Wall. 0.03 3 40 2.58472142 8.86699507 5.882352941 17.33407 McP Lp
3 Cornus macrophylla Wall. Ex
Roxb. 0.036 3.6 40 3.10166571 10.6403941 5.882352941 19.62441 McP Mic
Shrub layer
4 Lonicera griffithii Hook. f. &
Thoms 0.048 1.2 60 4.13555428 3.54679803 8.823529412 16.50588 McP Mic
5 Rydingia limbata (Benth.)
Scheen & V.A.Albert 0.044 1.1 40 3.79092476 3.25123153 5.882352941 12.92451 NP Np
6 Maytenus royleanusWall. Ex
Lawson 0.036 1.1 40 3.10166571 3.25123153 5.882352941 12.23525 NP Mic
7 Isodon rugosus (Wall ex Benth) 0.044 1.1 40 3.79092476 3.25123153 5.882352941 12.92451 NP Np
8 Monotheca Buxifolia (Falc.)A.DC 0.024 0.6 30 2.06777714 1.77339901 4.411764706 8.252941 NP Np
Herb layer
9 Rubus fruticosus L. 0.03666667 0.733333 40 3.15910396 2.16748768 5.882352941 11.20894 McP Mic
10 Euphorbia heterophylla L. 0.44666667 8.933333 100 38.4836301 26.4039409 14.70588235 79.59345 Th Mic
11 Delphinium kohatense Munz. 0.23666667 4.733333 86 20.3905801 13.9901478 12.64705882 47.02779 Th Mec
12 Ageratum conyzoides L. 0.03333333 0.666667 26 2.87191269 1.97044335 3.823529412 8.665885 Th Mic
13 Ammannia baccifera L. 0.02666667 0.533333 26 2.29753016 1.57635468 3.823529412 7.697414 Ch Np
14 Boerhavia diffusa L 0.03666667 0.733333 26 3.15910396 2.16748768 3.823529412 9.150121 H Np
15 Poa infirma Kunth 0.03 0.6 26 2.58472142 1.77339901 3.823529412 8.18165 Ch Lp
Total 1.16066 33.83 680 100% 100% 100% 300%
212
Appendix-20: Phytosociological attributes of Delphinium kohatense - Dittrichia graveolens - Prosopis juliflora community
S.No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size
Tree layer
1 Acacia modesta Wall. 0.056 5.6 60 3.46820809 11.9828816 7.880910683 23.332 McP Lp
2 Olea ferruginea Wall.
ex G. Aitch. 0.046 4.6 40 2.84888522 9.84308131 5.253940455 17.94591 McP Mic
3 Tecomela undulata 0.052 5.2 60 3.22047894 11.1269615 7.880910683 22.22835 McP Mic
4 Ziziphus nummularia
(Burm. f.)Wight &Arn. 0.056 5.6 60 3.46820809 11.9828816 7.880910683 23.332 NP Np
Shrub layer
5 Prosopis juliflora
Swartz 0.3 7.5 100 18.5796862 16.0485021 13.13485114 47.76304 McP Lp
6 Justicia adhatoda L. 0.048 1.2 50 2.97274979 2.56776034 6.567425569 12.10794 NP Lp
7 Monotheca Buxifolia
(Falc.) A.DC 0.036 0.9 40 2.22956235 1.92582026 5.253940455 9.409323 NP Np
8
Cotoneaster
Microphyllsus Wall. Ex
Lindl.
0.04 1 40 2.47729149 2.13980029 5.253940455 9.871032 NP Np
Herb layer
9 Delphinium kohatense
Munz. 0.45666667 9.133333 100 28.2824112 19.5435093 13.13485114 60.96077 Th Mec
10 Dittrichia graveolens
(L.) Greuter 0.37666667 7.533333 80 23.3278282 16.1198288 10.50788091 49.95554 Th Np
Continued…
213
11 Asparagus asiaticus L. 0.04 0.8 26.66667 2.47729149 1.71184023 3.50262697 7.691759 G Np
12 Cichorium intybus Linn. 0.03 0.6 20 1.85796862 1.28388017 2.626970228 5.768819 NP Mic
13 Digera muricata (L.)
Mart.
0.02 0.4 20 1.23864575 0.85592011 2.626970228 4.721536 Th Mic
14 Chrozophora tinctoria
(L.) Raf.
0.02666667 0.533333 26.66667 1.65152766 1.14122682 3.50262697 6.295381 Th Mic
15 Chenopodium
ambrosioides L.
0.02 0.4 20 1.23864575 0.85592011 2.626970228 4.721536 Th Lp
16 Tetrapogon villosus Desf. 0.02333333 0.466667 26 1.44508671 0.99857347 3.415062791 5.858723 Th Lp
17 Sorgham
halepense (Linn) Bres
0.02333333 0.466667 26 1.44508671 0.99857347 3.415062791 5.858723 Th Mic
18 Lepidium sativum Linn. 0.02 0.4 26 1.23864575 0.85592011 3.415062791 5.509629 Th Np
Total 1.61466667 46.73333 761.3333 100% 100% 100% 300%
214
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Flowering and fruiting phenologies of seasonal and aseasonal
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249
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR ETHNOBOTANICAL
SURVEY
Date _____________ Name
Age ______ Gender________
Education___________ Locality____________
Information about potential plant species used in the area
Local name of the plant species Habit of plant ________
Uses in the area
Quantities harvested each year
Who collected the plant? (Women/Men/Children)
Why collected?
Which part is collected?
How the plant is collected
Is it sold? To whom is it sold?
Whether the plant material is stored? Why?
For how long is it stored and why?
Local price per Kg. (Rs) Quantity sold each year
Availability status of the plant in last 10 years (Increased/ Decreased)
Which part is used and how is it used?
Any other observation.
250
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR ETHNOMEDICINAL
SURVEY
Date _____________ Name
Age ______ Gender________
Education___________ Locality____________
Information about potential plant species used in the area
Local name of the plant species. Habit of plant ________
Local uses in the area.
Disease name for which it is used
Method how to use the plant
Quantities harvested each year
Who collected the plant? (Womaen/Men/Children)
Why collected?
Which part is collected?
How the plant is collected
Is it sold? To whom is it sold?
Whether the plant material is stored why?
For how long it is stored and why?
Local price per Kg. (Rs) Quantity sold each year
Availability status of the plant in last 10 years (Increased/ Decreased)
Which part is used and how it is used.
Any other observation.
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