PHYTOSOCIOLOGICAL AND ETHNOBOTANICAL STUDIES OF...

PHYTOSOCIOLOGICAL AND

ETHNOBOTANICAL STUDIES OF DISTRICT

NOWSHERA KHYBER PAKHTUNKHWA,

PAKISTAN

SAJJAD ALI Ph.D. (Scholar)

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY

ISLAMIA COLLEGE PESHAWAR 2016

PHYTOSOCIOLOGICAL AND

ETHNOBOTANICAL STUDIES OF DISTRICT

NOWSHERA KHYBER PAKHTUNKHWA,

PAKISTAN

Thesis submitted to the Department of Botany, Islamia College Peshawar in

partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

IN

BOTANY

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY

ISLAMIA COLLEGE PESHAWAR 2016

Plagiarism Undertaking

I solemnly declare that research work presented in the thesis titled

“Phytosociological and Ethnobotanical Studies of District Nowshera, Khyber

Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan” is solely my research work with no significant

contribution from any other person. Small contribution/help wherever taken has

been duly acknowledged and that complete thesis has been written by me.

I understand the zero tolerance policy of the HEC and University Islamia College

Peshawar towards plagiarism. Therefore I as an Author of the above titled thesis

declare that no portion of my thesis has been plagiarized and any material used

as reference is properly referred/cited.

I undertake that if I am found guilty of any formal plagiarism in the above titled

thesis even after award of PhD degree, the University reserves the rights to

withdraw/revoke my PhD degree and that HEC and the University has the right

to publish my name on the HEC/University Website on which names of students

are placed who submitted plagiarized thesis.

Student /Author Signature: ____________

Name: Sajjad Ali

267

Author’s Declaration I Mr. Sajjad Ali hereby state that my PhD thesis titled “Phytosociological and

Ethnobotanical Studies of District Nowshera, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan” is

my own work and has not been submitted previously by me for taking any

degree from this University Islamia College Peshawar Or anywhere else in the

country/world.

At any time if my statement is found to be incorrect even after my Graduate the

university has the right to withdraw my PhD degree.

Sajjad Ali : _______________

Dated:12/02/2018

i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of contents ....................................................................................... i

List of tables ............................................................................................ iv

List of figures .......................................................................................... vi

List of appendices .................................................................................. vii

Acknowledgements ............................................................................... viii

Abstract .................................................................................................... x

Chapter-1 ................................................................................................ 1

INTRODUCTION.................................................................................. 1

1.1 Introduction to the study area ....................................................... 1

1.1.1 Area and topography ........................................................ 1

1.1.2 Nature of land ................................................................... 1

1.1.3 Climate, rainfall and temperature ..................................... 2

1.1.4 Languages ........................................................................ 3

1.2 Phytosociology .............................................................................. 5

1.2.1 History of phytosociology ................................................ 5

1.2.2 Introduction to the phytosociology .................................. 6

1.3 Ethnobotany ................................................................................ 13

1.3.1 History of ethnobotany ................................................... 13

1.3.2 Introduction to the ethnobotany ..................................... 13

Chapter-2 .............................................................................................. 23

MATERIALS AND METHODS ........................................................ 23

2.1 Floristic structure and ecological characteristics ........................ 23

2.2 Biological spectra ....................................................................... 23

2.3 Leaf size spectra .......................................................................... 24

2.4 Phenological behavior................................................................. 25

2.5 Phytosociology / Vegetation structure ........................................ 25

2.5.1 Density ........................................................................... 26

2.5.2 Frequency ....................................................................... 26

2.5.3 Relative frequency ......................................................... 26

2.5.4 Cover .............................................................................. 26

2.5.5 Importance Value ........................................................... 27

2.5.6 Family Importance Value (FIV) .................................... 27

ii

2.5.7 Edaphology .................................................................... 27

2.5.8 Soil texture ..................................................................... 28

2.5.9 Water holding capacity .................................................. 28

2.5.10 Calcium carbonate .......................................................... 28

2.5.11 Nitrogen .......................................................................... 28

2.5.12 Phosphorus ..................................................................... 28

2.5.13 Potassium ....................................................................... 28

2.5.14 pH ................................................................................... 28

2.5.15 Electrical conductivity ................................................... 29

2.5.16 Total soluble salts ........................................................... 29

2.5.17 Carbonates and bicarbonates .......................................... 29

2.5.18 Chloride ........................................................................... 29

2.5.19 Calcium++

Magnesium++

.................................................. 29

2.5.20 Sodium ............................................................................. 30

2.5.21 Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) ...................................... 30

2.5.22 Sulphates ........................................................................ 30

2.6 Ethnobotany ................................................................................ 30

2.6.1 Ethnobotanical profile .................................................... 30

2.6.2 Observations ................................................................... 31

2.6.3 Interviews ....................................................................... 31

2.6.4 Preservation of vascular plants ...................................... 31

2.6.5 Fuel and timber wood species ........................................ 31

2.6.6 Fodder plants .................................................................. 32

2.6.7 Local medicinal use of plants ......................................... 32

2.6.8 Analysis and documentation of research data ................ 32

2.7 Phytochemical screening ............................................................ 33

2.7.1 Test for alkaloids ............................................................ 33

2.7.2 Test for tannins ............................................................... 33

2.7.3 Test for reducing sugars (Fehling’s test) ........................ 33

2.7.4 Test for saponins ............................................................ 34

2.7.5 Test for flavonoids ......................................................... 34

2.7.6 Test for terpenoids .......................................................... 34

2.7.7 Test for cardiac glycosides (Keller-Killiyani test) ......... 34

2.7.8 Total phenolic contents .................................................. 34

iii

2.7.9 Test for anthraquinones .................................................. 35

Chapter-3 .............................................................................................. 36

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .......................................................... 36

3.1 Floristic composition .................................................................. 36

3.1.1 Life form and seasonal variation .................................... 37

3.1.2 Leaf size spectra and seasonal variation ........................ 39

3.2 Phenological behavior................................................................. 66

3.3 Vegetation structure .................................................................... 88

3.3.1 Autumn aspect ................................................................ 89

3.3.2 Winter aspect .................................................................. 93

3.3.3 Spring aspect .................................................................. 96

3.3.4 Summer aspect ............................................................. 101

3.4 Ethnobotany .............................................................................. 109

3.5 Ethnomedicine .......................................................................... 130

3.6 Phytochemical screening .......................................................... 153

3.6.1 Alkaloids ...................................................................... 153

3.6.2 Tannins ......................................................................... 154

3.6.3 Sugars ........................................................................... 154

3.6.4 Saponins ....................................................................... 155

3.6.5 Flavoniods .................................................................... 155

3.6.6 Terpenoids .................................................................... 156

3.6.7 Cardiac glycosides ....................................................... 156

3.6.8 Phenolics ...................................................................... 157

3.6.9 Anthraquinones ............................................................ 157

3.7 Chemical evaluation of some selected plants ........................... 161

3.7.1 Proximate analysis ....................................................... 161

3.8 Elemental nutrient analysis of selected plants .......................... 169

Conclusions ......................................................................................... 184

Recommendations and Suggestions ................................................. 187

Appendices .......................................................................................... 189

References ........................................................................................... 214

Questionnaire for Ethnobotanical Survey ............................................ 249

Questionnaire for Ethnomedicinal Survey ........................................... 250

iv

LIST OF TABLES

Table-1.1: Land distribution of district Nowshera ........................................ 2

Table-1.2: Meterological data of district Nowshera 2014 ............................. 3

Table-2.1: Six Cover Classes for establishing plant cover .......................... 27

Table 3.1: Floristic Diversity and Ecological Characteristics. .................... 41

Table-3.2: Summary of ecological characteristics of plants ...................... 65

Table-3.3: Phenological behavior of plants during 2013. ........................... 69

Table-3.4: Summary of phenological stages ............................................... 86

Table-3.5: Number of species and Total Importance Value (TIV) . ......... 105

Table-3.6: Physico-chemical features of soil during 2013 ........................ 107

Table-3.7: List of ethnobotanically important plants. ............................... 111

Table-3.8: Plants used as fodder ................................................................ 119

Table-3.9: Plants used as fuel .................................................................... 122

Table-3.10: Plants used in furniture industries ............................................ 124

Table-3.11: Plants used in thatching. .......................................................... 124

Table-3.12: Plants used as vegetables ......................................................... 125

Table-3.13: Plants used in hedge ................................................................. 125

Table-3.14: Percentage of ethnobotanical usage of plants. ......................... 126

Table-3.15: List of ethnomedicinal plants. .................................................. 133

Table-3.16: Plants used against asthma ....................................................... 147

Table-3.17: Plants used in dysentery ........................................................... 147

Table-3.18: Plants used as anthelmintic ...................................................... 148

Table-3.19: Plants used as stimulant ........................................................... 148

Table-3.20: Plants used in diarrhea. ............................................................ 149

Table-3.21: Plants used as emollient. .......................................................... 149

Table-3.22: Plants used in snake bite .......................................................... 149

v

Table-3.23: Plants used in fever .................................................................. 150

Table-3.24: Percentage of ethnomedicinal uses of plants ........................... 151

Table-3.25: Different phytochemical tests at vegetative stages. ................. 159

Table-3.26: Different phytochemical tests at fruiting stages. ...................... 160

Table-3.27: Proximate composition of the selected plant species. .............. 165

Table-3.28: Macronutrients of the selected plant species. .......................... 172

Table-3.29: Micronutrients of the selected plant species . .......................... 180

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure: 1.1: Land distribution of district Nowshera ................................ 2

Figure-1.2: Land cover map of district Nowshera ................................. 4

Figure-3.1: Floristic list of district Nowshera ...................................... 64

Figure-3.2: Phenological behaviour of plants at district Nowshera ..... 87

Figure-3.3: Some views of the research area ....................................... 108

Figure-3.4: Percentage of ethnobotinical usage of plants .................. 127

Figure-3.5: Sheep and Goat grazing ................................................... 128

Figure-3.6: Ziziphus etc as fuel wood ................................................ 128

Figure-3.7: Stem branches of Ziziphus used as fences ....................... 129

Figure-3.8: Gum of Acacia used in market ........................................ 129

Figure-3.9: Percentage of Ethnomedicinal usage of plants ................ 152

Figure-3.10: Proximate composition at vegetative stage ..................... 167

Figure-3.11: Proximate composition at fruiting stage .......................... 168

Figure-3.12: Macronutrients at vegetative stage .................................. 174

Figure-3.13: Macronutrients at fruiting stage ...................................... 175

Figure-3.14: Micronutrients at vegetative stage ................................... 182

Figure-3.15: Micronutrients at fruiting stage ....................................... 183

vii

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix-1: Autumn Community 2013. ...................................................... 189

Appendix-2: Autumn Community2013. ....................................................... 190



Appendix-5: Autumn Community 2013………. .......................................... 193

Appendix-6: Winter Community 2013……. ................................................ 194

Appendix-7: Winter Community 2013……………………………………..195



Appendix-10:Winter Community 2013…………………. ............................ 198

Appendix-11: Spring Community 2013..…………………………………...199

Appendix-12:Spring Community 2013.......................................................... 200

Appendix-13:Spring Community 2013.......................................................... 202

Appendix-14:Spring Community 2013. ……................................................ 204

Appendix-15: Spring Community 2013......................................................... 206

Appendix-16: Summer Community2013. ...................................................... 208

Appendix-17: Summer Community 2013… .................................................. 209

Appendix-18: Summer Community 2013... .................................................. 210

Appendix-19: Summer Community 2013 ...................................................... 211

Appendix-20:Summer Community 2013. ...................................................... 212

viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Nothing can happen nor could anything be done without the will of

Allah Almighty. Indeed, I am extremely grateful to Allah Who gave me

strength to begin this task, Who bestowed upon me special help to pursue my

project, and Who gave me a team of selfless friends, supporting teachers and

capable guides. Due to these Divine favours, finally, I managed to steer my

project towards completion.

I cannot find suitable words to express my profound gratitude to my

supervisor Prof. Dr. Syed Zahir Shah (Former Dean, Faculty of Life and

Chemical Sciences). His professional and technical support, valuable

counseling, personal interest and supervision made it possible for me to attain

my goal. Despite his numerous engagements and responsibilities, he helped

me out to complete this manuscript.

I am also extremely thankful to my teacher Prof. Dr. Farrukh Hussain

(Former Dean, Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, Univ. of Pesh.)

for his strong support and reliable guidance at every stage of my research

work.

It would be great injustice if I do not pay homage and acknowledge the

sincere support, and incessant co-operation of my teachers – Dr. Samin Jan,

Dr. Muhammad Saleem Khan, Dr. Naveed Akhtar, Dr. Izhar Ahmad, Dr.

Wisal Muhammad Khan, Dr. Arshad Iqbal, Mr. Khushnood Ur Rehman, Dr

Fida Hussain, Prof. Dr. Fazle Malik Sarim, Dr. Sami Ullah, Dr. Tabassum

Yaseen, Mr. Imtiaz Ahmad, Mr. Syed Adil Hayat, Mr. Fazle Rahim, Miss

Sumaira Shah and Mr. Ishaq Khan.

I am extremely grateful to Prof. Mahboob-ur-Rehman, Govt. Degree

College, Matta, Swat, for his valuable help in plants identification. I am also

thankful to Dr. Dawood Jan, Senior Research Scientist, Nuclear Institute for

Food and Agriculture (NIFA), Tarnab, Peshawar, for his in-depth knowledge

of elemental analysis of plant and soil samples. I also want to say thanks to all

ix

my respectable teachers, friends and colleagues, particularly Abdur Rehman,

Izhar Khan, Shah Khalid and Muhammad Ismail for their good wishes, moral

support and help in thesis setup. I am also grateful to all staff members of

Department of Botany, Islamia College Peshawar and Bacha Khan University,

Charsadda for their selfless support and cooperation during my research hours.

I extend special thanks to Mr. Syed Sajid (alias Doctor), for composing this

manuscript in short time but carefully and painstakingly.

This thesis is an artifact of several field visits, a number of surveys and

various group discussions. Many people have contributed towards the

realization of this work in one way or the other. However, I apologize if I

missed to mention the name of any individual or organization who contributed

in this project.

In the end, I want to express my deep gratitude to my sisters, brother

and in-laws for their prayers and good wishes.

Last, but definitely not the least, are my ever-loving parents. For me,

they are incomparable and above everyone on the surface of the earth. Their

pure and undiluted love, their sincere and genuine prayers and their unyielding

support gave me strength and confidence to accomplish the highest goal of my

life.

Sajjad Ali

x

ABSTRACT

A survey was carried out to evaluate the phytosociological and ethnobotanical

features of district Nowshera, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. The study was

performed in different seasons of 2013-2015. The plant diversity comprised of

221 species belonging to 75 families. Among the total reported plant species,

Poaceae (28 spp.) was the dominant family, followed by Brassicaceae (15

spp.) and Papilionaceae (13 spp.) while other families had less than 09 species

each. Hydrophytes had 44 species (19.8%); xerophytes had the share of 157

species (70.72%), while 21 species (9.45%) were amphibious in nature. Plant

species possessing simple leaves were 170 (76.57%) species having compound

leaves were 23 (10.36%). There were 24 species (10.81%) with dissected

leaves and 04 species (2.25%) were aphyllous. Seasonal variation of species

diversity indicated 172 species (77.92%) in spring, followed by summer with

119 species (54.5%), winter with 89 species (40.54%) and autumn with 83

species (37.83%). Biological spectrum showed that therophytes were

dominant life form and were represented by 109 species (50.1%), followed by

microphanerophytes with 25 species (10.58%). Nanophylls were the leading

leaf size spectra with 94 species (42.23%), followed by microphylls with 75

species (33.78%), while leptophylls had 32 species (14.41%), mesophylls had

16 species (7.20%) and aphyllous were 04 species (2.25%). The phenological

studies revealed that in February the major bulk of flora (22.52%) was in

vegetative phase. In March 23.87% species blossomed and their number

decreased towards the fall season. April was the peak fruiting season. The

dormant period lasted from November to January. Twenty plant communities

were established in five sites. Among these Olea-Rydingia-Justicia, Prosopis-

Justicia-Acacia, Dodonaea-Rydingia-Olea, Opuntia-Ziziphus-Acacia,

Justicia-Ziziphus-Acacia, Microsisymbrium-Dodonaea-Olea, Lactuca-Salvia-

Allium and Euphorbia-Pennisetum-Indigofera were the important

communities of the area. Ethnobotanical data showed that 71 species

belonging to 65 genera and 39 families were used for various purposes.

Among these, family Asteraceae contributed the highest number of plant

species (08) used by local community. Leaves (50 spp; 70.42%) were the

xi

commonly used plant part followed by stems (47 spp; 66.16%), whole plant

(13 spp; 18.22%), fruits (09 spp; 14.27%) and roots (04 spp; 5.17%). Wild

herbs were the dominant growth form (44 spp; 61.38%), followed by wild

trees (16 spp; 23.54%) and wild shrubs (11 spp; 15.06%). Indigenes mostly

used the wild plants for various purposes; 45 species of wild plants (63.38%)

were used as fodder, 29 species (41.25%) as fuel, 10 species (14.69%) were

used in furniture making, 08 species (11.95%) were used for thatching

purpose, 07 species (9.58%) were used as vegetables, 04 species of wild plants

(5.84%) were used as hedges, and 03 species (4.22%) were used as ornamental

plants. There was only one species each used in production of hair oil, cloth

colouring, ropes preparation, hand fan making, perfumes production and

detergent industries. Ethnomedicinal data revealed that 90 plant species

belonging to 84 genera and 37 families were used by the local community for

treatment of various ailments. The dominant growth forms of indigenous

medicinal plants were wild herbs which comprised of 66 species (73.33%),

followed by wild trees with 14 species (14.58%) and wild shrubs 10 species

(11.45%). The highest number of medicinal plant species (10 spp.) was

contributed by family Asteraceae. Plants used by the local community for the

treatment of various ailments were: 30 species used for fever, followed by

diarrheaand stimulant (09 spp; each), dysentery (08 spp; each), as anthelmintic

(07 spp.), for relief in asthma (06 spp.), in venomous snake bite (04 spp.) and

as emollient (02 spp.). Regarding indigenous medicine, the leaves are the most

preferred plant part (62.12%), followed by stems (33.17%), roots (21.66%),

seeds (17.95%), fruits (16.37%), whole plant (14.40%) and flowers (2.08%).

Qualitative analysis of secondary metabolites of selected plant species

revealed the presence of alkaloids, tannins, sugars, saponins, flavonoids,

terpenoids, cardiac glycosides, phenolics and anthraquinones. These chemicals

were mostly found at post reproductive stage. Methanolic fraction contained

more secondary metabolites as compared to chloroform and n-hexane

fractions. The results of proximate composition showed variation at two

phenological stages. The moisture contents ranged from 2.31% to 59.23% at

vegetative stage and 1.46% to 62.51% at post reproductive stage. Ash contents

ranged from 0.9% to 18.50% at vegetative stage and 2.1% to 20.0% at post

xii

reproductive stage. Crude fats ranged from 0.98% to 23.45% at vegetative

stage and 1.20% to 28.93% at post reproductive stage. Crude fiber ranged

from 0.2% to 15.11% at vegetative stage and 0.3% to 20.68% at post

reproductive stage. Protein content ranged from 2.31% to 27.56% at

vegetative stage and 4.71% to 28.56% post reproductive stage. Carbohydrates

content ranged from 28.39% to 83.53% at vegetative stage and 29.35% to

78.83% at post reproductive stage. Investigation of elemental nutrition of the

selected plant species at two phenological stages showed a decreased trend

towards maturity. Soil textural analysis showed that soil was mostly sandy

clay-loam with 7.3 to 8.1 pH and 0.3dSm-1

to 7.2dSm-1

Electrical Conductivity

(EC). Organic matter ranged from 0.4% to 7.1%. Nitrogen ranged from 0.02

% to 0.27 %. Phosphorus, Zinc, Iron and Potassium were 7 ppm to 16 ppm,

2.1 ppm to 4.4ppm, 9.4ppm to 11.5ppm and 100ppm to 180ppm respectively.

Calcium carbonate was found from 11.2% to 17.2% whileeach Ca++

and

Mg++

were in the range of 16.5 Mequ/l to 35 Mequ/l.

1

CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction to the study area

The district Nowshera lies in KhyberPakhtunkhwa Province of

Pakistan. It is located between 33o42 to 34

o 09 N latitude and 71

o 97to 72

o 15

E longitude. It is surrounded by Mardan and Charsadda districts on north,

Peshawar district in west, Swabi district on north east and Kohat district in

south. Attock district is located to the southeast (Rehman Ullah et al., 2011).

This district was a part of Afghanistan and was known as Nowkhaar Province

till it was annexed into British India via the Durand Line Agreement.

Nowshera district is divided into 47 Union Councils.

1.1.1 Area and topography

The district covers an area of about 181610 hectares (Bukhari et al.,

2012). The topography of the district is mostly piedmont plain or hilly areas

consisting of Attock Cherat ranges (Rehman Ullah et al., 2011).

1.1.2 Nature of land

Bukhari et al. (2012) reported that 37560 hectares (20.6%) of the total

land is covered by forests. A small fraction i-e 496 hectares (0.3%) of the total

land is covered by scrub vegetation. The area under agricultural use is 79054

hectares (43.3%). Some of the areas are covered by rangelands which accounts

for 46264 hectares (25.5%). Barren land covers a total area of 2710 hectares

(1.5%) and only 4897 hectares (2.7%) are covered by water bodies. Almost

10629 hectares (5.9%) of the total area is occupied by settlements of the locals

(Table-1.1).

2

Table-1.1: Land distribution of district Nowshera

S.No Nature of Land Quantity (hectares) Percentage

1 Forests 37560 20.6

2 Shrub and bushes 496 0.3

3 Range land 46264 25.5

4 Agriculture land 79054 43.3

5 Settlements 10629 5.9

6 Barren land 2710 1.5

7 Water bodies 4897 2.7

Total 181610 100

Figure: 1.1: Land distribution of district Nowshera

1.1.3 Climate, rainfall and temperature

Climate of Nowshera is semi-arid, with hot summer and cold winter.

June is considered the hottest month, with maximum temperature range of 40-

45oC, while maximum ever recorded temperature is 50

oC in 1994. Lowest

temperature that was recorded for the region is -3.1oC in 2000. The area

receives 635 mm annual rainfall (Table 1.2) of which most rainfalls takes

place from Feburary-August (Processing center, Pakistan meteorological

department, Peshawar).

20.6%

0.3%

25.5% 43.3%

5.9%

1.5% 2.7%

Forests

Shrub and bushes

Range land

Agriculture land

Settlements

Barren land

Water bodies

3

Table-1.2: Metrological data of distric Nowshera for the year 2014

Month Mean Minimum

(Temperature oC)

Mean Maximum

(Temperature oC)

Mean Precipitation

(mm)

Average Relative

Humidity (%)

January 2.9 20.7 5.2 66.5

February 6.1 20.1 40.6 71

March 10.2 22.6 119.7 86

April 15.5 30.0 54.8 55

May 20.1 34.8 16.6 50

June 24.6 41.2 27.8 45

July 26.4 37.6 48.4 71

August 25.9 37.0 61.0 63.5

September 23.7 35.5 15.0 63

October 18.1 29.9 43.2 74

November 9.0 25.5 1.2 66.5

December 3.8 20.8 0.0 68

Annual 186.3/12 = 15.52 355.7/12 = 29.64 433.5/12 = 36.12 779.5/12 = 64.95

Source: Processing center, Pakistan meteorological department, Peshawar.

1.1.4 Languages

A large majority of people speak Pushto as their mother language.

However, some people of Nowshera, particularly the residents of eastern side

are bilingual, speaking Hindko and Pushto languages. After demographic

changes due to arrival of Pushtuns, Pushto language became the local

language of the district. Urdu, being the national language of Pakistan, is

understood and even spoken with the people of other provinces.

4

Figure-1.2: Land cover map of district Nowshera

5

1.2 Phytosociology

1.2.1 History of phytosociology

On the basis of approaches with respect to development, history of

phytosociology can be divided into two periods.

Period of a physiognomic approach to vegetation (formation theory in

the 19th century)

Period of a floristic approach to vegetation (Braun-Blanquet, 1918,

1913).

The periods characterized by the physiognomic approach to vegetation

started at the beginning of the 19th century with Humboldt (1805), the great

master of plant geography. He focused his studies on plant distribution,

formation of communities and plant growth forms. Purely physiognomic terms

were created for the large-scale distribution of vegetation units or formations.

These included deserts, steppes, savana, deciduous hard-wood forests,

evergreen rain forests, etc, (Knapp, 1954; Filzer, 1956; Box, 1981). Schouw in

(1822) was the first to divide the entire Earth’s surface into plant-related

geographical provinces. He emphasized on the phenomena of plant

distribution and community formation. These scientific pioneers named here

can, however, be considered neither plant scientists nor phytosociologists in

the modern sense of these terms. Nonetheless, as already pointed out, they

were plant geographers who paid particular attention to the phenomenon of the

formation of plant communities. For the most part, they applied the term

formation as the basis for their study of vegetation. The term “formation” is

still used today when referring to less refined division of large areas of

vegetation on the earth. It no longer suffices to describe a more detailed study

of vegetation on a smaller scale. This realization was already evident at the

turn of the century, as the transition was made to attempt a more refined

differentiation between vegetation units and classifying them as objectively as

possible. In their place, plant species became more important for classification

purposes. Answering the question, which types can be found and in what

6

quantity can they be found, leads to determination of quality and quantity of

individual species in the vegetation unit. This led to the development of

modern plant sociology based on the floristic approach (Balik & Cox, 1997).

Cajander (1909) was among the founders of modern plant sociology.

He characterized the different conifer forest types, in Finland. According to

floristic and sociological principles, he already used the term character types.

On the basis of suggestions made by Flahault & Schroter (1910), the term

phytosociology was coined for the study of plant communities (Paczoski,

1896; Miyawaki, 1980).

1.2.2 Introduction to the phytosociology

Phytosociology is defined as the study of the smallest area that

provides sufficient space or combination of habitat factors for a particular

stand of a community type to develop its essential combination of species or

its characteristic composition and structure (Cain & Castro, 1959).

Vegetation may be defined as a unit which possesses characteristics in

physiognomy and structure sufficiently large enough to permit their

differentiation from other such units (Khan et al., 2010). The biological

spectrum is defined as percentage ratio of life form of plant present in any

area. It is an important physiognomic attribute that has been widely used in

vegetation studies. Life form spectrum tells us about the climate of an area and

can be predicted for particular climate, for any continent, region and altitude

(Sarmiento & Monasterio, 1983). Similarly, leaf size knowledge may help in

understanding the physiological processes of plant and plant communities

(Oosting, 1956).

Phytosociology is a sub discipline of plant ecology that describes the

co-occurrence of plant species in communities (Ewald, 2003). Vegetation and

soil characteristics are so interconnected and inter-dependent that they become

indicative of each other. A habitat under certain existing ecological conditions

would permit plants being adjusted to these conditions, thus soil-plant

relationship becomes so close that plants reveal the ecological situation of the

7

inhabited locality (Anonymous, 1991; Boggs, 2000). Vegetation diversity is

primarily determined by a combination of interacting physical and chemical

factors like water, temperature, solar radiation and air current flow velocity

(Hinterlang, 1992). The level of essential elements in plants is dependent on

geochemical characteristics of the soil and on the form of their bond with the

components of the soil. Plants obtain these elements through roots (Bin et al.,

2001).

Floristic composition and phytosociology of different forests and areas

of the world have been investigated by several workers. Dhole et al. (2013)

collected 30 weeds species from the wheat field in the Marathwada region

Indiathat belongs to 26 genera and 15 families. Most of the species (07) were

members of family Euphorbiaceae, followed by family Asteraceae (04

species), Amaranthaceae and Cyperaceae (03 species each). 02 species were

found to be in Poaceae, Solanaceae and Molluginaceae. The rest of the

families have 01 species each. Lumbres et al. (2014) conducted the study to

assess the floral composition of the forest in Philippine. A total of 78 species

belonging to 43 families were identified in this communal forest. The most

dominant species in this area was Pinus kesiya with an importance value of

64.19. Pandey & Pitman, (2003) analysed the plant diversity in preserved Sal

forest of Gorakhpur, India. A total of 208 plant species representing 165

genera and 72 families were recorded. The Sal forest was rich in family

Papilionaceae (23 species). Manhas et al. (2010) reported a total of 206

species belonging to 159 genera and 59 families from Pathankot, India. The

contribution of dicotyledons, monocotyledons and pteridophytes was 77.7%,

20.4% and 1.9%, respectively. Ipomoea was the most dominant genus.

Biological spectrum of the study site showed that therophytes (52%) were

the most dominant followed by phanerophytes (27%).

Francisco et al. (2009) made a cheaklist of Commelinaceae of Guinea,

containing 46 species. Palisota was known to be best representive genus,

having 11 species. Eleven species of Commelinaceae were recorded for the

first time in the country. Eilu et al. (2004) recorded a total of 5747 trees

belonging to 53 families and 159 genera. Number of species was highest in the

8

family Euphorbiaceae (25 species) followed by Meliaceae and Rubiaceae with

16 species each. Based on Rabinowitz's forms of rarity, 93% of the species

were geographically widespread, 47% were restricted to a single forest type,

while 41% occurred at densities of <1 individual ha-1

. Gimenez et al. (2004)

worked on the flora and biodiversity of Iberian Peninsula which has 516

vascular endemic species or subspecies with an endemicity rate of 13%. This

study dealt with species richness, originality, life forms and dispersal modes of

these plants, in relation to altitudinal and rainfall gradients. Chamaephytes

(46.08%) and hemicryptophytes (31.37%) were found in abundance, whereas

therophytes (11.96%) and phanerophytes (0.98%) were relatively rare.

In the forests of Valparai plateau 103 families with 312 species were

reported. The forests comprised of 1968 trees (144 species), 2250 lianas (60

species), and 6123 understory plants (108 species) (Muthuramet al., 2006).

Segawa and Nkuutu (2006) recorded 179 species from Lake Victotia Central

Uganda. Of these, Rubiaceae was the richest with fourteen species followed

by Euphorbiaceae (13 species), Apocynaceae (10 species) and Moraceae (9

species). Majority of the families (35) were represented by 01 species each.

Fifty eight herbaceous species, 39 lianas, 10 shrubs and 72 species of trees

were recorded. Costa et al. (2007) listed 133 species belonging to 47 families

from Caatinga in Northeast. The herbaceous/woody ratio was 1: 4. The

Raunkiaerean life-form spectrum observed was: therophytes (42.9%),

phanerophytes (26.3%), chamaephytes (15.8%), hemicryptophytes (12.8%),

and cryptophytes (2.3%).

Review on floristic listing, composition, phytosociology and ecological

characteristic of vegetation in Pakistan is given as under:

Khan & Musharaf, (2014) recognized the plant diversity in tehsil

Katlang; district Mardan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. The flora comprised

of 165 plant species belonging to 124 genera and 54 families. Asteraceae and

Poaceae were the dominant families. The biological spectrum explains that

therophytes (78 species, 47.27%) were the dominants followed by

chamaephytes (29 species, 17.58%). Microphylls (78 species, 47.27%) were

9

dominant leaf size followed by mesophylls (34 species, 20.61%). Khan &

Musharaf, (2014) studied the floristic composition and biological characteristics

of the Shahbaz Garhi, Mardan area.The flora comprised of 132 plant species

belonging to 104 genera and 47 families. Asteraceae and Poaceae were the

dominant families. The biological spectrum revealed that therophytes (63

species, 47.73%) were the dominant life form. Dominant leaf size class of plant

was microphylls (62 species, 46.97%). Barkatullah et al. (2011) studied the

phytosociological and ethnobotanical characters of Skimmia laureola. A total

of 44 different species were found in association with S. laureola in different

localities. Ethnobotanically the leaves of S. laureola were also used as cough

remedy and commercially harvested as flavoring agent in food, and in

traditional healing. The smoke of the dry leaves is used for nasal tract

clearness. It is also used for cold, fever and headache treatment.

Shah & Rozina (2013) observed phytodiversity of Dheri Baba Hill

Gohati and Peer Taab Graveyard from where a total of 72 plant species were

identified belonging to 23 families. Twelve different plant communities were

recognized. Species like Cynodon dactylon, Boerrhavia procumbens,

Calotropis procera, Cyperus rotundus, Tribulis terristris, Digera muricata

and Ziziphus mauritiana dominated these communities. The life form and leaf

size spectra were also determined in which therophytes (30%) and

chamaephytes (13%) dominated all the stands. Microphylls (42%) and

mesophylls (24%) were dominant in Dheri Baba hills while in case of Peer

Taab Graveyard microphylls (42%) and nanophylls (15%) were the dominant

species. Khan et al. (2013) studied the eco-taxanomy of family Brassicaceae

of district Mardan. Life form classes indicated 66% therophytes followed by

17% chamaephytes, 14% hemicryptophytes and 3% geophytes. Ilyas et al.

(2013) identified a total of 593 plant species that belonged to 130 families

from Swat. Among total families Poaceae contributed 65 species (10.96%),

followed by Asteraceae (44 species, 7.42%). The largest genera were:

Cyperus and Persicaria (7 species each). Sher et al. (2013) recognized 13

plant communities on the basis of importance values from Sudhan Galli Hills,

district Bagh, Azad Kashmir. Pinus-Berberis-Carex, Pinus-Sarcococa-Hedra,

10

Pinus-Sarcococa-Carex, Pinus-Vibernum-Poa and Pinus-Sarcococa-Carex

were dominant communities on the south facing slopes. Abies-Sarcococa-

Fragaria, Abies-Sarcococa-Anogromma, Abies-Sarcococa-Urochloa, Abies-

Vibernum-Fragaria, Abies-Vibernum-Galium and Abies-Vibernum-Viola

community were recorded on the north facing slopes.

Nazir et al. (2012) studied the composition and diversity of plants in

the lesser Himalayan subtropical forests of Kashmir. Pinus-Poa-Maytenus,

Myrsine-Themeda-Pinus, Colebrookia-Themeda-Dodonaea, Themeda-

Carissa-Adhatoda, Themeda-Dodonaea-Eriophorum, Carissa-Myrsine-

Themeda, Carissa-Themeda-Dodonaea, Dodonaea - Carissa – Pinus

communities were recognized. Amjad & Hameed (2012) reported life form

and leaf spectra from the plants of Basu vally, district Sakardu. They described

50 plant species that belonged to 22 families. The biological spectrum showed

that chameaphytes (26.38%) were the dominant life form of the area. It was

followed by hemicryptophytes (19.83%), nanophanerophytes (19.17%),

megaphanerophytes (17.23%) and therophytes (12.06). Leaf size spectra of

plant communities consisted of microphylls (24%), leptophylls (52%),

nanophylls (20%) and megaphylls (4%). The dominancy of chameaphytes,

leptophylls and microphylls showed that the area varied from subtropical to

alpine type. Khan et al. (2010) studied the vegetation of Thandiani forests,

district Abbottabad. 15 plant communities were recorded in the study area.

The soil of the study area was loamy clay with pH ranging from 6.5 to 8.75.

Khan & Hussain, (2013) collected 161 plant species belonging to 52

families in Tehsil Takht-e-Nasrati, Pakistan, where 25 monocotyledonous and

136 dicotyledonous species were identified. Among 52 families, the dominant

was family Poaceae with 17 species following Asteraceae and Papilionaceae

with 13 species each. Sher et al. (2011) identified 40 weed species belong to

21 families, from wheat fields of village Lahor, district Swabi. Poaceae (7 spp)

was the dominant family, followed by Brassicaceae (5 spp), Caryophyllaceae,

Asteraceae and Fabaceae (each with 4 spp). The remaining families had single

species each. Based on importance value four communities viz., Arenaria-

Anagallis-Chenopodium, Fumaria-Rumex-Chenopodium, Fumaria-

11

Chenopodium-Anagallis and Arenaria-Fumaria-Chenopodium were

recognised. The biological spectrum revealed that there were 82.5%

therophytes and 12.5% hemicryptophytes. Geophytes and chamaephytes were

represented by 01 species each. Leaf spectra comprised of microphylls

(42.5%), nanophylls (35%) and leptophylls (22.5%).

Ahmed & Qadir, (1976) reported 07 plant communities from

himalayan range of Pakistan. Sher et al. (2010) investigated economically

important plant communities in several parts of Malam Jabba valley, Swat.

They documented 90 species of ethnobotanical important plants, out of these

71 spp used as medicinal plants, 20 spp as fodder plants, 10 spp as vegetables,

14 spp as wild fruit, 18 spp as fuel wood, 09 spp for furniture and agricultural

tools, 09 spp for thatching, fencing and hedge, 04 spp for honey bee, 02 spp

for evil eyes, 02 spp have religious importance and 03 spp as poison.

Phytosociologically six plant communities were found, comprising five herbs-

shrubs-trees communities and one meadow community. Jan et al. (2010)

carried out the vegetation analysis of district Lower Dir. A total of 06 tree

species existed among which Monotheca buxifolia occurred as dominant tree

species on overall locations ranging with 62% to 100%. Olea ferruginea and

Acacia modesta were reported in four stands as a second dominant species.

Farooq et al. (2010) recognized 05 plant communities on the basis of highest

importance values in Ziarat area. These communities are Pinus-Abies-

Sophora, Pinus-Abies, Abies-Cedrus, Abies-Pinus and Pinus-Abies. All these

communities comprised economically valuable wood; firewood, medicinal and

aromatic plants. Hussain et al. (2010) carried out the phytosociology of

National Park in Northern Areas of Pakistan, Central Karakoram. It was

documented that 05 stands by trees and 08 stands by bushes were dominant.

Pinus wallichiana and Picea smithiana form a community in two sites,

associated with Juniperus excelsa.

Hadi et al. (2009) worked out the flora of Botanical Garden Azakhel,

during summer and reported 30 weed species belonging to 28 genera and 15

families. The dominant family was Poaceae (7 species) followed by

Asteraceae (5 species), Amaranthaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Euphorbiaceae,

12

Solanaceae and Verbenaceae with 2 species each. Leaf size spectra showed 4

leptophylls, 13 nanophylls, 9 microphylls, 3 mesophylls and 01 macrophyll.

Hussain et al. (2009) recorded the diversity and ecological

characteristics of weeds of wheat fields at Azakhel, district Nowshera and

investigated 62 weed species including 15 monocots and 01 pteridophyte

belonged to 24 families. Poaceae contribute maximum number of species (15

spp, 24.19%), followed by Asteraceae (8 spp, 12.90%), Brassicaceae and

Papilionaceae (each with 5 spp). Therophytes (53 spp, 85.48%) and

nanophylls (25 spp, 40.32%) were the major life form and leaf size classes.

Phenological studies showed thatduring January 95% of weeds were in

vegetative phase while during March 61 and 26% were in flowering and

fruiting stage respectively.

Phytosociology and vegetation analysis of Pakistan forests have been

reported by several other workers from time to time i.e Hussain (1969 a, b),

Hussain & Qadir (1970), Chaghtai et al. (1989), Naqvi (1976), Ahmed &

Qadir (1976), Ahmed (1976, 1988), Hussain et al.(1981), Amin & Ashfaq

(1982), Beg & Khan (1984), Qadri (1986), Hussain & Shah (1989), Ahmed et

al. (1990), Ajaib et al. (2009), Wahab et al.(2008), Ahmed et al.(2009),

Siddiqui et al.(2009), Hussain & Illahi (1991), Hussain (1984), Chaudhri

(1960), Qadir et al. (1966), Hussain & Qadir (1970), Shaukat & Qadir (1970),

Ahmed (1988), Malik & Hussain (1987), Durrani & Hussain (2005) and Khan

& Shaukat (2005). Beside these, individual and localized of some work areas

of Pakistan, need comprehensive quantitative investigations to describe

various types of forest communities and population structure. One of such area

is district Nowshera which comes under the sub-tropical dry forests (Rehman

Ullah et al., 2011)

The review showed no reference on the flora and overall

phytosociology and ethnobotany of the research area. Thus there is need to

investigate phytosociology and ethnobotany of district Nowshera.

13

1.3 Ethnobotany

1.3.1 History of ethnobotany

Harshberger (1896) defined ethnobotany as “the study of the utilitarian

relationship between human beings and vegetation in their environment,

including medicinal uses”. The concept of ethnobotany began longer before

the use of the term by Harshberger. In 77 AD, Dioscorides, the Greek surgeon

published “De Materia Medica” which was a catalogue of about 600 plants in

the Mediterranean, including information on how the Greeks consumed the

plants and when each plant was collected, especially for medicinal purposes

(Balick & Cox, 1997).

First record of plant medicine was compiled in Rigveda between 4500-

1600 BC and Ayurveda 2500-600 BC (Harshberger, 1896). In 19th century

Humboldt composed data from the new world while Captain Cook brought

back information on plants from the South Pacific. At that time botanical

gardens were introduced, such as the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Edward

Palmer collected articles and botanical specimens from people in the North

American West (Great Basin) and Mexico from 1860s to 1890s (Balick &

Cox, 1997).

1.3.2 Introduction to the ethnobotany

“Ethnobotany is the knowledge of plants usage by the native people

and their usefulness as understood to the people of a particular ethnic group,

since information concerning a particular plant varies from one ethnic group to

another” (Tor et al., 2003; Igoli et al., 2005). Many countries still depend on

plants for their economy, medicine, food, construction material, fire wood,

dyes and ornamentals purposes etc. The aim of the ethnobotanical study is to

have a better understanding of the local uses, improved use of resources, to

find new ways for transferring this knowledge to future generations and to

search for new pharmaceuticals to be used in biomedicine (Kufer et al., 2005).

Similarly ethnobotanical knowledge establishes priorities in the local

communities and assists taxonomists, ecologists, pharmacologists, watershed

14

and wild life managers in their efforts for improving the economic status of

the area (Ibrar et al., 2007).

Traditionally forests and rangelands are the main sources of medicinal

plants in many areas of Pakistan and therefore, are commonly exploited

commercially. Since these wild plants have been collected for decades, their

cultivation and ex.situ management has been neglected in the past (Beg &

Khan, 1984). The lack of knowledge about the part used and time of collection

leads to misuse of the species. Presently a number of barriers exist to the

sustainable cultivation, gathering and use of medicinal plants. These include

little understanding of sustainable management parameters and knowledge of

market requirement (Sher & Khan, 2007). Ethnobotany is a multidisciplinary

science defined as relationship between plants and people and is not restricted

to utilization of plants food, shelter, clothing etc but also use for holy

ceremonies, decoration and treatment of various diseases (Schultes, 1992).

In early times, ethnobotany research was mostly the investigation of

plants used by residents but recent ethnobotany was concerned with

enlightenment of multifarious relationships between cultures and uses of

plants, keeping in view several aspects mainly on how plants used and

observed across human cultures for instance, as food, medicines, textiles,

tools, currency, clothing, in cosmetics, dyeing, construction, literature,

divination, rituals and in social life (Acharya & Shrivastava, 2008). Long &

Wang (1994) conducted a research on thecultural and social values of

ethnobotany. To search for the uses of plants, ethnobotany becomes a major

part of the world. Modern studies of plants are an imperative fact of

ethnobotanical research; from time immemorial, individuals treated

themselves with outdated medicines and ancient remedies (Amrit, 2007;

Bourdy et al., 2008). Furthermore, it was reported by the World Health

Organization (WHO) that about 80% of the total world population depends on

traditional medicine (Marshal, 1998; Said et al., 2002; Adiaratou, 2005; Lucy,

1999).

15

Human beings have found medications for several purposes

surrounded by their locality and also implemented numerous strategies

depending upon the climate, phytogeographic and plant characteristics, as well

as upon the socio-structural typologies (Nichter, 1992).

There are variety of plants, whose leaves are reaped and are used as

fodder either fresh or stored for times of fodder shortage, such as Quercus

incana, Q. semicarpifolia and Q. glauca (Lohan et al., 1983; Bajracharya et

al., 1985). In Israel, leaves and young stems of Q. calliprinos are a major

source of food for cattles (Perevolotsky et al., 1993).

In Pakistan, maize is cultivated in abundance, as it is cheap and

appreciated fodder for animals and also has enough nutrients e.g. 1.66%

proteins, 0.34% fats and 5.48% fiber (Nazir et al., 2003). In Himachal

Pradesh, India, unavailability of fresh fodder for mulch is a main problem

(Banyal & Bhardwaj, 2003). Other plants like Helleteres isora with enough

nutrients, reaping ability, tastiness, and restoration potential are also used as

fooder (Bhatt et al., 1992).

It was observed that animals are usually selective in their needs of

fodder e.g red deers are fond of leaves while goat and sheeps prefer grasses

hence produces significant affect on the availability of fodder (Petrak, 1992;

Grunwaldt et al., 1994). Unsustainable grazing adversely affected the growth

of conifers and other broad-leaves species (Chaghtai et al., 1989).

Cline-Cole et al. (1990) & Smith (1981) stated that the oil-richand

developed countries have shifted to modern form of energies leaving behind

fuel wood and charcoal, but eventhen almost two billion people from all over

the world fulfill their energy needs by fuel wood and charcoal. In ancient

times the wood resources were more than the need but with increasing

population the need of fuel wood resource increases up to 3 to 4% per annum

(IUCN, 2001).To fulfill the need of fuel wood, about 7000 to 9000 hectares of

forest has been depleted every year while the rate of this depletion is intence

particularly in rular areas due to lack of other fuel wood reources (Ilyas,

16

2006). Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) in 1981 reported that fuel

wood is the need of both developed and under developed countries. The report

also reveals that about 2 billion people of developing countries are dependent

upon fuel wood. Regardless of domestic needs, fuel wood is used in several

industries including smithies, brick work, curing of tobacco and potteries. It

was further reported by FAO in 1984 that about 1148 million people fulfill

their domestic energy need only by consuming fuel wood. Among total

estimated population, 1052 million people belong to Asia. Arnold et al. (2003)

investigated that the consumption of fossil fuelis dominated as the major

source of energy worldwide nevertheless use of traditional fuel resources till

play an important role in fulfillment of energy needs. The worldwide biomass

fuel resources are estimated at about 100 EJ per annum (EJ= Exajoul). Hillring

(2006) identified that Europe, South East Asia and North America are the

main trade spots in wood, fuel wood and charcoal.

In Pakistan, it is reported that about 50% of domestic energy necessity

are fulfilled by fuel wood while 16% by the fossil fuels and 34% by burning

dung and crop waste (Sheikh, 1987). Among major producers of firewood,

irrigated plantation of the Punjab, riverian forest of Sindh and the foothill

scrubs are of greater importance. Per capita consumption of firewood is about

0.2m3 per annum (Hussain, 1990).

In Pakistan the diverse population of 122 million people uses forest

wood. The current shortage in wood purchases had give rise to increasing fuel

prices and higher socio-economic cost in the form of constantly eroding

woody resources. To maintain developmental level, these resources need

instant attention of the government (Sheikh, 1987; Ali & Qaiser, 1991-2004).

In some rural areas such as Ushairy valley distric Upper Dir, wood is cheap

and easily available source of fuel that is why local people mostly prefer forest

wood to fulfill their domestic energy needs (Muhammad, 2011).

Review of ethnobotanical studies studies is summarized as follows:

17

Teklay et al. (2013) stated 114 medicinal plant species belonging to

100 genera and 53 families from Kilte Awulaelo district, Tigray region of

Ethiopia. He reported that herbs were the most utilized plants, accounting for

44% of the species, followed by shrubs (29%). Leaf was the most commonly

used plant part accounting for 42.98% of the plants, followed by roots

(25.73%). Preference ranking exercise on selected plants used against

abdominal pain indicated the highest preference of people for Solanum

marginatum. Ganapthy et al. (2013) conducted an ethnobotanical survey to

document the remedies used as a hepatoprotective in Kuppam, Sathupally and

their surrounding villages of Andhra Pradesh, India. They reported that the

medicinal plants used to treat variety of diseases and disorders of major body

organs including liver as a hepatoprotective and antioxidants are Begonia

laciniata, Dendrobium ovatum and Cuscuta epithymum. Pawar (2012)

investigated 21 plant species used as traditional medicine against a variety of

ailments from Jalgaon, India. All necessary informations about plants

including mode and dosage are also provided.

Megersa et al. (2013) investigated a total of 126 medicinal plant

species, distributed in 108 genera and 56 families from Wayu Tuka district,

East Welega Zone of Oromia Regional State and West Ethiopia. Among 126

species of medicinal plants collected from the study area 86 (68%) were wild

whereas 33 (26%) were cultivated. Fabaceae came out as a leading family

with 15 medicinal species followed by Solanaceae with 08 species. Medicinal

plants reported as being used for treating human ailments were 78 (62%), 23

(18.2%) for the treatment of livestock ailments and 25 (20%) for both. The

most frequently used plant parts were leaves (43%), followed by roots

(18.5%). Crushing, which accounted for (29%) and powdering (28%) were the

widely used methods of preparation of traditional herbal medicines. Kumar et

al. (2013) studied 32 plant species of Lower Foot Hills of Himachal Pradesh

that has been used for the treatment of various oral complaints. Kumar et al.

(2009) explored the information about 71 ethno-medicinally useful plants

grown in Kishtwar, Jammu and Kashmir, India. Family name, botanical name,

local name, ethnomedicinal uses are given for each plant.

18

Lulekal et al. (2008) documented 230 plant species in Mana Angetu

district south eastern Ethiopia. The most frequently used plant parts were roots

(33.9%), followed by leaves (25.6%). Olea europaea L. sub spp cuspidate

(Wall. ex G. Don) was the most important species followed by Acacia tortilis

(Forssk.). Rasila et al. (2013) collected 24 plant species having medicinal and

toxic properties and other uses representing 16 families from Manipurstate of

India. The family Solanaceae, Asteraceae, Euphorbiaceae (3 species each) was

dominant followed by Fabaceae, Apocynaceae (2 species each) and

Ranunculaceae, Ericaceae, Rutaceae, Cactaceae, Polygonaceae, Cyperaceae,

Araceae, Sapindaceae, Caesalpinaceae, Mimosacea, and Meliaceae (1 species

each). Tardío et al. (2006) compiled a total of 419 plant species belonging to

67 families in Spain. A list of species, plant parts used localization and method

of consumption and harvesting time was documented. Among 07 different

food categories considered, green vegetables were the largest group, followed

by plants used to prepare beverages, wild fruits, and plants used for seasoning,

sweets, preservatives, and other uses. Arenas & Scarpa (2007) reported that

Chorote people used 57 plant species as a source of food, which they used to

consume in 118 different ways. A cross-cultural comparison with 04

neighboring ethnic groups reveals that one third of their plant foods are

exclusive to the Chorote people, despite the fact that they share most of

their edible plants with the other groups. Mizaraite et al. (2007) examined

the possibilities of increasing the use of wood from private forests in Lithuania

for bioenergy purposes. Potential wood fuel supply and consumption were

investigated using a literature review and analysis of statistical data. Costs of

wood chips production were calculated applying economic simulation. Okello

& Segawa (2007) carried an ethnobotanical survey in Apac district and stated

that roots were the most commonly harvested parts which have greatly

affected the regeneration of medicinal plants. It was believed that plants

collected only from the wild were effective. Though not intentional, plant

parts which are not used for medicinal purposes are sometimes destroyed in

the process of harvesting.

19

The main source of biomass fuel was homestead forests (40%). Maoe

et al. (2009) highlighted the rich plant resources and the vast wealth of

ethnobotanical information available with the various tribes of the region.

Parvaiz et al. (2013) studied the ethnobotany of medicinal plants of

district Gujrat, Punjab, Pakistan. A total of 50 plant species were identified,

that belonged to 29 families, which were being used by local inhabitants of the

study area. Zereen & Sardar, (2013) documented the ethnobotanical

knowledge of local people on wild trees in 08 districts of Central Punjab, viz.,

Vehari, Pakpattan, Lahore, Faisalabad, Nankana Sahib, Sahiwal, Sialkot and

Narowal. 48 plant species belonging to 23 families were collected, including

their utility by local people of respective districts for various purposes i.e

medicine, fodder, fuel, vegetables, fruits, timber, etc. Manzoor et al. (2013)

reported the medicinal vegetables and their role to treat different diseases. 26

vegetables belonging to 12 families were investigated for various disorders.

Ahmed et al. (2013) recognized a total of 93 plants species belonging

to 80 genera and 56 families from New Murree, Pakistan. Most plants were

used for medicinal and fodder purposes (27.93% each), followed by fuel

(16.90%), fruit (6.55%), vegetable (5.52%) and ethno-veterinary (3.79%).

Shahet al.(2013) recognized 131 plant species (2 Pteridophytes, 7 Monocots,

122 Dicots) belonging to 48 families (2 Pteridophytes, 4 Monocots, 42 Dicots)

from Makerwal and Gulla Khel. The most commonly represented families

were Amaranthaceae (9 species), Mimosaceae (8 species), Asteraceae and

Papilionaceae (7 species each); Solanaceae, Euphorbiaceae and

Scrophulariaceae (6 species each), followed by Boraginaceae, Brassicaceae,

Lamiaceae and Polygonaceae (5 species each).

Khan & Hussain, (2013) reported 161 plants belonging to 57 families

including 22 trees, 23 shrubs, 104 herbs, 9 grasses and 3 parasite species from

Tehsil Takht-e-Nasrati, district Karak, Pakistan. The locals used 118 (73.3%)

species as folk medicinal plants, 114 (70.8%) fodder species, 47

(26.7%) fuel species, 16 (9.94%) timber woods, 23 (14.3%) vegetable

species, 50 (31.06%) veterinary use plants and 90 (55.9%) honey bee species.

20

Razzaq et al. (2013) recognized 22 medicinal weeds belonging to 13 families

from district Shangla. Among these, 10 weeds were perennial, 10 annual, 01

biennial and 01 was parasitic. Ahmad et al. (2013) recognized 100

ethnomedicinal plants from Madyan valley in district Swat, Pakistan. Most of

the plants found to be diuretic, tonic, stimulant, laxative andnarcotic. Gulshan

et al. (2012) reported knowledge medicinal plants and their usage from Dera

Ghazi Khan, Punjab, Pakistan. He reported 08 species belonging to 04 (6%)

monocotyledon families and 58 species belonging to 26 (44%) dicotyledonous

families were in use for medicinal purposes. Shah & Hussain (2012) reported

the traditional uses of 82 plant species belonging to 74 genera and 42 families

from Mastuj valley Chitral. Most of the plants were used as stomachic, pain

killer and against skin diseases. Among recorded plants, 56 were herbs, 17

trees and 09 shrubs.

Sardar & Khan (2009) reported 102 plant species from tehsil

Shakargarh, district Narowal, which was being used by local inhabitants for

different purposes such as in making baskets, mats and furniture. Also used as

medicines, fuel and fodder while some species have edible fruits and

vegetables. Ajaib et al. (2010) reported 38 plant species that belonging to 25

families from district Kotli, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan, of

economics importance. The inhabitants used it for medicinal purpose, as fuel

andfodder, for shelter and also in making different agricultural tools. Most of

the shrubs were noticed having more than one ethnobotanical uses. Tareen et

al. (2010) observed that 61 species of medicinal plants belonging to 56 genera

and 34 families from Kalat and Khuzdar, Balochistan are usually used by the

local women for treatment of several diseases. Family Lamiaceae was

dominant by 09 species followed by Asteraceae (07 species), Apiaceae,

Papilionaceae, Solanaceae and Zygophyllaceae (03 species each). Qasim et al.

(2010) reported 48 wild coastal plant species used in Hub, Lasbela district,

Balochistan for 12 various purposes. Plant uses include fodder (56%),

medicine (22%), food (5%), household utensils (5%), for increasing milk

production in cattle (3%) and other uses (8%). Most frequently used species

were from Poaceae (29%) followed by Amaranthaceae and Chenopodiaceae

21

(10% each) and Mimosaceae and Convolvulaceae (6% each). Sher and Al-

Yemeni, (2011) reported 50 species of plants belonging to 33 families as

ethnobotanically important from Malam Jabba valley, district Swat.

Zaman & Hazrat (2013) reported the ethnobotanical information of

about 40 species, belonging to 26 families, from tehsil Dargai, district

Malakand Pakistan. Among these, 12 species were trees, 18 were herbs, 07

were shrubs and 02 species were climbers. Wazir et al. (2007) reported 20

medicinal halophytes found in thesurrounding of district Karak. Manan et al.

(2007) investigated 52 plant species belonging to 35 families from Upper Dir.

All species have a significant role in primary health care. Shah & Hussain

(2008a) reported 76 plants belonging to 52 families used for various purposes

from Mount Elum district Bunair. The species include 47% medicinal plants,

21% fuel wood, 9% fruit species, 19% honey bee species, 20% timber

yielding species and 4% poisonous species. Kamal et al. (2009) concluded that

50 plant species of 30 families were used medicinally and for other purposes

in district Bannu. Zahoor et al. (2009) enumerated the traditional uses of 52

plant species belonging to 45 genera and 30 families from Darra‟e Pezo

district, Lakki Marwat, Pakistan for various purposes. Out of 52 plant species,

47 were medicinal. Some of useful species are under serious threat due to

unsustainable activities. Khan et al. (2009) reported that 50 plant species are

being used locally for medicinal and other purposes in F.R. Bannu. The largest

families are Poaceae and Moraceae each with 5 species. Agaricus campestris

was the only fungus used as food. Akhtar & Begum (2009) recorded that 55

plant species belonging to 38 families which were used for more than 42

ailments in Jalala area district Mardan. Calotropis procera and Boerhavia

diffusa had multipurpose medicinal uses. The information reported was purely

based on the knowledge of local inhabitants. Taj et al. (2009) revealed that

ethnobotanically 29 plant species of 25 families were used for medicinal

purposes in Godi Khel district Karak. Hazrat et al. (2010) conducted an

ethnobotanical research in Usherai valley and recorded 50 species, belonging

to 32 families of wild herbs, shrubs and trees which were used as medicinal

plants by their habitants in the valley. Attaullah et al. (2010) identified 27

22

plant species belonging 19 families that were used in traditional health care of

Kurram River beds of district Bannu. The uses of these plants were confined

mostly to less educated and poor people. However, some plants were also used

by local herbalist (Hakims). Badshah et al. (2010) reported 41 plant species

with various local uses from Parachinar Kurram valley.

23

CHAPTER-2

MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Floristic structure and ecological characteristics

Floristic survey was conducted all over the district Nowshera from

2013- 2015 in different seasons of the year. Plants from several areas were

collected, pressed, dried, poisoned and mounted at standard size (42 x 29 cm

or 11 x 16 inches) herbarium sheets and identified with the help of Flora of

Pakistan (Nasir & Ali, 1971-1991; Ali & Qaisar, 1995-2009). A complete

floristic list was arranged alphabetically and the specimens were deposited in

the Herbarium of Department of Botany, Islamia College, Peshawar.

2.2 Biological spectra

Plants were classified into various life-form classes after Raunkiaer

(1934) and Hussain (1989) as follows:

i. Therophytes (The)

These are the annual seed bearing plants which complete their

life cycle in one growing season and during the unfavourable winter season

by means of seeds and spores.

ii. Geophytes (G)

Their perennating buds are located below the surface of soil and

include plants with deep rhizomes, bulbs, corms, tubers and may also include

hydrophytes which may be submerged, partly submerged, free-floating and

leaf-floating.

24

iii. Hemicryptophytes (Hem)

These are the herbaceous perennials in which aerial portions of the

plants die at the end of growing seasons leaving a perennating bud at or just

below the ground surface and may be covered by litter.

iv. Chamaephytes (Cha)

Their perennating buds are located close to the surface of the ground at

a height of 25cm.

v. Phanerophytes

a. Nanophanerophytes (NaP)

Their perennating buds are borne on aerial shoots at a height of 0.25 m

(25 cm) up to 2m above the ground surface.

b. Microphanerophytes (MiP)

These are shrubby plant species with perennating buds located at a

height of 2 m to 7.5m above the ground.

c. Mesophanerophytes (MeP)

These are small trees with their perennating buds located at a height of

7.5 m to 30 m above the ground surface.

d. Megaphanerophytes (MgP)

These are tall tree species whose perennating buds are located over the

height of 30 m.

2.3 Leaf size spectra

Plants were classified into various Raunkiaerian (Raunkiaer, 1934) and

quantitative leaf sizes as follows:

25

i. Leptophylls (L). Leaf area up to 25 mm2.

ii. Nanophylls (N). Leaf area from 25 to 225 mm2.

iii. Microphylls (Mic). Leaf area from 225 to 2025 mm2.

iv. Mesophylls (Mes). Leaf area from 2025 to 18225 mm2.

v. Macrophylls (Mac). Leaf area from 18225 to 164025 mm2.

vi. Megaphylls (Meg). Leaf area larger than class v.

2.4 Phenological behavior

Plants were classified into the following four Phenological classes:

i. Pre-reproductive-vegetative / seedling stage (S1).

ii. Reproductive stage / Flowering stage (S2).

iii. Reproductive stage / Flower plus fruiting stage (S3).

iv. Post reproductive stage / Dormant stage / Drying stage (S4).

2.5 Phytosociology / Vegetation structure

Phytosociological studies were carried out in 06 representative selected

sites on the basis of species composition, density, frequency, coverage,

habitations, and physiognomic contrast. Vegetation was analyzed by using 5,

10 x 10 m quadrats for trees, 10, 5 x 5 m quadrats for shrubs and 15, 1x1 m

quadrats for herbs on each site during four seasons of the year viz. autumn,

winter, spring and summer. Density, cover and frequency of each species were

measured and values were changed to relative values (Badshah, 2011). The

plant communities were established based on highest importance values

(Digiovinazzo et al., 2010).

26

2.5.1 Density

Density is the number of individuals of a species in per unit area

Density = No. of individuals of a species

Area sampled

Relative Density = Density of a species x 100

Total density of all the species

2.5.2 Frequency

Frequency is the degree of distribution of a species in a community. It

is the percentage occurence of species in an area.

Frequency = No. of quadrats in which a species occurs x100

Total number of quadrats sampled

2.5.3 Relative frequency

It is the occurrence value of a species in relation to the occurrence of

other species. It can be calculated by following formula.

Relative frequency = Frequency for a speciesx100

Total frequency value for all species

2.5.4 Cover

Cover is the vertical projection of foliage shoots/crown of a species to

the ground surface expressed as fraction or percent of a surface area.

Coverage = X value of a species

Area sampled

X value = Sum of mid-points of coverage classes of a species

Total no of quadrats

Relative Cover = Cover or basal area of a species x100

Total Cover of all species

Following six cover classes (Doubenmire, 1979) were established for

estimating plant cover. Mid points values were used for calculation.

27

Table-2.1: Six Cover Classes for establishing plant cover

Coverage classes Range of coverage % Mid points of coverage

classes %

1 0-5 2.5

2 6-25 15

3 26-50 37.5

4 51-75 62.5

5 76-95 85

6 96-100 97.5

2.5.5 Importance Value

The relative values of each parameter for species were added to get the

importance values. The community was named after the three leading species

having the highest importance values as follows:

IV = RD+RC+RF

2.5.6 Family Importance Value (FIV)

Importance value of each species in a particular family was added

together to give rise the family importance value (FIV) for the recorded

families.

2.5.7 Edaphology

During July and August of 2013 to 2015, soil samples were collected

from 0-15 cm depth from five different sites and were analyzed for elemental

composition and physio-chemical characteristics.

28

2.5.8 Soil texture

The soil texture was determined by Hydrometer method (Bouyoucos,

1936) and textural classes were determined with the help of textural triangle

(Brady, 1990).

2.5.9 Water holding capacity

Water holding capacity of soils was determined by following Hussain

(1989).

Water holding capacity = Wet weight - Dry weight x100

Dry weight

2.5.10 Calcium carbonate

Calcium carbonate was determined by acid neutralization method

(Rayan et al., 1997).

2.5.11 Nitrogen

Total Nitrogen was determined by the Kjeldahl method of Bremner &

Mulvaney (1982).

2.5.12 Phosphorus

Phosphorus was determined after Olsen and Sommers (1982).

2.5.13 Potassium

Potassium was determined by flame emission spectroscopy (Rhoades,

1982).

2.5.14 pH

Soil pH was measured in 1:5 soil water suspensions with a pH meter

(Jackson, 1962).

29

2.5.15 Electrical conductivity

Electrical conductivity (EC) of the soil was determined in 1:5 soil

water suspensions with EC meter.

2.5.16 Total soluble salts

Total soluble salts were determined by the recommended method of

AOAC (1984).

2.5.17 Carbonates and bicarbonates

Dissolved carbonates (CO3-2

) and bicarbonates (H2CO3) were

determined by titration method (Jackson, 1962) as follows:

Carbonates (Meq/liter) = Volume of acid used in solution A for CO3-2 x 2 x N x1000

Volume of Soil extract

Bicarbonates (Meq/liter) = Vol. of acid used in sol. B - Vol. used in sol. A x N x 1000


2.5.18 Chloride

Dissolved chlorides (Cl-) were determined by titrating the soil

solution extract with Silver nitrate using Potassium chromate as an indicator

(Richard, 1954).

Chlorides (Meq/liter) = ml. of AgNO3 for sample - AgNO3 for blank x 0.005 x 1000

5 ml of water

2.5.19 Calcium++

Magnesium++

Calcium++

and Magnesium++

of soil saturated extracts were determined

by titration with Ethylene diamine tetra acetate (EDTA) and disodium salt

(Versenate) after Richard (1954).

30

2.5.20 Sodium

Sodium content of soil saturated extract was determined by flame

photometer.

2.5.21 Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR)

Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) was determined after Richards (1954)

as follows:

SAR = Na+ / √Ca

+++ Mg

++/2

2.5.22 Sulphates

Sulphate (SO4-2

) was determined by precipitation as Barium sulphate

(Richards, 1954).

SO4 (Meq/liter) = mg of BaSO4 precipitate x 8.568


2.6 Ethnobotany

As with the social sciences, fieldwork in ethnobotany is profoundly

influenced by the individual interaction between the researcher and his

network of “informants" (Ashkenazi, 1997). A large number of factors

influence the nature of these relationships, including theoretical approaches,

field techniques, ethical and philosophical values, personality and innumerable

circumstantial factors. Broad studies were carried out from 2013-2015. The

area was often visited for collection of plants diversity and ethnobotany of the

flora.

2.6.1 Ethnobotanical profile

Plants were classified into various categories on the basis of their uses

in the area, local economic uses with special reference to fodder species, fuel

timber, wood and medicinal uses. The information was collected from local

423 knowledgeable elderly persons and also supplemented with personal

31

observations during the field surveys. Study covered both the rural and urban

area of district Nowshera with an area of size 181610 acres. All the available

plants of the valley were carefully collected.

2.6.2 Observations

Field observation included local methods of collection, for example

drying, processing, storage and utilization of plants. This information collected

through interaction with the local people having sufficient plant resources

helped considerably in developing a broader image of the scope of study.

2.6.3 Interviews

Comprehensive interviews were conducted with the local people and

Hakeems (experts of herbal and organic remedies) so as to obtain data

pertaining to plant uses. Information about the importance of plants was

collected from the local people by interviews and group discussions. An open

questionnaire was also designed for collecting a systematic data and

conducting field analysis. Various informations including plants value, rate of

accessibility and consumptions, extent of plants consumed as fodder and fuel

was collected from the local people.

2.6.4 Preservation of vascular plants

The plant specimens collected from research area was preserved using

naphthalene. All the plants were poisoned by naphthalene powder and pressed

in papers or using blotting papers, upon drying, the plants were fixed on

herbarium sheets of standard size i-e 41.25cm´28.75cm. Every plant

specimens were given voucher numbers with its local and botanical names,

family names, part used by the people and other necessary informations.

2.6.5 Fuel and timber wood species

Data about the ethnobotany of fuel wood and timber wood species

was collected from different areas of district Nowshera, including brick baking

(kilns owner), food seller (tandoor owner), tree sellers (tree cutter), farmers

32

and fuel wood dealers following Ogunkunle & Oladele (2004) and Badshah et

al. (2006). These respondents were selected as they were more

knowledgeable by virtue of their profession, trades and utilization. The

study was conducted during 2013 - 2015. The questionnaire sought the name

of the preferred plant and quantity utilized. They were also asked to give the

reasons as to why a particular plant species was considered best for fuel and

timber wood. Fuel wood sellers were requested to quantify their weekly

sales with reference to number of mounds (1 mound equals to 50 kg).

The tree sellers were agreed upon to quantify their weekly cutting and

removal on the number of average standard logs.

2.6.6 Fodder plants

After a general survey and preliminary discussion with the farmers and

herdsmen, 15 villages were selected. In each village personal observations and

interviews were conducted with 25 randomly selected persons and were asked

to list the plants that are mostly used as fooder.

2.6.7 Local medicinal use of plants

The information on indigenous medicinal plants was gathered from

local people, experienced elderly rural folk, traditional herbal medicine

practitioners and local herbal drug sellers. Randomly selected respondents of

different age were interviewed in local languages. Information on local names,

plant parts used, diseases cured along with recipes and mode of administration

were recorded. The plants were ranked on the basis of preferences by the

inhabitants following Hussain et al. (2006).

2.6.8 Analysis and documentation of research data

The information collected during survey of the area was examined and

documented. The data obtained from the area, about plants uses, was noted.

This information was arranged according to their local uses and was

tabularized. The inventory for various uses of the indigenous plants included

33

voucher numbers, scientific names, local/common names, family, habit and

part of the plant used.

2.7 Phytochemical screening

The selected plant extracts were screened for different phytochemicals

in methanol, chloroform, and n- hexane crude extraction by using standard

procedure (Sofowara, 1993; Trease & Evans, 1989; Aylooa et al., 2008; Ghias

Uddin et al., 2012; Rauf et al., 2012) for identification of its chemical

constituents. The qualitative phytochemical screening was carried out for the

whole plant in the Department of Botany, Islamia College Peshawar in two

phenological stages (at vegetative stage and at post reproductive stage).

2.7.1 Test for alkaloids

Each plant fraction (0.2g) was warmed with 2% H2SO4 (2.0ml) for two

minutes. The reaction mixture was filtered and then a few drops of

Dragendrof’s reagent were sprayed on the filtrate. The appearance of orange

color indicated the presence of alkaloids.

2.7.2 Test for tannins

A small quantity of each extract of selected plants was mixed with

water, heated in water bath and then filtered. A few drops of FeCl3 were added

to the filtrate. As a result of this a dark green solutuion was obtained, which

indicated the presence of tannins.

2.7.3 Test for reducing sugars (Fehling’s test)

A few drops of Fehling’s solution (A and B) were boiled in a test tube

alongwith sample solutions (0.5 g of sample in 5 ml of water). Red

precipitates were formed which indicated the presence of sugars.

34

2.7.4 Test for saponins

5 ml of distilled water was added to 0.5 g of extract in a test tube. The

solution was boiled and shaken vigorously till the formation of a stable

persistent froth. 3 drops of olive oil were added to the froth and was again

shaken vigorously till the formation of an emulsion.

2.7.5 Test for flavonoids

Dilute ammonia (5 ml) was added to a portion of an aqueous filtrate

extract. Concentrated sulphuric acid (1 ml) was also added. The yellow

coloration disappeared when the test contents stabilized. This indicated the

presence of flavonoids

2.7.6 Test for terpenoids

Concentrated sulphuric acid (3 ml) was carefully added to a test tube

containing 0.5 g of each of the extracts in 2 ml of chloroform. Reddish brown

coloration at the interface indicated the presence of terpenoids.

2.7.7 Test for cardiac glycosides (Keller-Killiyani test)

About 0.5 g of extract was diluted with 5 ml of water. In this diluted

extract 2 ml of glacial acetic acid containing one drop of ferric chloride

solution was added drop wise. This was underacted with 1 ml of concentrated

sulphuric acid. A brown ring at the interface indicated the presence of a

deoxysugar.

2.7.8 Total phenolic contents

Total phenolics of various samples were determined by the method of

Makkar et al. (1993). A sample of 0.1 ml (0.5 mg/ml) was combined with 2.8

ml of 10% Na2CO3 and 0.1 mL of 2N Folin-ciocalteu reagent. The brownish

colour indicated the presence of phenolic contents.

35

2.7.9 Test for anthraquinones

Each extract (0.5g) was boiled with 10% HCl for few minutes. The

mixture was then filtered and allowed to cool. Equal volume of CHCl3 was

added to the filtrate along with few drops of 10% NH3 and then heated. Rose-

pink color formation was obtained which indicated the presence of

anthraquinones.

36

CHAPTER-3

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Floristic composition

The floristic composition and diversity of plants of an area is the

reflection of vegetation and resources of plant species. These important

resources are badly affected by many biotic and abiotic factors like

agriculture, over grazing, cutting and natural changes. The flora of district

Nowshera comprised of 221 species which belonged to 75 families. Monocots

had the share of 35 species, dicots had 184 species and there were only 3

species of pteridophytes. Family Poaceae dominated the study area with 28

species (12.61%), followed by Asteraceae which had 22 species (9.90%).

Brassicaceae had 15 species (6.75 %), Papilionaceae had 14 species (5.85%),

Euphorbiaceae and Amaranthaceae with 8 species each (3.60%), Lamiaceae

had 9 specieswhile family Polygonaceae and Solanaceae had 6 and 5 species

each (2.25%). Moraceae and Verbenaceae were represented by 4 species each

(1.80%). Family Boraginaceae, Gerianiaceae, Mimosaceae, Plantagonaceae,

Scrophulariaceae, Zygophyllaceae, Apiaceae, Rosaceae, Caesalpinaceae,

Malvaceae and Chenopodiaceae had 3 species each (1.35%). The families

which had 0.90% share with two species each were Adiantaceae, Cyperaceae,

Linaceae, Apocynaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Cucurbitaceae,

Lythraceae, Nyctiginaceae, Oleaceae, Ranunculaceae, Capparaceae and

Rhamnaceae. The remaining 41 families shared 1 species each (0.45%). The

abundance and species distribution in this area revealed that families Poaceae

and Asteraceae were present in large number through out the research area.

Malik & Malik (2004) reported that family Poaceae was dominant in their

survey at Kotli Hills during monsoon. Sher et al. (2003) investigated that the

largest family was Lamiaceae (09 species), followed by Asteraceae, Poaceae

(each with 05 species) and Rosaceae (04 species) from Udigram. Durrani et al.

(2005) reported that family Asteraceae was the leading family in Harboi

rangeland Kalat.This occurrence in large number of these families may be

37

mainly attributed to the wide ecological amplitude of the species belonging to

these families. Results, similar to our findings, were reported by Mendez

(2005), Muthuramet al. (2000), Bahtti et al. (2001), Qureshi & Bhatti (2005,

2008 a,b) and Perveen et al. (2008). Poaceae and Asteraceae (each with 04

species) had been reported from flora of Chakwal (Hussain et al., 2009).

All the species reported from the research area were classified on the

basis of habitat. The hydrophytes were represented by 44 species (19.81%),

xerophytes by 157 species (70.72%), while 21 species (9.459%) were of

amphibious nature. The floristic list showed that herbs were 167 (75.22%),

shrubs 35 (15.76%) and trees were 20 (9.00%) in number. Durrani et al.

(2005, 2010), and Badshah et al. (2006) reported that herbaceous vegetation

was dominant from Ladha, South Waziristan, Pakistan. Sher et al. (2003) from

Udigram Swat, Hussain et al. (2005) from Ghalegay Swat, Sher & Khan

(2007) and Fazal et al. (2010) from district Haripur had reported similar

results. Gimenze et al. (2004) had reported 140 species (68.3%) of xerophytes,

46 species (22.4%) of hydrophytes and 10 amphibious species (4.8%) from

Iberian Peninsula.

Badshah et al. (2006) reported that dense vegetation was the sign of

plant diversity and high density of species in an area. Qualitative features of

vegetation of an area were indications of many factors like water availability,

temperature, soil structure etc. Important parameters of vegetations are

floristic composition, gene pool, and diversity of plant in an area (Siddiqui et

al., 2009). The ecological characteristics of plants species such as phenology,

periodicity and leaf size spectra were important for phytosociological work

(Walther, 2003).

3.1.1 Life form and seasonal variation

The area under investigation was composed of sporadic trees and scrub

vegetation in some places. Due to excessive deforestation the percentage of

trees at many places had become low. The area had the potential to support

shrub and tree vegetation, if grazing and cutting were checked and kept in

38

control (Rehman Ullah et al., 2011). Life form plays a vital role in reflecting

the external look of the flora and vegetation of an area. Many abiotic factors

influence morphology and physiology of plant life. It provides help in the

identification and ecological elucidation of plant species. This classification is

based upon the basic role of position and also the level of protection to their

perennating buds during unfavourable conditions.

Seasonal changes showed that in different seasons different life forms

were dominant. Dominancy of different plants in different seasons may be

attributed to changing environmental factors and the ecological amplitude of

plants.

Nanophanerophytes with 23 species were dominant during autumn

(10.36%) followed by microphanerophytes with 20 (9.69%) species,

geophytes with 08 (3.60%), chaemophytes with 05 and therophytes with 04

species each (2.25%), and hemicryptophytes with 03 species (1.5%).

In winter nanophanerophyte life form was dominant with 42 species

(18.91%) followed by therophytes with 31 species (14.41%),

microphanerophytess 23 species (10.36%), geophytes with 12 species

(5.40%),chamaephytes with 06 species (2.70%), and hemicryptophytes shared

04 species (1.80%).

In spring season the therophytes was dominant with 61 species

(27.47%). The therophytes dominated the area due to its short life cycle, high

ability of adaptation and probably due to high ecological amplitude (Musila et

al., 2003; Guo et al., 2009). Nanophanerophytes with 40 species (18.01%)

were next in number followed by microphanerophytes with 21 (9.45%),

geophytes with 14 (6.30%), chamaephytes with 11 species (4.95%) and

hemicryptophytes shared 7 species (3.15%). Rich species diversity was

reported in spring and summer seasons from Aghberg rangelands, and

highlands of Balochistan, the reports also stated that during spring the

therophytes were dominant, (Durrani et al., 2010; Ahmad et al., 2009) which

supported our results

39

During summer the dominant class was nanophanerophytes with 33

species (14.86%), followed by therophytes with 28 species (13.06%),

microphanerophytess with 20 species (9.09%), chaemophytes and geophytes

with 8 species each (3.60 %), while hemicryptophytes shared only 2 species

(0.90%).

Many factors, like deforestation, aridity and over grazing, added in the

removal/erosion of stratification. Only few areas, including Cherat hills,

Manglot Wild Life Park and Bahadar Baba hills at Manki Sharif were

protected and represented stratified vegetation. Batalha & Martin (2002)

investigated that in Brazil the dominant life form was phanerophytes and

hemicryptophytes. Devineau et al. (2007) from Dynow foothills (Western

Carpathians) also reported the therophytes as a dominant life form. Costa et al.

(2007) showed that therophytes were dominant followed by phanerophytes in

SouthEastern Brazil.

3.1.2 Leaf size spectra and seasonal variation

Nonophylls were dominant in the area with 94 species (42.43%)

followed by microphylls with 75 (33.78%) species, leptophylls with 32

(14.41%) species, mesophylls with 16 species (7.20%); aphyllous shared 04

species (2.25 %) to the area.

In spring maximum plants showed their appearance among which the

nanophylls were dominant with 71 species (31.98%) followed by microphylls

with 49 species (22.7%), leptophylls with 21 (9.45%) and mesophyll with 12

species (5.45 %) while aphyllous were represented by 4 species (1.80%).

In autumn the nanophylls were the leading plant with 34 species

(15.31%) followed by microphylls with 24 (10.81%), leptophylls with 12

(5.40%), mesophyll with 5 species (2.25%) and aphyllous plant shared 2

species (1.35%).

In winter the nanophylls with 41 species (18.47%) were the leading

plant followed by microphylls with 30 species (13.51%), leptophylls with 11

40

species (4.95%) mesophylls with 4 species (1.80%) and aphyllous with 3

species each (1.00%).

During summer the dominant leaf size class was microphylls with 46

species (20.72%), followed by nanophylls with 42 species (18.91%),

mesophylls with 8 species (3.60%), leptophylls with 11 species (4.95%) and

aphyllous shared 2 species (1.35%). The leaf size spectra are directly related to

the environmental conditions of a particular area. Microphylls are basically

feature of steppes, where the water easily runs off after rain and not available

for plant growth, while the nanophylls and leptophylls are related to harsh

environmental conditions (Cain & Castro, 1959; Hussain et al., 2005). Ahmad

et al. (2010) investigated large percentage of microphylls from their study

area. Batalha & Martin (2002) presented the relationship of leaf size with

environmental conditions. Maliket al. (2007) and Badshah et al. (2010)

reported that nanophylls in autumn and microphylls in summer were the

dominant leaf size class from their respective study areas thus their results

were in conformity to our findings.

41

Table 3.1: Floristic diversity and ecological characteristics

S.No. Botanical Name Habitat A W S Sm Life Form Leaf Size Lamina Habit

Pteridophyta

1. Family Adiantaceae

1 Adiantum capillus-veneris L. W + + + + G Np Dis Hb

2 Adiantum incisum Forssk. W + + + + G Np Dis Hb

2. Family Equisetaceae

3 Equisetum arvensis L. W - - + - G Ap Abs Hb

Monocotyledon Families

3. Family Arecaceae

4 Phoenix dactylifera L. W & D + + + + McP Mec Com Tr

4. Family Alliaceae

5 Allium griffithianum Boiss. D - - + - Th Np S Hb

5. Family Aspodelaceae.

6 Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. D - + - - G Lp S Hb

Continued…

42

6. Family Cypraceae

7 Cyperus rotundus L. W + + - + G Np S Hb

8 Cyperus bulbosusVahl. W + + - + G Np S Hb

7. Family Liliaceae

9 Tulipa clusiana DC. D - - + - Th Mic S Hb

8. Family Poaceae

10 Apluda mutica L. D - - - + Th Np S Hb

11 Avena sativa L. D - + - - Th Np S Hb

12 Aristida monantha Michx. D + + + - Th Np S Hb

13 Arundo donax L. W + + + + G Mp S Hb

14 Bromus pectinatus Thunb. D - - + - Th Mic S Hb

15 Chrysopogon gryllus (L.) Trin. D - - + + NP Mic S Hb

16 Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Jones) Schult. D - - + - H Np S Hb

Continued…

43

17 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. D&W + + + + H Lp S Hb

18 Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk.) Stapf D&W - + - - H Np S Hb

19 Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stapf. D&W + - + - H Np S Hb

20 Eragrostis ciliaris (L.) R.Br. W - - + - Th Mic S Hb

21 Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. D - - - + Th Mic S Hb

22 Echinochloa colona (L.) Link D - - - + Th Np S Hb

23 Enneapogon persicus Boiss. D - - + + Th Mic S Hb

24 Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. W + - + - G Lp S Hb

25 Lolium temulentum L. W - + + - NP Np S Hb

26 Miscanthus nepalensis (Trin.) Hack. D - - - + Th Mic S Hb

27 Pennisetum orientale Rich. D - - + - Th Np S Hb

28 Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex Steud. W + - + + Th Mec S Hb

29 Poa annua L. W - + + - Th Lp S Hb

Continued…

44

30 P. infirma Kunth W - - - + Ch Lp S Hb

31 Polypogon monspeliensis (L.) Desf. W - - + - Ch Mic S Hb

32 Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. & Schult. D - - + - Th Mic S Hb

33 S. viridis (L.) P.Beauv. D - - + - Th Mic S Hb

34 Sorghum halepense (Linn) Bres. D - - - + Th Mic S Hb

35 Saccharum griffithii Munro ex Boiss. D - - + + NP Np S Hb

36 S. spontaneum Linn. W + + + + G Mec S Hb

37 Tetrapogon villosus Desf. D - - - + Th Lp S Hb

Dicotyledons Families

9. Family Acanthaceae

38 Justicia adhatoda L. D + + + + NP Lp S Sb

10. Family Amaranthaceae

39 Achyranthes aspera L. D + - - - Th Np S Hb

40 Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br. Ex DC. D - - + - Th Mic S Hb

Continued…

45

41 A. pungens Kunth. D - - - + Th Mic S Hb

42 Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Juss. D + + + Ch Lp S Hb

43 Amaranthus viridis L. D + - - - Th Np S Hb

44 Celosia argentea L. D - + + - NP Lp S Hb

45 Digera muricata (L.) Mart. D&W - - - + Th Mic S Hb

46 Pupalia lappacea Linn. D - - - + Th Mic S Hb

11. Family Apiaceae

47 Eryngium coeruleum M. Bieb. D - - - + Th Np Dis Hb

48 Ferula jaeschkeana Vatke. D&W - + + - NP Mic Dis Hb

49 Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC. D - - + - Th Np S Hb

12. Family Apocynaceae

50 Nerium oleander Linn. D&W + + + + NP Mic S Sb

51 Rhazya stricta Decne. D + + + + Ch Np S Sb

13. Family Asclepiadaceae

52 Calotropis procera Aiton. D + + + + NP Mec S Sb

Continued…

46

53 Periploca aphylla Decne. D + + + + Ch Ap Abs Sb

14. Family Asparagaceae

54 Asparagus asiaticus L. D + + + + G Np S Hb

15. Family Asteraceae

55 Artemisia vulgaris L. W - - + + NP Np Dis Hb

56 A. scoparia L. W - - + + NP Np Dis Hb

57 Ageratum conyzoidesL. D - - - + Th Mic S Hb

58 Bidens tripartite L. W&D - - + - Th Np S Hb

59 Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist. D - - - + Th Np S Hb

60 Calendula arvensis L. W - - + - Th Np S Hb

61 Carthamus oxycantha M.B TH Mie W&D - - + - Th Mic S Hb

62 Cirsium arvense L. Scop. D - - - + Th Mic S Hb

63 Cichorium intybus Linn. W&D - + + - NP Mic S Hb

Continued…

http://www.tropicos.org/Name/2700026?projectid=32

47

64 Dittrichia graveolens (L.) Greuter D - - - + Th Np S Hb

65 Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. W + - + - G Np S Hb

66 Lactuca serriola L. D - - + + Th Mec Dis Hb

67 L. dissecta D. Don D - - + - Th Mic S Hb

68 Parthenium hysterophorus L. D&W + - + + Mcp Mic S Hb

69 Phagnalon niveum Edgew. D - - + - Th Lp S Hb

70 Silybum marianum Gaertn. D - - + - Th Mec Dis Hb

71 Serratula pallida DC. D&W - - - + Th Mic S Hb

72 Saussurea heteromalla (De. Don) Hand. D - - + + Th Mic S Hb

73 Sonchus asper (L.) Hill W - - - + Th Mec Dis Hb

74 Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber. W - - - + Th Mic S Hb

75 Tagetes minuta L D - - + + NP Np Dis Hb

76 Xanthium strumarium L. D - - + - Th Np S Hb

Continued…

48

16. Family Berberidaceae

77 Berberis lycium Royle. D + + + + NP Np S Sb

17. Family Brassicaceae

78 Alyssum desertorum Stapf. D - - + - Th Lp S Hb

79 Cardaria draba (L.) Desv. D - - + + NP Mic S Hb

80 Coronopus didymus (L.) Smith W + + - - Th Mic Dis Hb

81 Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik D&W - - + - Th Lp S Hb

82 Eruca sativa Mill. W - + + - NP Mic S Hb

83 Farsetia jacquemontii Hook.f. & Thomson D + - - - Th Lp S Hb

84 Lepidium sativum Linn. D - - - + Th Np S Hb

85 L. ruderale L. D - - - + Th Np S Hb

86 Malcolmia africana (L.) R. Br. D - - + - Th Np S Hb

87 Microsisymbrium O.E. Schulz. D - - + - Th Mic Dis Hb

Continued…

49

88 Nasturtium officinale R.Br. W - - + - Th Np S Hb

89 Persicaria glabra (Willd.) M. Gomez W - - + + NP Mic S Hb

90 Rorippa palustris (L.) Besser. D - - + - Th Np S Hb

91 Sisymbrium irio L. D - - + + Th Np Dis Hb

92 Torularia afghanica (Gilli) Hedge D - - + - Th Mic Dis Hb

18. Family Boraginaceae

93 Arnebia hispidissima (Sieber ex Lehm.) A. DC. D - - + - Th Np S Hb

94 Heliotropium europaeum L. D - - + - Th Mp S Hb

95 Lithospermum arvense L. D - - + - Th Np S Hb

19. Family Buddlejaceae

96 Buddleja crispa Benth. D + + + + NP Np S Sb

20. Family Cactaceae

97 Opuntia dillenii Haw. D + + + + NP Np Abs Sb

Continued…

http://www.tropicos.org/Name/4100243?projectid=32

50

21. Family Caesalpinaceae

98 Parkinsonia aculeataL. D + + + + NP Np Com Sb

99 Cassia occidentalis hort. ex Steud. D + + + + McP Np S Sb

100 Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit. D + + + + McP Mic Comp Tr

22. Family Cannabinaceae

101 Cannabis sativa L. W&D + + + + McP Np S Hb

23. Family Capparaceae

102 Capparis spinosa L. D + + + + McP Mic S Sb

103 C.decidua (Forssk.) Edgew. D + + + + NP Ap S Sb

24. Family Caprifoliaceae

104 Lonicera griffithii Hook. f. &Thoms D&W + + + + McP Mic S Sb

25. Family Caryophyllaceae

105 Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke. W - - + - Th Np S Hb

Continued…

http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=5&taxon_id=10159

51

106 Stellaria media L. W - - + - Th Np Dis Hb

26. Family Celastraceae

107 Maytenus royleanus Wall. Ex Lawson. D - + + + NP Mic Com Sb

27. Family Chenopodiaceae

108 Chenopodium album L. D - + + - Th Np S Hb

109 C. ambrosioides L. W - - + - Th Lp S Hb

110 C. murale L. D + - - - Th Lp S Hb

28. Family Convolvulaceae

111 Convolvulus arvensis L. D + + - - Th Np S Hb

29. Family Cornaceae

112 Cornus macrophylla Wall. Ex Roxb. D + + + + McP Mic S Tr

30. Family Crassulaceae

113 Sedum hispanicum L. D - - + - Th Lp S Hb

Continued…

52

31. Family Cucurbitaceae

114 Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. D + - - - Th Mic Dis Hb

115 Cucumis melo var agretis (Naud.) Grebensc. D - - - + Th Mic S Hb

32. Family Cuscutaceae

116 Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. D + + + + Par Ap Abs Ps

33. Family Euphorbiaceae

117 Chrozophora tinctoria (L.) Raf. D - - - + Th Mic S Hb

118 Euphorbia granulata Forssk. D + - - - H Lp S Hb

119 E. pilulifera L. D - - + - Th Np S Hb

120 E. helioscopia L. D - - + - Th Np S Hb

121 E. prostrata L. D + - + - Th Np S Hb

122 E. heterophylla L. D - - - + Th Mic S Hb

123 E. pepulus L. D - - + + Th Lp S Hb

Continued…

53

124 Ricinus communis L. D - - + + Ch Mic S Sb

34. Family Fumariaceae

125 Fumaria indica (Hausskn.) Pugsley. D - + - - Th Np Dis Hb

35. Family Geraniaceae

126 Erodium ciconium L. D - - + - Th Mic Dis Hb

127 Geranium rotundifolium L. D - - + - Th Mic Dis Hb

128 G. malacoides L. D - - + - Th Mic Dis Hb

36. Family Hypericaceae

129 Hypericum perforatum L. D - + - - Ch Np S Hb

37. Family Lamiaceae

130 Ajuga bracteosa Wall.ex Benth. D - + + + Th Mic S Hb

131 Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze. W&D - + + - NP Mic S Hb

132 Caryopteris odorata (D. Don) B.L. Rob. D + + + + NP Mp S Hb

Continued…

54

133 Isodon rugosus (Wall ex Benth) D + + + + NP Np S Sb

134 Leucas cephalotes (Roth) Spreng. D - - + + Ch Mic S Hb

135 Mentha longifolia L. W - + + - G Np S Hb

136 M. spicata L. W - + + - G Np S Hb

137 Rydingia limbata (Benth.) Scheen & V.A.Albert D + + + + NP Np S Sb

138 Salvia moorcroftiana Wall.ex Benth. D - - + + Th Mic S Hb

38. Family Linaceae

139 Linum corymbulosum Rchb. D - - + - Th Np S Hb

39. Family Lythraceae

140 Ammannia auriculata Wild. D - - + + NP Mic S Hb

141 A. baccifera L D + + + + Ch Np S Hb

40. Family Malvaceae

142 Abutilon bidentatum Hochst. ex A.Rich. D + + + + Ch Np S Hb

Continued…

55

143 Malva neglecta Wallr. D - + + + Th Mic S Hb

144 Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke. D - - + - H Np S Hb

41. Family Meliaceae

145 Melia azedarach L. D + + + + McP Np Com Tr

42. Family Mimosaceae

146 Acacia modesta Wall. D + + + + McP Lp Com Tr

147 A. nilotica (L.)Wild. ex Delile D + + + + McP Lp Com Tr

148 Prosopis juliflora Swartz. D + + + + McP Lp Com Sb

43. Family Moraceae

149 Broussonetia papyrifera Vent. D + + + + McP Mic S Tr

150 Ficus carica L. D + + + + NP Mic S Tr

151 Morus alba L. D + + + + NP Mic S Tr

152 M. nigra L. D + + + + McP Mic S Tr

Continued…

56

44. Family Myrsinaceae

153 Myrsine africana L. D + + + + NP Np S Sb

45. Family Myrtaceae

154 Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. D + + + + McP Np S Tr

46. Family Nyctiginaceae

155 Boerhavia diffusa L. D - + - - H Np S Hb

156 B. procumbens Banks ex Roxb D + - - - H Np S Tr

47. Family Oleaceae

157 Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata (Wall. & G.Don)

Cif.

D + + + + McP Mic S Tr

158 O. ferruginea Wall. ex G. Aitch. D + + + + McP Mic S Tr

48. Family Oxalidaceae

159 Oxalis corniculata L. W - - + + Th Np Com Hb

49. Family Papaveraceae

160 Papaver pavoninum Schrenk. D - - + - Th Np Com Hb

Continued…

57

50. Family Papilionaceae

161 Alhagi maurorum Medic. D - - - + H Lp S Sb

162 Astragalus amherstianusBenth D - - - + Th Np Com Hb

163 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. W&D + + + + McP Np Com Tr

164 Indigofera linifolia (Linn.f.) Retz D - - + - Th Np S Hb

165 Lathyrus aphaca L. W + - - - Th Np Com Hb

166 Medicago sativa L. D - - + - Th Np Com Hb

167 M. laciniata (L.) Mill. D - + + - Th Np Com Hb

168 Trifolium alexandrinum L. W - + + - Th Np Com Hb

169 T. repens L. W&D - + + - Th Np Com Hb

170 Trigonella incisa Benth. D - - + - Th Np Com Hb

171 Vicia monantha Retz. D - - + - Th Np Com Hb

172 V. sativa L. D - - + - Th Np Com Hb

Continued…

58

173 Lotus corniculatus L. D - - + - Th Lp S Hb

174 Oxytropis campestris (L.) DC. D - - + - Th Np S Hb

51. Family Plantaginaceae

175 Misopates orontium (L.) Raf. D - - + - Th Lp S Hb

176 Plantago lanceolata L. W - - + + Th Np S Hb

177 P. major L. W - - + + Th Mp S Hb

52. Family Polygalaceae

178 Polygala abyssinica R. Br. ex Fresen. D - - + - Th Lp S Hb

53. Family Polygonaceae

179 Bistorta amplexicaulis (D. Don) Green W + + + + G Mec S Hb

180 Polygonum mucolosa L. W - - + + NP Mic S Hb

181 P. aviculer L. W - - + - Ch Mic S Hb

182 P. plebeium R. Br. D - - + + G Mec S Hb

183 Rumex hestatus L. W - - + - NP Mec S Hb

Continued…

59

184 R. dentatus L. W - - + - G Mec S Hb

54. Family Primulaceae

185 Anagallis arvensis L. W - + - - Th Np S Hb

55. Family Ranunculaceae

186 Delphinium kohatense Munz D - - - + Th Mec Dis Hb

187 Ranunculus laetus Wall. ex Royle. W - - + + G Mic Dis Sb

56. Family Rhamnaceae

188 Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. D + + + + McP Np S Sb

189 Z. nummularia Burm. f. D + + + + NP Np S Tr

57. Family Rosaceae

190 Cotoneaster microphyllsus Wall. Ex Lindl. D + + + + NP Np S Sb

191 Rubus fruticosus L. D&W + + + + Mcp Mic Comp Sb

192 Spiraea corymbosa Raff. D + + + + NP Np S Sb

Continued…

60

58. Family Rutaceae

193 Zanthoxylum armatum DC. D + + + + Mcp Mic S Sb

59. Family Rubiaceae

194 Galium tricornutum Dandy. D - - + - Th Lp S Hb

60. Family Salicaceae

195 Populus nigra L. D + + + + Mcp Mec S Tr

61. Family Sapindaceae

196 Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. D + + + + NP Np S Sb

62. Family Sapotaceae

197 Monotheca buxifolia (Falc.) A.DC D + + + + NP Np S Sb

63. Family Scrophulariaceae

198 Kickxia ramosissima (Wall.) Janch. D - - + - Th Np S Hb

199 Veronica anagallis-aquatica L. W - - + - Th Np Dis Hb

200 Verbascum thapsus L. D - - + - Th Mec S Hb

Continued…

61

64. Family Simarubaceae

201 Ailanthus altissima (Mill) Swingle D + + + + McP Mic Com Tr

65. Family Solanaceae

202 Datura innoxia Mill.NP Mes D - - + - Ch Mic S Hb

203 Solanum nigrum var. nigrum L. D - - + + H Np S Hb

204 S. surattense Burm. f. W&D - - + - Ch Mic S Hb

205 Withania coagulans (Stocks) Dunal. D + + + + Ch Mic S Sb

206 W. somnifera (L.) Dunal. D - - + + McP Lp S Sb

66. Family Tamaricaceae

207 Tamarix dioica Roxb. ex Roth. W + + + + McP Np S Tr

67. Family Thymelaecae

208 Daphne mucronata L. D + + + + NP Mic S Sb

68. Family Tiliaceae

209 Corchorus tridens L. D + - - + Ch Mic S Hb

Continued…

62

69. Family Ulmaceae

210 Celtis eriocarpa Decne. D + + + + NP Np S Tr

70. Family Utricaceae

211 Debregeasia salicifolia (D.Don) D - - + - Th Mec S Sb

71. Family Valerianaceae

212 Valeriana wallichii DC. D - - + - Th Mec S Hb

72. Family Verbenaceae

213 Lantana camara L. D + + + + NP Mic S Sb

214 Phyla nodiflora L. W - - + + Th Lp S Hb

215 Verbena officinalis L. D + - + + Th Np Dis Hb

216 Vitex negundo L. W&D + + + + NP Mic S Sb

73. Family Violaceae

217 Viola stocksii Boiss. D - - + - Th Lp S Hb

Continued…

63

74. Family Vitaceae

218 Vitis jacquemontii Parker. D + + + + NP Mic S Sb

75. Family Zygophyllaceae

Continued…

219 Fagonia cretica L. D + + + - H Lp S Hb

220 Peganum harmala L. D - - + - H Lp Dis Hb

221 Tribulus terrestris L. D + - - + H Lp Com Hb

Key:

Habitat Habit Life Form Leaf Size Lamina

D = Dry

W= Wet

Hb = Herb

Sb = Shrub

Tr = Tree

Th = Therophyte

H = Haemicryptophyte

Ch = Chamaephyte

G = Geophyte

NP = Nanophanerophytes

Mcp= Microphanerophytes

Par = Parasite

Leptophyll = Lp

Nanophyll = Np

Microphyll = Mic

Mesophyll = Mec

Aphyllous = Ap

Sim = Simple

Dis = Dissected

Com = Compound

Abs = Absent

64

Figure-3.1: Floristic list of district Nowshera

65

Table-3.2: Summary of ecological characteristics of plants

S.No. Ecological characteristics No Percentage

1. Flora

i. Total species 221

Ii. Family 75

iii. Genera 196

2. Seasonality/Aspect

i. Autumn 83 37.837

ii. Winter 89 40.540

iii. Spring 172 77.927

iv. Summer 119 54.054

3. Habitat types

i. Wet 45 19.819

ii. Dry 155 70.720

iii. Both 21 9.459

4. Lamina shape

i. Simple 170 76.576

ii. Compound 23 10.360

iii. Absent 04 2.252

iv. Dissected 24 10.810

5. Life form

i. Therophytes 109 50.1

ii. Hemicryptophytes 13 5.855

iii. Chamaephytes 15 6.756

Continued…

66

iv. Geophytes 17 7.657

v. Nanophanerophytes 41 17.117

vi. Microphanerophytes 25 10.810

vii. Parasites 01 0.450

6. Leaf size spectra

i. Leptophylls 32 14.41

ii. Nanophylls 94 42.34

iii. Microphylls 75 33.78

iv. Mesophylls 16 7.20

v. Aphyllous 04 2.25

3.2 Phenological behavior

Seasonal variation is very important for the development of plant body

and different events which are related to plant life cycle such as opening of

buds, flowering or leaf drop in autumn (Pott, 2011). Phenological

phenomenon depends on the environmental conditions. The physical stature of

plant is affected by changes in environmental conditions. Each plant species

shows different phenological activity under varied climatic conditions.

Flowering occurs during favourable condition in different seasons. In

our research area, March-May was the first flowering spell, in which 129

plants flowered (Table-3.3). The second flowering period was noticed from

June to September in which 68 species started reproduction. Last flowering

spell started from the month of December till end of February and was

represented by 16 species.

The species changed their phenology, during different seasons of the

year. Zhang et al. (2009) reported that warmth in winter generally makes

spring like phenology.

67

There were 16 plants species which were bloomed from December to

February (Table-3.5). The blooming of the plants was on peak in the month of

March where 53 species were bloomed. Our survey was not in conformity

with Malik et al. (2007) who reported that July and August were the months

where majority of the plants produced flowers. The apparent variations in

phenology may be attributed to the changes in the locality, accompanied by

variations in environmental factors. The percentage of flowering was 48

(21.62%), 28 (12.61%), 31 (13.96%), 24 (10.81%), 11 (4.95%), 02 (0.90%)

for the month of April, May, June, July, August and September respectively

where as it was 03 (1.35%), 01 (0.45%), 07 (3.15%), 05 (2.25%) and 04 (1.8

%) for the month of October, November, December, January and February

respectively. Generally the flowering capabilities of species decreased from

spring to winter seasons. During rainy and at the beginning of spring season

flowering and other events of plants are on peak in semi-arid region (Qadir,

1986) which are related to our report. In our findings mild seasons had

maximum flowering. Golluscio et al. (2005) presented that in autumn–winter,

the grasses had high phenological activity than other plants groups, which are

the favourable seasons for their collection at vegetative and reproductive

stage. In our study and survey many of the grasses were bloomed in the early

winter.

It was noticed that 119 of the plants species (53.60%) were in fruiting

stage during April to June, 50 species (22.52%) were noticed from August to

October, while the remaining 47 species (21.17%) produced their fruit in

different months of the year. In April maximum number of species (51

species, 22.97%) produced fruits. The number of plants in fruiting stage in

different months of a year was 41species (18.46%) in May followed by 27

species (12.16%) in June, 28 species (12.61%) in July and August each, 17

species (7.65%) in September, 07 species (3.15%) in February, 05 species

(2.25%) in October, 04 species (1.80%) each in January and March and 02

(0.90%) each species in November and December.

Whenever the conditions became favourable, the plants showed

vigorous vegetative growth. A high number of plant species i.e. 141 species

68

(63.51%) were present in their vegetative phase especially in the month of

February to May. A large number of species started their fair vegetative

growth in this period mainly because of onset of suitable environmental

conditions.

A report from South America stated that beginning of fruiting stage

occurred at the end of April and starting of May (Morellato, 2003). Van et al.

(2006) showed that these periods (April-May) had a positive effect on seed

germination. In our report annual grasses produced seeds and fruits in the

month of December. Their phenological behaviour provided a detail about

their growth. Jadeja & Nakar (2010) noticed that activity of fruit was high in

the month of December. During this period 50% species were reported to be in

fruiting. The duration of fruit maturation, and its ripening was longest, while

the duration of leaves development was short. A seasonal change is the cause

of fruiting and flowering in many species. It is related to the hypothesis that

changes and variation in seasons reduce the evolution of reproduction

phenologies (Zimmerman et al., 2007).

Our result is in conformity with the survey of Osada et al. (2006) who

reported that the growth of flowering and fruiting is particularly abundant in

the month of April and May. Beside these two months, the rest of the months

were considered as dormant phase for many plant species in the study area. In

the 1st dormant spell i.e. from October – December majority of species were

dormant. While the 2nd

period of dormancy started from June to August. The

results were in accordance to the work of Jadeja & Nakar (2010) who

presented that in the month of January leaf fall occurred in most species. New

leaves were formed before monsoon particularly in the month of February and

March.

Phenology of plants is related to biotic and climatic factors. In most of

the cases environmental conditions determined the most suitable period for the

growth and change in phenology of plants (Saima et al., 2010). During this

survey, in the month of October, it was observed that leaf fall started in

deciduous trees and shrubs mainly because of the onset of autumn season and

gradual decrease in temperature.

69

Table-3.3: Phenological behavior of plants during 2013

S.No. Species Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Herbs

1 Abutilon bidentatum Hochst. ex

A.Rich. PRe - - - - Veg - - Fl - Fr -

2 Achyranthes aspera L. - - - - - Veg Fl - - Fr - PRe

3 Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Juss. - - - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - -

4 Ageratum conyzoides L. - - - - - Veg Fl - - Fr PRe -

5 Ajuga bracteosa Wall.ex Benth. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -

6 Allium griffithianum Boiss. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -

7 Alternanthera pungens Kunth. - - - - Veg Fl Fru PRe - - - -

8 A. sessilis (L.) R. Br. ex DC. - - - - Veg Fl - Fr - PRe - -

9 Alyssum desertorum Stapf. - Veg Fl Fr - Pre - - - - - -

10 Amaranthus viridis L. - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - -

Continued…

70

11 Ammannia auriculata Wild. - - - - Veg Fl Fr - - PRe - -

12 A. baccifera L. - - - - Veg Fl Fr - - PRe - -

13 Anagallis arvensis L. - - - Veg Fl Fr - - - - PRe -

14 Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze. Fl - Fr PRe - - - - - - - Veg

15 Apluda mutica L. - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -

16 Aristida monantha Michx Fr PRe - - - - - - - - Veg Fl

17 Arnebia hispidissima (Sieber ex

Lehm.) A. DC. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -

18 Artemisia scoparia L. - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - - -

19 A. vulgaris L. - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - - -

20 Arundo donax L. - - - - Veg - Fl - Fr - PRe -

21 Asparagus asiaticus L. - - - - - Veg - Fl Fr Fl - -

22 Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. Fr PRe - - - - - - - - Veg Fl

23 Astragalus amherstianus Benth. - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - -

Continued…

71

24 Avena sativa L. - - Fl Fr - Pre - - - - Veg -

25 Bidens tripartite L. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -

26 Bistorta amplexicaulis (D. Don)

Green - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - -

27 Boerhavia diffusa L. - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - -

28 Bromus pectinatus Thunb. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -

29 Calendula arvensis L. - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - -

30 Cannabis sativa L. - - - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - -

31 Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medik - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -

32 Cardaria draba (L.) Desv. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -

33 Carthamus oxycantha M.B TH Mie. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -

34 Caryopteris odorata (D. Don) B.L.

Rob. Fr PRe - - - - - - - Veg - Fl

35 Celosia argentea L - Fr PRe - - - - - - - Veg Fl

36 Chenopodium album L. - - Fl Fr - - PRe - - - - Veg

Continued…

72

37 C. ambrosioides L. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -

38 C. murale L. - - Fl Fr - - PRe - - - - -

39 Chrozophora tinctoria (L.) Raf. - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -

40 Chrysopogon gryllus (L.) Trin. - - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - -

41 Cichorium intybus Linn. - - - Fl Fr Pre - - - - - Veg

42 Cirsium arvense L. Scop. - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -

43 Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. - - - - - - Veg Fl Fr - PRe -

44 Convolvulus arvensis L. - - Fl Fr - - PRe - - - - -

45 Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist - - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - -

46 Corchorus tridens L. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -

47 Coronopus didymus (L.) Smith. Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -

48 Cucumis melo var agrestis (Naud.)

Grebensc. - - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - -

49 Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Jones)

Schult. - - - Veg Fl Fr - PRe - - - -

Continued…

73

50 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. - - Fl Fr - Pre - - - - - -

51 Cyperus bulbosus Vahl - - - - - - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe

52 C. rotundus L. - Fr - - - - PRe - - Veg - Fl

53 Datura innoxia Mill.NP Mes. - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - -

54 Delphinium kohatense Munz. - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - -

55 Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Stap.f. - - - - - Fl - Fr - - - PRe

56 Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk.)

Stapf. Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - - - Veg

57 Digera muricata (L.) Mart. - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -

58 Dittrichia graveolens (L.) Greuter. - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -

59 Echinochloa colona (L.) Link. - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -

60 Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. - Fr - - - - - - - Veg - Fl

61 Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - -

62 Enneapogon persicus Boiss. - - Veg Fl - - Fr PRe - - - -

Continued…

74

63 Equisetum arvensis L. - - - Fr - - PRe - - - - -

64 Eragrostis ciliaris (L.) R.Br. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -

65 Erodium ciconium L. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -

66 Eruca sativa Mill. Veg - - - Fl - - - Fr - - PRe

67 Eryngium coeruleum M. Bieb - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -

68 Euphorbia granulata Forssk. - - - - Veg - Fl - Fr PRe - -

69 E. helioscopia L. - - Fl Fr - Pre - - - - - Veg

70 E. heterophylla L. - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -

71 E. pilulifera L. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -

72 E. pepulus L. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -

73 E. prostrata L. - - - - Veg - Fl - Fr PRe - -

74 Fagonia cretica L. - - - - - Fl Fr PRe - - Veg -

75 Farsetia jacquemontii Hook.f. &

Thomson. Fr PRe - - - - - - - - Veg Fl

Continued…

75

76 Ferula jaeschkeana Vatke. - Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - - Veg

77 Fumaria indica (Hausskn.) Pugsley - Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - Veg -

78 Galium tricornutum Dandy. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -

79 Geranium malacoides L. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -

80 G. rotundifolium L. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -

81 Heliotropium europaeum L. - - Fl Fr - - PRe - - - Veg -

82 Hypericum perforatum L. - - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - - -

83 Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. - - - Veg Fl - - Fr - - PRe -

84 Indigofera linifolia (Linn.f.) Retz. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -

85 Kickxia ramosissima (Wall.) Janch. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -

86 Lactuca dissecta D. Don - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -

87 L. serriola L. - - - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - -

88 Lathyrus aphaca L. - - Fl Fr - - PRe - - - - Veg

89 Lepidium ruderale L. - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -

Continued…

76

90 L. sativum Linn. - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -

91 Leucas cephalotes (Roth) Spreng - - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - -

92 Linum corymbulosum Rchb. - Veg Fl Fr Pre - - - - - - -

93 Lithospermum arvense L. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -

94 Lolium temulentum L. Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - - Veg -

95 Lotus corniculatus L. - Veg - - Fl - Fr - - PRe - -

96 Malcolmia africana (L.) R. Br. - Veg - - Fl - - Fr - PRe - -

97 Malva neglecta Wallr. - - Fl Fr - - PRe - - - - Veg

98 Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.)

Garcke - - Fl Fr - - PRe - - - - Veg

99 Medicago laciniata (L.) Mill. - - Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - Veg

100 M. sativa L. - - Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - Veg

101 Mentha longifolia L. Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -

102 M. spicata L. - - - - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe -

Continued…

77

103 Microsisymbrium O.E. Schulz - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -

104 Miscanthus nepalensis (Trin.) Hack. - - - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - -

105 Misopates orontium (L.) Raf. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -

106 Nasturtium officinale R.Br. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -

107 Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC - - Veg Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -

108 Oxalis corniculata L. - - Veg - - - Fl Fr - PRe - -

109 Oxytropis campestris (L.) DC. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -

110 Papaver pavoninum Schrenk. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -

111 Parthenium hysterophorus L. - Veg - - Fl - Fr - PRe - - -

112 Peganum harmala L. - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - - -

113 Pennisetum orientale Rich. - - - Veg Fl Fr - PRe - - - -

114 Persicaria glabra (Willd.) M.

Gomez - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -

115 Phagnalon niveum Edgew. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -

Continued…

78

116 Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex

Steud. - - Fl Fr - Pre - - - - Veg -

117 Phyla nodiflora L. - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - - -

118 Plantago lanceolata L. - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - - -

119 P. major L. - - Veg Fl Fr - PRe - - - - -

120 Poa annua L. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -

121 P. infirma H. B. K. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -

122 Polygala abyssinica R. Br. ex

Fresen. - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - - - -

123 Polygonum aviculare L. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -

124 P. mucolosa L. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -

125 P. plebeium R. Br. - Fr - - - - PRe - - - Veg Fl

126 P. monspeliensis (L.) Desf. - - Fl Fr - Pre - - - - - Veg

127 Pupalia lappacea (Linn.) - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - -

128 Rorippa palustris (L.) Besser. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -

Continued…

79

129 Rumex dentatus L. - - - Fl Fr Pre - - - - - Veg

130 R. hastatus L. - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - - - -

131 Saccharum griffithii Munro ex Boiss. - - Veg - - Fl Fr PRe - - - -

132 S. spontaneum Linn. - - Veg Fl Fr - - - - PRe - -

133 Salvia moorcroftiana Wall.ex Benth. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -

134 Saussurea heteromalla (De. Don)

Hand. - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - - -

135 Sedum hispanicum L. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -

136 Serratula pallida DC. - - - - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - -

137 Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. &

Schult. - Veg - Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -

138 S. viridis (L.) P. Beauv. - Veg - Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -

139 Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke. - Veg - Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -

140 Silybum marianum Gaertn. - - Fl Fr - Pre - - - - - Veg

141 Sisymbrium irio L. - - Veg Fl - Fr - PRe - - - -

Continued…

80

142 Solanum nigrum var. nigrum L. - - Veg Fl Fr - - - - PRe - -

143 S. surattense Burm. f. - - - - Veg Fl - Fr - - - PRe

144 Sonchus asper (L.) Hill - - Fl Fr - - PRe - - - - Veg

145 Sorgham halepense (Linn) Bres - - - - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - -

146 Stellaria media L. - Veg - Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -

147 Tagetes minuta L - - Veg - - Fl Fr PRe - - - -

148 Taraxacum officinale (L.) Weber. - - Fl Fr - - PRe - - - - -

149 Tetrapogon villosus Desf. - - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - -

150 Torularia afghanica (Gilli) Hedge. - - Veg Fl - Fr - PRe - - - -

151 Tribulus terrestris L. - - - - Veg Fl - Fr - - - PRe

152 Trifolium alexandrinum L. - - - Fl Fr Pre - - Veg - - -

153 T. repens L. - - - Fl Fr Pre - - Veg - - -

154 Trigonella incisa Benth. - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - - - -

155 Tulipa clusiana DC. - Veg - Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -

Continued…

81

156 Valeriana wallichii DC. - Veg - Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -

157 Verbascum thapsus L. - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - - - -

158 Verbena officinalis L. - PRe - - - - - Veg - Fl - Fr

159 Veronica anagallis-aquatica L. - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - - - -

160 Vicia monantha Retz. - Veg - Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -

161 V. sativa L. - Veg - Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -

162 Viola stocksii Boiss. - - - - Veg Fl - Fr - - - PRe

163 Xanthium strumarium L. - - Fl Fr - - PRe - - - - Veg

Shrubs

164 Alhagi maurorum Medic. - - - - - Veg - - Fl Fr - PRe

165 Berberis lycium Royle. - Fl - - Fr - PRe - Veg - - -

166 Buddleja crispa Benth. - Fl - - Fr - PRe - Veg - - -

167 Calotropis procera Aiton. - - Veg - Fl - - Fr - - - PRe

Continued…

82

169 Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Edgew. - - - Veg - - - Fl - Fr - PRe

170 C. spinosa L. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -

171 Cassia occidentalis hort. ex Steud. - - - Veg - Fl - - PRe - - -

172 Cotoneaster microphyllsus Wall. Ex

Lindl. - - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - -

173 Daphne mucronata L. - Veg - Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -

174 Debregeasia salicifolia (D.Don) - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -

175 Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. - - Veg Fl - Fr - - - - - PRe

176 Isodon rugosus (Wall ex Benth) - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -

177 Justicia adhatoda L. - Veg - Fl - Fr - - PRe - - -

178 Lantana camara L. - Veg - Fl - Fr - - PRe - - -

179 Lonicera griffithii Hook. f. and

Thoms. - - Veg Fl Fr - PRe - - - - -

180 Maytenus royleanus Wall. Ex

Lawson. - - - Veg - Fl - Fr - PRe - -

181 Monotheca buxifolia (Falc.) A.DC - - Veg - Fl - Fr PRe - - - -

Continued…

83

182 Myrsine africana L. - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - - - -

183 Nerium oleander Linn. - - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - -

184 Opuntia dillenii Haw. - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - -

185 Rydingia limbata (Benth.) Scheen &

V.A.Albert - - - - - Veg Fl Fr - PRe - -

186 Parkinsonia aculeate L. Veg - Fl - - Fr - PRe - - - -

187 Periploca aphylla Decne. - - - - - - - Fl Fr - - PRe

188 Prosopis juliflora Swartz. - - - - Veg Fl Fr - - - PRe -

189 Ranunculus laetus Wall. ex Royle - Veg - Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -

190 Rhazya stricta Decne. - - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - -

191 Ricinus communis L. - - Veg Fl - Fr PRe - - - - -

192 Rubus fruticosus L. - - - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - -

193 Spiraea corymbosa Raff. Fl Fr - PRe - - - - - Veg - -

194 Vitex negundo L. - - - - Veg - Fl - Fr - PRe -

195 Vitis jacquemontii Parker. - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - - - - -

Continued…

84

196 Withania coagulans (Stocks) Dunal. - - - Veg - - - Fl Fr - - PRe

197 W. somnifera (L.) Dunal. - - - - Veg - Fl Fr - PRe - -

198 Zanthoxylum armatum DC. - PRe - - - - - - Veg - Fl Fr

199 Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. - Veg Fl - Fr - - PRe - - - -

Trees

200 Acacia modesta Wall. - - - Veg Fl Fr - - Fr - PRe -

201 A. nilotica (L.)Wild. ex Delile - - - - Veg - - Fl Fr - PRe -

202 Ailanthus altissima (Mill) Swingle - - - Veg Fl - - - Fr PRe - -

203 Boerhavia procumbens Banks ex

Roxb. Fl - Fr PRe - - - - - - Veg -

204 Broussonetia papyrifera Vent. - - Veg - Fl - Fr - PRe - - -

205 Celtis eriocarpa Decne. - - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - - -

206 Cornus macrophylla Wall. Ex Roxb. - - - Veg - Fl Fr PRe - - - -

207 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Veg - - Fl Fr - PRe - - - - -

Continued…

85

208 Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. Veg - - Fl - Fr - PRe - - - -

209 Ficus carica L. - Veg - Fl - Fr - PRe - - - -

210 Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de

Wit. - Veg - Fl - Fr - PRe - - - -

211 Melia azedarach L. - - Veg - Fl - - Fr - - - PRe

212 Morus alba L. - Veg Fl Fr - - - - - PRe - -

213 M. nigra L. - Veg Fl Fr - - - - - PRe - -

214 Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata

(Wall. & G.Don) Cif. Veg - Fl - Fr - PRe - - - - -

215 O. ferruginea Wall. ex G. Aitch. Veg - Fl - Fr - PRe - - - - -

216 Phoenix dactylifera L. - - - Fl - - Fr - - - - Veg

217 Populus nigra L. - - Veg Fl Fr Pre - - - - - -

218 Tamarix dioica Roxb. ex Roth. - Veg Fl Fr PRe - - - - - - -

219 Ziziphus nummularia Burm. f. - - - Fr - Pre - Veg - Fl - -

Parasite

220 Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. - Veg Fl - Fr - - - - PRe - -

Key: Veg = Vegetative, Fl = Flowering, Fr = Fruiting, PRe = Post Reproductive

86

Table-3.4: Summary of phenological stages

S. No. Phenological stage

Number of species in different months of the year

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

1. Vegetative (Veg) 08 50 41 24 26 21 02 03 05 04 12 11

2. Flowering (Fl) 05 04 53 48 28 31 24 11 02 03 01 07

3. Fruiting (Fr) 04 07 04 51 41 27 28 28 17 05 02 02

4. Post Reproductive (PRe) 01 06 03 05 30 42 32 32 25 19 10 15

87

Figure-3.2: Phenological behaviour of plants at district Nowshera

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Nu

mb

er o

f p

lan

ts

Vegetative

Flowering

Fruiting

Post Reproductive

88

3.3 Vegetation structure

During quantitative study of vegetation 134 species belonging to 53

families were reported throughout the year. From the research area 42, 43, 69

and 48 species were reported in autumn, winter, spring and summer

respectively. The percentage shared by species in different seasons was 31.34

% in autumn, 32.08 % in winter, 51.49 % in spring and 35.82 % in summer.

The highest number of species (69) and families (38) were recorded in spring

followed by summer (48 spp. and 35 families).

Vegetation, soil and environmental conditions are inter-connected with

each other. The variation in any one of these factors cause change in other

associated factors. To determine the possible effect of these factors at least

two factors must be pre-explained. The establishment and existence of

community structure reflects the type and condition of plants and area where

they develop (Felting, 1956). Biotic interaction especially human activities

change the community shape and structure (Badshah et al., 2010a).

Community is defined as a group of living plants and their mutual relationship

among themselves and with environment (Hussain & Sher, 1998; Ahmad et

al., 2006).

The area under investigation was semi-arid with mountains and flat

plains. The existing survey recognized 20 different plant communities during

four different seasons of the year. The observed changes in plant communities

were due to different seasons and other aspects like temperature, soil type and

time of sampling. The woody and perennial plant species almost remained

unchanged; however, slight changes occurred in their existing cover due to

their seasonal growth.

The plant communities investigated during different seasons of a year

at district Nowshera are discussed as follows:

89

3.3.1 Autumn aspect

According to the floristic survey, total numbers of families during

autumn were 28. The Families with number of species were as: Rhamnaceae

and Mimosaceae with 03 species each, and Lamiaceae with 2 species. Rest of

the families shared 01 species each. While considering the family importance

value (FIV), it was reported that Mimosaceae was the leading family with

260.58 FIV followed by Oleaceae with FIV of 183.03, Acanthaceae (174.21),

Lamiaceae (165.94), Rhamnaceae (135), Cactaceae (90.96), Sapotaceae

(72.99), Poaceae (61.05), Celastraceae (41.71), Malvaceae (41.03),

Caprifoliaceae (38.24), Solanaceae (33.31), Papilionaceae (29.36),

Amaranthaceae (22.83), Bignoniaceae (16.65), Asclepiadaceae (14.82),

Cornaceae (12.96), Asteraceae (12.20), Apocynaceae (7.20), Buddlejaceae

(6.65), Vitaceae (6.58), Cypraceae and Euphorbiaceae (each with 6.28)

Convolvulaceae (5.84), Verbenaceae (4.57), Chenopodiaceae (4.54),

Aspodeliaceae (3.45) and Nyctiginaceae (3.33). There were five plant

communities with the following structure during autumn.

Olea-Rydingia-Justicia community

Olea-Rydingia-Justicia community was present at subtropical areas of

the district where temperature remains a little lower than the plains. The soil

was sandy-loam in texture. Among 08 recorded species, there were 02 tree

species, 04 shrubs species and 2 herb species (Appendix 1). The total

importance value (TIV) contributed by 03 dominant species was 179.5, while

TIV of 120.4 was shared by remaining species (Table 7). The contribution to

importance values by tree species was 92.27, by shrubs it was 179.0 and by

herbs it was 28.7 (Table 7).

Ahmad et al. (2009d) reported ten Olea communities from Dir, Khyber

Pakhtunkhwa.

The vegetation consisted predominantly of phanerophytes

(nanophanerophytes with 62.5%), followed by microphanerophytes (12.5%).

90

The vegetation was dominated by nanophylls and leptophylls each

with 37.5% followed by microphylls (25%). Malik & Malik (2004), Malik &

Hussain (2008), Tripathi & Shukla (2007) and Guo et al. (2009) reported that

geophytes and leptophylls were the dominant class in the communities of their

respective areas. Hadi et al. (2009) worked at Botanical Gardan, Azakhel

where nanophylls were dominant. Khan et al. (2010) reported that Olea

ferruginea and Acacia modesta were the dominant species at foot hills in

lower Dir, where the scarcity of water occurred and sandy-clay loam was the

soil textural class.

Justacia-Ziziphus-Corchorus community

Justacia-Ziziphus-Corchorus community occupied the foot hills, where

water availability was less, conditions were xeric and soil was sandy-clay

loam. There were 13 species among which 04 were trees, 04 were shrubs and

05 were herbs (Appendix 2). The total importance value contributed by 03

dominant species was 133.66 and the remaining species shared a total

importance value (TIV) of 166.35. The TIV contributed by trees was 110.07,

by shrubs 131.31 and by herbs it was 58.62 (Table 7).

The dominant life form was nanophanerophytes (30.76%), followed by

chamaephytes (23.07%), microphanerophytes (15.38%), therophytes and

hemicryptophytes (each with 7.69%). The dominant leaf sizes were

nanophylls (36.76%), followed by leptophylls, microphylls each of which

represensting 23.07% and aphyllous (7.69 %).

Shah & Rozina (2013) observed that therophytes (30%) and

microphylls (42%) were the dominant life form and leaf size from Peer Taab

Graveyard. Amjad & Hameed (2012) observed that chameophytes (26.38%)

and microphylls (24%) were dominant biological spectra at Basu Valley of

district Sakardu. Khan & Shah (2013) carried out the eco-taxonomic study of

family Brassicaeae of district Mardan in which therophytes (66%) were

dominant.

91

Opuntia-Ziziphus-Desmostachya community

Opuntia-Ziziphus-Desmostachya community was recorded at the

sandy-clay loam site with 14 major types of plant species including 03 trees,

04 shrubs and 07 herbs (Appendix 3). The 03 dominant species shared a

combine importance value of 187.01 and rest of the species with the

importance value of 113.4. The importance value contributed by trees was

124.93, by shrub it was 112.01 and by herb it was 63.53 (Table 7). Badshah et

al. (2010) studied the vegetation structure of district Karak where

Desmostachya was the dominant species. Dasti et al. (2013) while working on

vegetation of Suleiman Ranges reported the Calotropis procera and Capparis

decidua as dominant species. Hussain et al. (1993) sampled the community

structure at Graveyard of Swabi where Ziziphus was the dominant species.

Nanophanerphytes and therophytes each with 28.57%, represent the

dominant life form, followed by hemicryptophytes, microphanerophytes (each

with 14.28%). The dominant leaf size spectra was nanophylls (71.42%)

followed by leptophylls (14.28%). Shukla (2009) stated that therophytes were

dominant followed by chaemophytes from their respected study area. Khan &

Musharaf (2014) recognized in tehsil Katlang that the dominant life form was

therophytes (47.27%) and the dominant leaf size spectra was microphylls

(47.27%).

Olea-Rydingia-Acacia community

At upper mountainous region with sandy-clay loam soil class the Olea-

Rydingia-Acacia community consisted of 13 different species, among which

04 were tree species, 05 were shrub species and 04 were herb species

(Appendix 4). Total importance value for the dominant species was 188.8 and

111.2 for the rest of species. Tree species contributed total importance value

(TIV) of 149.06, shrubs shared TIV of 131.4 and herbs shared TIV of 19.53

(Table 7). Scrub community was found due to the xeric and harsh

environment. The similar scrub community was reported by Perveen and

Hussain (2007), Ahmad et al. (2008) and Khan et al. (2010) from their

92

respective study areas. Khan et al. (2010) also reported the Olea as dominant

species from lower Dir, which also supported our results.

Nanophanerophytes were the dominant life form (46.15%) followed by

microphanerophytes (30.76%), hemicryptophytes, geophytes and therophytes

(each with 7.69%). The result was in contradiction to many other workers

(Hussain et al., 2009; Malik & Hussain, 2008; Hussain et al., 2005). Amjed &

Hameed (2012) investigated that chameophytes were dominant life form while

dominant leaf size spectrum was microphylls and nanophylls (each with

38.76%), followed by leptophylls (23.07%) at Basu Hills, district Sakardu.

Arshad et al. (2008), Hussain et al. (2005) and Badshah et al. (2010) reported

that nanophylls were the dominant species in their respective sites. Shah &

Rozina (2013) observed from Dheri Baba Hill Gohati and at Peer Taab

Graveyard that microphylls (42%) was the dominant leaf size spectrum which

supported our findings.

Prosopis-Justacia-Acacia community

Along the arid area and sandy-clay loam soil textural classes the

Prosopis-Justacia-Acacia community was recognized. It consisted of 04 trees,

03 shrubs and 05 herbs species (Appendix 5). The total importance value

(TIV) contributed by three dominant plant species was 202.4, and by

remaining species it was 97.57. The contribution of importance value by trees

was 103.26, by shrubs 162.58 and by herbs it was 34.20 respectively (Table

7). Qureshi (2008) reported that Prosopis is dominant species from Sawan

Wari of Nara desert. Abbas et al. (2009) from Greg Gord Azad Kashmir also

reported Acacia among the dominant species. The result was also in

accordance to Arshad et al. (2008) from Cholistan Desert, where prosopis was

dominant species.

Nanophanerophytes were the dominant (41.66%) life form followed by

microphanerophytes (25.0%), chamaephytes (16.66%), therophytes and

geophytes (each with 8.33 %). The leaf size spectra showed that leptophylls

93

were the dominant leaf size class (100%). Shah & Hussain (2009) from

Hayatabad investigated that leptophylls were co-dominant.

3.3.2 Winter aspect

In winter 05 plant communities with a total of 43 plant species

belonging to 28 families were recorded. The most important family in term of

number of species was Mimosaceae and Rhamnaceae with 03 species each,

followed by Sapotaceae with 2 species and the rest of the families shared 01

species each.

However, when family importance value (FIV) was considered, again

Mimosaceae was the leading family with a FIV of 226.23. The remaining

families were recorded in order of importance as: Oleaceae (211.25),

Lamiaceae (182.57), Acanthaceae (168.54), Rhmnaceae (147.31), Cactaceae

(82.22), Poaceae (79.9), Sapotaceae (51.01), Simarubaceae (36.03), Fabaceae

(28.19), Papilionaceae (27.38), Asphodelaceae (23.85), Cannabinaceae

(21.48), Salicaceae (19.11), Chenopodiaceae (18.09), Bignoniaceae (17.46),

Solanaceae, Berberidaceae and Polygonaceae (each with 16.00), Moraceae

(15.88), Brassicaceae, Caprifoliaceae and Capparaceae (each with 14.00),

Celastraceae and Amaranthaceae (each with 12.96), Malvaceae (7.37) and

Asparagaceae (6.89). The details of communities are as under:

Olea-Rydingia-Justicia community

Olea-Rydingia-Justicia community consisted of 10 plant species at

sandy-loam soil class. It included 03 trees, 05 shrubs and 02 herb species

(Appendix 6). Trees shared the importance value of 149.09; shrubs shared

126.9, while herbs shared 23.91. The importance value of three dominant

species was 210.72, while 89.27 was shared by the rest of the species

(Table 7).

Khan et al. (2010) reported that Olea community was emerged as

dominant tree species from lower Dir in 04 stands. The life form reported that

nanophanerphytes (80%) were the dominant life form in the area followed by

94

microphanerophytes and therophytes (each with 10% share). Similarly,

Hussain & Perveen (2009), Bocuk et al. (2009) reported the

nanophanerophytes as dominant species from their respective sites. The leaf

size spectra was dominated by nanophylls and microphylls (each with 40%)

followed by leptophylls (20%).

Shah & Rozina (2013) observed from Dheri Baba Hill where the

microphylls (42%) dominated the community and his findings supported our

results. Amjed et al. (2012) also reported from district Sakardu that

microphylls (24%) were the second dominant leaf size spectra of the area.

Justicia-Ziziphus-Acacia community

Justicia-Ziziphus-Acacia community was recorded at foot hills at

sandy-clay loam soil. The stand totally comprised of 11 species, among which

04 were trees, 03 were shrubs and 04 were herbs with importance values of

146.7, 110.3 and 42.9 respectively (Table 7). The dominant species shared the

importance value of 186.7 and the remaining species shared a total importance

value of 113.2. Family Rhamnaceae had the highest family importance value

of 181, followed by Acanthaceae (150), Mimosaceae (60) and Sapotaceae

(30). Shah & Rozina (2013) recorded at Peer Taab Graveyard that Ziziphus

maruitiana was among the dominant species. Ahmad et al. (2008) reported

from Soon valley of Punjab that Justicia and Acacia were the dominant

species. The area was dominated by nanophanerophytes (45.45%), followed

by microphanerophytes (27.2%), therophytes (18.18%) and chamaephytes

(9.09%). Amjad & Hameed (2012) reported that chamaephyte (26.38%) were

the dominant life form followed by nanophanerophytes (19.17%) from

Skardu. The leaf size spectra show that nanophylls (54.5%) dominated the

area followed by microphylls (27.2%), and leptophylls l (18.18%). Amjad &

Hameed (2012) investigated that leptophylls (52%) were the dominant leaf

size class. Hussain et al. (2009) from Azakhel reported that leptophylls

(42.32%) and nanophylls (40.32%) were the dominant leaf size spectra. Costa

et al. (2007), Sher & Khan (2007) and Hussain & Perveen (2009) reported that

nanophylls were the dominant leaf size which strengthened our findings.

95

Opuntia-Ziziphus-Acacia community

Opuntia-Ziziphus-Acacia community consisted of 11 species. Among

11 plants species 04 were trees, 03 were shrubs, and 04 were herbs at sandy-

clay loam soil (Appendix 8). Total importance value (TIV) by 03 dominant

species was 166.04 and 133.75 by the remaining species (Table 7). TIV

contributed by trees was 120.4, by shrubs it was 118.2 and by herbs it was

61.6 (Table 7). Malik & Malik (2004) recorded that Acacia and Olea were the

dominant species in Kotli Hills during monsoon.

The life form indicated that microphanerophytes and

nanophanerophytes (each with 36% share) dominated the habitat followed by

therophytes and geophytes (9.09% share), while the dominant leaf size spectra

was nanophylls (36.36%), followed by leptophylls and nanophylls (each with

18.18%). Nanophanerophytes life form indicated that it was due to sandy

condition where soil had poor water retaining capacity (Manhas et al., 2010).

The leaf size spectra showed that leptophylls dominancy was due to the

drought and dry conditions. It was also supported by various workers (Nazir

and Malik, 2006; Badshah et al., 2010), they also investigated the lepto-

nanophylls communities from Azad Kashmir and South Waziristan.

Olea-Acacia-Rydingia community

Olea-Acacia-Rydingiacommunity was recorded at the top hills with

sandy-clay loam soil, which comprised a total of 12 species. Among total

species 03 were trees, 05 were shrubs and 04 were herbs (Appendix 9). The

dominant species shared the total importance value of 163.5 and 136.4 by the

remaining species. The trees contributed the total importance value of 139.8,

shrubs shared 109.9 and herbs shared a total importance value of 50.2 (Table

7). The total family importance value shared by Lamiaceae (154), followed by

Oleaceae (152), Mimosaceae (105), and Caprifoliaceae (92).

The life form revealed that nanophanerophytes (58.3%) were dominant

class followed by microphanerophytes (25%) and geophytes and

hemicryptophytes (each with 8.3%). The leaf size spectra showed that

96

nanophylls (41.6%) were dominating the area followed by microphylls

(33.33%), mesophyll (16.6%) and leptophylls (8.3%). Guo et al. (2009)

reported that phanerophytes (73.2%) dominated their study area.

Prosopis-Justacia-Acacia community

Prosopis-Justacia-Acacia community was recorded at xeric area on the

top of hills having sandy-clay loam soil, which comprised a total of 15 plant

species. Among the total species 04 were trees, 03 were shrubs and 08 were

herbs (Appendix 10). The dominant species shared the importance value of

136.1 and 163.8 by the remaining species. The trees contributed the total

importance value of 111.4, 110.8 by the shrubs and 77.6 by herbs (Table 7).

The family importance value shared by Mimosaceae (281) was greater

followed by Acanthaceae 174 and Oleaceae 28.

The life form revealed that nanophanerophytes (33.3%) dominated the

area, followed by microphanerophytes, therophytes (each with 26.6%) and

geophytes and chamaephytes (each with 6.6%). Khan & Musharaf (2014)

reported that nanophanerophytes were among the dominant species at Shahbaz

Garhi Mardan area.

The leaf size spectra showed that leptophylls, nanophylls and

microphylls were 33.33% each. This may be probably due to xeric habitat and

harsh environmental conditions. Shah and Rozina (2013) observed that

microphylls (42%) were dominant at Dheri Baba Hill. Amjad & Hameed

(2012) investigated that leptophylls (52%) were dominant from Basu valley

district Sakardu. Khan & Musharaf (2014) reported the Microphylls (46.97%)

were the dominant species.

3.3.3 Spring aspect

Total numbers of plant species recorded in spring were 63 belonging to

38 families. Families Asteraceae and Mimosaceae had more species (03

species each) followed by Brassicaceae (02 spp), Lamiaceae (02 spp),

Geraniaceae (02 spp), Rhamnaceae (02 spp), Papilionaceae (02 spp) and the

97

rest of families shared 01 species each. While considering the family

importance value (FIV), it was noted that family Brassicaceae was the leading

family with total FIV of 209.31 followed by Asteraceae (126.44),

Papilionaceae (113.31), Lamiaceae (105.19), Euphorbiaceae (85.48),

Mimosaceae (74.96), Rhamnaceae (72.62), Crassulaceae (57.92), Geraniaceae

(56.01), Sapidaceae (55.34), Oleaceae (50.16), Amamllidaceae (45.16),

Poaceae (40.19), Scrophulariaceae (39.58), Cannabinaceae (26.23),

Acanthaceae (20.2), Celastraceae and Cactaceae (each with 19.45), Liliaceae

(17.55), Caprifoliaceae (16.61), Oxalidaceae (15.89), Moraceae (14.77),

Rosaceae (12.02), Solanaceae and Amaranthaceae (each with 10.20),

Capparaceae and Asclepidaceae (each with 9.09), Caryophyllaceae,

Sapotaceae and Rubiaceae (each with 8.50), Fabaceae and Polygonaceae (each

with 6.11), Berberidaceae (5.38).It was noted that families Plantaginaceae,

Chenopodiaceae, Caryophyllaceae, and Papaveraceae had the least family

importance values (4.32each). The communities established during spring

season are as under:-

Microsisymbrium-Torularia-Olea community

Microsisymbrium-Torularia-Olea community was recorded at xeric

habitat at hilly areas having sandy loam soil, which consisted a total of 14

species. Of the total 14 species isolated from the area 02 were tree, 05 were

shrubs and 07 were herbs (Appendix 11). The importance value shared by the

dominant species was 162.33. All the remaining species shared only 138.07

importance values indicating their low degree of distribution, less coverage

values and less number of individuals in the community (Table 7). The total

importance value of 36.37, 85.67 and 178.35 were contributed by trees, shrubs

and herbs respectively.The family Brassicaceae shared the maximum

importance value (374), followed by Sapindaceae (182), Oleaceae (105),

Lamiaceae and Acanthaceae (104each), Celastraceae (51), Sapotaceae (45),

Moraceae (18) and Oxalidaceae (16). Durrani et al. (2005) investigated from

Harboi rangeland, Kalat that family Brassicaceae was the dominant family.

Durrani et al. (2010) evaluated that Asteraceae and Brassicaceae were the

dominant families from Aghberg land of Quetta.

98

Results revealed that nanophanerophytes was the dominant life form

having 57.14% share followed by therophytes (35.71%) and hemicryptophytes

(7.14%). Similarly the leaf size spectrum showed that microphylls (57.14%)

were the dominant leaf size spectrum followed by nanophylls (35.71%) and

leptophylls (7.14%). Hussain et al. (2009) from Azakhel Gardan reported that

nanophylls were dominant. Khan & Musharaf (2014) from Tehsil Katlang

investigated that microphylls (78%) plants were the dominant species.

Sedum-Geranium-Indigofera community

Sedum-Geranium-Indigofera community was present at foot hills. The

textural class of soil was sandy clay loam. Total number of species recorded

was 16. Among the 16 recorded species 03 were trees, 05 were shrubs and 08

were herbs (Appendix 12). The total importance value contributed by herbs

was 190.8, followed by trees (57.46) and shrubs (51.73) (Table 7). The total

importance value shared by all 03 dominant species was 145.8 and 154.2 by

the rest of species (Table 7). While considering the family importance value

(FIV) family Geraniaceae (202) was the dominant family followed by

Crassulaceae (179), Papilionaceae (173), Rhamnaceae (167), Acanthaceae

(165), Sapindaceae (169), Solanaceae (168), Mimosaceae (84), Liliaceae (41),

Capparaceae (38), Sapotaceae (34), Asclepidaceae (13) and Rubiaceae (15).

The life form recorded revealed that therophytes (50%) were dominant

life form followed by the nanophanerophytes and microphanerophytes (each

with 18.75%) and chamaephytes (12.5%). The nanophylls, leptophylls and

microphylls (each with 31.25%) was the dominant leaf size spectra followed

by aphyllous species (6.25%). Sher et al. (2011) reported from village Lahore,

district Swabi that therophytes (82.5%) and nanophylls (22.5%) were the

dominant biological spectra from the area.

Lactuca-Salvia-Allium community

Lactuca-Salvia-Allium was present at partial hilly area having sandy-

clay loam soil. Total number of plants species were 18, among which 03 were

trees, 02 were shrubs and 13 were herbs (Appendix 13). The total importance

99

value contributed by trees was 56.98, by shrubs 45 and by herbs it was 197.63

(Table 7). The total importance value shared by the dominant species was

141.35 and 158.64 was shared by the rest of species (Table 7). While

considering the family importance value the Asteraceae (290) was leading

family followed by Amamllidaceae (190), Lamiaceae (188), Rhamnaceae

(172), Cannabiaceae (150), Cactaceae (108), Mimosaceae (69), Fabaceae (31)

and Scrophulariaceae (12). Mendez (2005) reported that at Laguna family

Asteraceae was the leading family. Durrani et al. (2005) from Harboi

Rangeland investigated that family Asteraceae were the dominant family.

Khan & Musharaf (2014) also reported that Asteraceae was the dominant

family from Shahbaz Garhi Mardan.

The life form spectra revealed that therophytes (55.55%) were the

dominant life form followed by nanophanerophytes (22.22%),

microphanerophytes (16.66%) and chamaephytes (5.55%). The leaf size

spectra reported that nanophylls and leptophylls (each with 38.88%) were the

dominant class followed by leptophylls (16.66%) and nanophylls (5.55%).

Hussain et al. (2009) investigated that therophytes (85.48%) and nanophylls

(40.32%) were the leading classes in biological spectrum from Azakhel

Botanical Gardan. Sher et al. (2011) from village Lahore, district Swabi

reported that therophytes (82.5%) and nanophylls (22.5) were the dominant

classes.

Phgnalon-Torularia-Kicksia community

Phagnalon-Torularia-Kicksia was an annual community that was

present on high green luxury hills. The soil textural class was sandy-loam. The

community comprised of 18 plant species among which 02 were trees, 04

were shrubs and 12 were herbs (Appendix 14). The total importance value

shared by trees was 36.78, by shrub it was 75.69 and 187.52 by herbs (Table

7). The total importance value share by the 03 dominant species was 129.63

and 170.36 by the remaining species (Table 7). Considering the family

importance value family, Asteraceae (209) was the leading family followed by

Brassicaceae (170), Srophulariaceae (161), Oleaceae (149), Lamiaceae (128),

100

Mimosaceae (99), Caprifoliaceae (90), Rosaceae (38), Celastraceae (34) and

Amranthaceae (30). Mendez (2005), Durrani et al. (2005) and Khan &

Musharaf (2014) reported that family Asteraceae was the dominant family at

their respective sites. Dhole et al. (2013) supported our results by investigating

that Asteraceae was the dominant family from their respective study area.

The life form showed that therophytes (50%) were the dominant life

form followed by nanophanerophytes (27.77%), microphanerophytes

(16.66%) and geophytes (5.55%). Microphylls and nanophylls (38.88%) were

the dominant leaf size spectrum followed by leptophylls and mesophylls (each

with 11.11 2%).

Euphorbia-Pennisetum-Indigofera community

Euphorbia-Pennisetum-Indigofera community was present at xeric

habitat away from the cultivated land. The soil textural class was sandy-clay

loam. Total number of plant species was 17 among which 02 were trees, 01

shrub species and 14 species were herbs (Appendix 15). The total importance

value shared by trees was 25.6, by shrubs it was 10.85 and by herbs it was

263.54. The family importance value showed that Mimosaceae (276) was the

leading family followed by Papalionaceae (207), Euphorbiaceae (188),

Poaceae (186) and Oleaceae by 43 (Table 7). Hussain et al. (2009) also

recorded that at Azakhel garden the therophytic communities were found

during spring which supported our results. Khan et al. (2013) also reported

that therophytic communities were found during spring from Mardan, which

strengthened our findings.

The life form spectrum revealed that therophytes (58.82%) were the

dominant class followed by microphanerophytes, nanophanerophytes,

haemicryptophytes (each with 11.76%) and Chamaephytes (5.88%).

Nanophylls (58.82%) were the leading leaf size class followed by leptophylls

(23.52%) and microphylls (17.64%). Costa et al. (2007) supported our result

in terms that therophytes (42.9%) were the dominant class from their

respective area.

101

3.3.4 Summer aspect

The study of floristic list during the survey in the season of summer,

the total number of families was 34. The Families, in terms of greater number

of species, were Asteraceae, Mimosaceae and Rhamnaceae (each with 3

species) followed by Sapindaceae, Celastraceae, Oleaceae, Sapotaceae,

Acanthaceae, Solanaceae, Cannabiaceae, Cactaceae, Amaranthaceae,

Caprifoliaceae, Rosaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Ranunculaceae (each with 1

sp.). The Family, in terms of maximum family importance value, was

Sapindaceae (138.68), followed by Asteraceae (125.24), Mimosaceae

(122.92), Ranunculaceae (107.98), Rhamnaceae (102.04), Oleaceae (96.12),

Lamiaceae (95.43), Euphorbiaceae (93.33), Cannabiaceae (83.70),

Acanthaceae (69.58), Poaceae (60.12), Solanaceae (52.53), Amaranthaceae

(46.74), Sapotaceae (32.29), Rosaceae (28.05), Myrtaceae (24.60), Salicaceae

(23.78), Celastraceae (23.41), Bignoniaceae (22.22), Moraceae (21.89),

Cornaceae (19.62), Nyctiginaceae (17.51), Caprifoliaceae (16.50), Cyperaceae

(14.49), Chenopodiaceae (12.17), Cactaceae (11.63), Papilionaceae (9.47),

Asclepiadaceae, Lythraceae, Asparagaceae, Liliaceae, Brassicaceae and

Cucurbitaceae have importance value less than 7.82. Dhole et al. (2013)

supported our results that family Asteraceae had maximum number of species

(04) at Marathwada region.

Dodonaea-Rydingia-Olea community

Dodonaea-Rydingia-Olea community was present at xeric habitat

having sandy loam soil. A total of 13 plant species were isolated. Among these

03 were trees, 05 were shrubs and 05 were herbs (Appendix 16). The total

importance value (TIV) contributed by 03 dominant species was 173.68, while

TIV of 126.32 was shared by the remaining species (Table 7). The

contribution of total importance value by tree species was 95.19, by shrubs

162.94 and by herbs it was 41.85. Ahmad et al. (2009) reported 10 Olea

communities from Dir lower Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.

102

The life form showed that the area was occupied by

nanophanerophytes (69.23%) followed by therophytes (15.38),

microphanerophytes and geophytes (each with 7.69%). The leaf size spectrum

indicated that nanophylls and microphylls (46.15%) were the dominant class

followed by leptophylls (7.69%). Costa et al. (2007) investigated that

nanophanerophytes (26.3%) were among the dominant species. Guo et al.

(2009) supported our results by reporting the nanophanerophytes (73.2%) as

leading class.

Dodonaea-Withania-Justicia community

Dodonaea-Withania-Justicia community was present at foot hills. The

soil textural class was sandy-clay loam. Total number of plant species was 14

among which 04 were trees, 04 were shrubs and 06 were herbs (Appendix 17).

The total importance value (TIV) contributed by the dominant species was

164.26 while 135.73 were shared by the rest of the species. The contribution

of total importance value shared by the tree species was 80.05, by shrubs it

was 172.06 and by herbs it was 47.85 (Table 7). Nazir et al. (2012) reported

from Lesser Himalayan sub tropical forest of Kashmir where Dodonaea was

the dominant species in some stand.

The life form showed that the area was dominated by

nanophanerophytes, Therophytes and Chamaephytes (each with 21.42%)

followed by microphanerophytes (14.28%) and haemicryptophytes and

geophytes (each with 7.14%). The leaf size spectra revealed that the area was

dominated by nanophylls (42.85%), followed by microphylls (21.42%),

leptophylls (14.28%) and mesophylls and aphyllous each with 7.14%.

Cannabis-Alternanthra-Ageratum community

Cannabis-Alternathra-Ageratum community was present at low hills

and at foot hills. The soil textural class was sandy-clay loam. Total number of

species was 17 among which 03 were trees, 04 were shrubs and 10 were herbs

(Appendix 18). The tree species shared the total importance value of 57.81, by

shrubs it was 113.46 and 128.72 was shared by the herb species. The total

103

importance value (TIV) contributed by the dominant species was 154.70 and

145.29 was shared by the remaining species (Table 7).

The life form revealed that therophytes (47.05%) were the dominant

life form followed by nanophanerophytes, microphanerophytes with 17.64%

each and geophytes, haemicryptophytes each with 5.88%. While the leaf size

spectra revealed that nanophylls (52.94%) was the conducting class followed

by microphylls (35.29%) and leptophylls (5.88%). Durrani et al. (2005)

reported from Harboi Rangeland Kalat that therophytes and microphylls were

the dominant classes.

Malik et al. (2007) investigated that microphylls were the dominant

class at their respective area that were in conformity to our result.

Euphorbia-Delphinium-Olea community

Euphorbia- Delphinium- Olea community was present at the top of

hilly area. The soil textural class was sandy-clay loam. Total number of plant

species was 15 among which 03 were tree species, 05 were shrubs and 08

were herbs (Appendix 19). The contribution of total importance value shared

by the tree species was 65.63 followed by shrubs (62.84) and herbs (171.52)

(Table 7). The total importance value (TIV) contributed by three dominant

species was 155.29 and 144.70 by the rest of species (Table 7).

The life form revealed that nanophanerophytes (33.33%) were the

dominant class followed by microphanerophytes (26.66%), therophytes

(20.00%), chamaephytes (13.33%) and haemicryptophytes (13.33%). The leaf

size spectra showed that microphylls (46.66%) were the dominant class

followed by nanophylls (33.33%), laptophylls (13.33%) and mesophylls

(6.66%). The results were in contradiction with Costa et al. (2007) which

revealed that therophytes was the leading class. The results were also in

contradiction with Manhas et al. (2010) who supported that therophytes were

the dominant class.

104

Malik et al. (2007) supported our result that microphylls were the

dominant class at Ganga Chotti and Bedori Hills.

Delphinium-Dittrichia-Prosopis community

Delphinium-Dittrichia-Prosopis community was present at low hilly

area near cultivated land. The soil textural class was sandy-clay loam. Total

number of plant species was 18 among which 04 were trees species, 04 were

shrubs and 10 were herbs (Appendix 20). The total importance value shared

by tree species was 63.50, by shrubs it was 79.15 and by herbs it was 157.34.

The total importance value shared by the three dominant species was 158.67

while the rest of species shared 141.32 (Table 7). While considering the family

importance value (FIV), Mimosaceae (270) was leading followed by

Ranunculaceae (182), Asteraceae (180), Acanthaceae (168) and Oleaceae (34).

The life form showed that nanophanerophytes (27.77%) was the

dominant class followed by microphanerophytes (22.22%), therophytes

(14.44%) and geophytes (5.55%). The leaf size spectra indicated that

microphylls, nanophylls (each with 33.33%) were the leading class followed

by laptophylls (27.77%) and mesophylls (5.55%). Malik et al. (2007) from

Ganga Chotti hills reported that microphanerophytes were the dominant class,

which supported our results.

105

Table-3.5: Number of species and Total Importance Values (TIV) of trees, shrubs and herbaceous species in different communities

and seasons

Seasons Autumn Winter Spring Summer

Community 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

Number of species

Trees 2 4 3 4 4 3 4 4 3 4 2 3 3 2 2 3 4 3 3 4

Shrubs 4 4 4 5 3 5 3 3 5 3 5 5 2 4 1 5 4 4 5 4

Herbs 2 5 7 4 5 2 4 4 4 8 7 8 13 12 14 5 6 10 7 10

Total 8 13 14 13 12 10 11 11 12 15 14 16 18 18 17 13 14 17 15 18

Total Importance Value (TIV)

TIV of 3

dominants

species

179.5 133.6 187.0 188.7 202.4 210.7 186.7 166.0 163.5 136.1 162.3 145.7 141.3 129.6 202.2 173.6 164.2 154.7 155.2 158.6

Continued…

106

TIV of

remaining

species

120.4 166.3 113.4 111.2 97.5 89.2 113.2 133.7 136.4 163.8 138.0 154.2 158.6 170.3 97.7 126.3 135.7 145.2 144.7 141.3

TIV of

Trees 92.2 110.0 124. 149.0 103.2 149.0 146.7 120.4 139. 111.4 36.3 57.4 56.9 36.7 25.6 95.1 80.0 57.8 65.6 63.5

TIV of

Shrubs 179.0 131.3 112.0 131.4 162.5 126.9 110.3 118.2 109.9 110.8 85.6 51.7 45.3 75.6 10.8 162.9 172.0 113.4 62.81 79.1

TIV of

Herbs 28.7 58.6 63.5 19.5 34.2 23.9 42.9 61.0 50.2 77.6 178.3 190.8 197.6 187.5 263.5 41.8 47.8 128.7 171.5 157.3

107

Table-3.6: Physico-chemical features of soil of different stands

S.No. Soil Textural class pH Ec (dS/m) Organic matter (%) N% P (ppm) K (ppm) CaCo3% Ca+Mg

(Mequ/l)

Zn (ppm) Fe (ppm)

1 Sandy loam 7.38 0.62 3.68 0.16 16 100 12.5 25 4.4 11.5

2 Sandy-clay loam 7.83 1.8 7.16 0.27 15 130 17.25 35 3.8 10.2

3 Sandy-clay loam 7.55 7.25 0.4 0.02 7 180 14.37 21 2.19 9.45

4 Sandy-clay loam 7.9 0.5 3.75 0.17 9 130 11.2 16.5 2.14 9.88

5 Sandy-clay loam 8.11 0.37 1.47 0.06 7 110 11.7 17 2.11 10.01

108

Figure-3.3: Some views of the research area

109

3.4 Ethnobotany

A sum of 71 plant species belonging to 65 genera and 39 families were

reported from district Nowshera. Different plant parts i.e. roots, rhizomes,

tubers, leaves, stem, wood and fruits were used by the locals for various

purposes in their daily life. Leaves were the most favored plant part used by

indigenous community comprised of 50 species (70.42%) followed by stems

(47 species, 66.87%), whole plant (13 species, 20.52%), fruits (09 species,

14%) and roots (04 species, 5.71%). During survey family Asteraceae was

found to contribute the highest number of plant species (08) to the local usage.

It was followed by family Papilionaceae (06 species), Poaceae (05 species),

Mimosaceae and Solanaceae (04 species each), Euphorbiaceae (03 species),

Apocynaceae, Amaranthaceae, Brassicaceae, Capparaceae, Chenopodiaceae,

Polygonaceae, Rhamnaceae, Malvaceae and Myrtaceae shared 02 species each

while family Arecaceae, Acanthaceae, Cactaceae, Asclepiadaceae,

Boraginaceae, Convolvulaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Cyperaceae, Canabaceae,

Caryophyllaceae, Fumariaceae, Lamiaceae, Liliaceae, Primulaceae, Oleaceae,

Sapindaceae, Sapotaceae, Temaraceae, Oxalidaceae, Meliaceae, Moraceae,

Soliaceae, Apiaceae and Zygophyllaceae were represented by one species

each. Zereen & Sardar (2013) reported from Punjab a total of 48 plant species

belonging to 23 families used for various purposes by the local community.Jan

et al. (2010) reported from lower Dir that family Asteraceae was the most

important family with regards to its ethnobotanical value. He documented 26

weed species belonging to 16 families. Haq (2012) reported a total of 172

medicinal taxa from Allai Valley, Pakistan used by the indigenous people for

treatment of various illnesses. Popularly used 31 medicinal plants by the

indigenous were reported from Northern Ethopia (Mesfin et al., 2013)

At district Nowshera the indigenous people mainly used wild herbs (44

spp., 61.11%), followed by wild trees (16 spp., 23.61%) and wild shrubs (11

spp., 15.06%). These plants were used for different purposes such as fodder,

furniture, fuel, oil, edible fruits and vegetables. Most of the reported species

110

were used for multipurpose. In the present study it was concluded that 45

species (63.5%) were used as fodder, 30 species (41.66%) for fuel, 10 species

(14.69%) for furniture, thatching species were 08 (11.95%), 07 species

(9.58%) were used as vegetable, 04 species (7.04%) for hedge purpose, fruit

species were 04 (6.04%), 03 species (4.10%) were grown for ornamental

purposes and 01 species (1.36%) for each of the following purposes; coloring

the clothes, oil for hairs, perfume, in surf industries and in making basket,

ropes and hand fan. Barkatullah & Ibrar (2011) reported 31 plants species

from Malakand agency which were used in the area for fuel, 14 plant species

for making furniture, 15 species for house construction particularly for

thatching purpose, 47 species were most frequently used for fodder/forage, 40

species (23.68%) were consumed as vegetable and fruit. There were 19

species grown around houses and crop fields as fence. Khan et al. (2003)

conducted survey in district Buner and reported 21 fuel plant species, 13

vegetables, 7 roof thatching species, 6 timber wood species and 40 species for

medicinal purpose. 10% of plant species were used for fuel and furniture from

district Mana Angetu (Lulekal et al., 2008). 16 plant species were used as fuel

at Jandool Valley, Dir Lower (Nasrullah et al., 2012). Khan (2011) reported

15 plant species used for furniture and 9 plant species used for ornamental

purpose at Ushairy Valley, district Dir (Upper). Cones of gymnosperm were

used for decoration at Poonch valley Azad Kashmir Pakistan (Khan, 2008).

04 spiny and bushy species were used as hedge around the fields and

houses (Table 15). The oil of Eruca sativa is used as hair tonic while oil of

Pongamia pinnata is used for cooking purpose. The Ocimum bacilicum is used

in perfumes due to its fragrance. Aloe vera fleshy leaves are used in surf

industries. The ash of Calotropis procera is used as cloth coloring agent.

Lack of proper education and poor economic condition of the area has

led to deforestation of natural vegetation, which is added by unavailability of

alternative fuel.

111

Table-3.7: List of ethnobotanically important plants

S. No Botanical Name Vernacular

Name Family Habit Parts Uses

01 Justicia adhatoda L. Baza Acanthaceae Shrub Leaves and

Stems Its dried leaves and stems are used as fuel.

02 Amaranthus viridis L. Ranzaka Amaranthaceae Herb Stems and

Leaves

Stems are used as fodder while its leaves are

used as vegetable.

03 Scandix pecten- veneris

L. Ziri Amaranthaceae Herb

Stems and

Leaves Used as fodder.

04 Foeniculam vulgare

Miller. Sonf, Kaga Apiaceae Herb

Fruits and

Leaves Used as food.

05 Nerium oleander L. Ganderai Apocynaceae Shrub Stems and

Leaves

Plant is used for ornamental purpose.

Also used as fuel.

06 Rhazya stricta Decne. Kaneer Apocynaceae Shrub Stems and

Leaves Stems and leaves are used as fuel.

07 Phoenix dactylifera L. Kajora Arecaceae Tree Leaves and

Fruits

Leaves are used for making ropes, baskets

and hand fans.

Fruits used as food.

08 Calotropis procera

Aiton. Spilmaka Asclepiadaceae Shrub

Roots, Stems

and Leaves Ash is used as cloth coloring agent.

Continued…

112

09 Sonchus asper L. Hill Tariza Asteraceae Herb Leaves and

Stems

Leaves are used as fodder while

dried stems are used as fuel.

10 Calendula arvensis (L.)

Vaill Zyer Gulay Asteraceae Herb

Stems and

Leaves Grazed by cattle.

11 Conyza aegyptiaca L. Lala hozah Asteraceae Herb Stems and

Leaves

Dried stems are used as fuel.

Leaves are used as fodder.

12 Parthenium

hysterophorus L.

Lewanai

Bang Asteraceae Herb

Leaves and

Stems Leaves and stems are used as fuel.

13 Silybum marianum L. Churg azghy Asteraceae Herb Leaves, Stems

and Seeds

Leaves and stems are used as fodder.

Seeds are used as food.

14 Taraxacum officinale

(L.) Weber. Ziarrguli Asteraceae Herb Whole plant It is used as fodder.

15 Xanthium strumarium

L. Kata sora Asteraceae Herb Whole plant Used as fuel.

16 Artemisia vulgaris L. Tarkha Asteraceae Herb Whole plant Used as fuel.

17 Heliotropium

europaeum L. Wangai Boraginaceae Shrub Leaves Grazed by animals.

18 Eruca sativa Mill. Jamama Brassicaceae Herb Seeds

Oil obtained from seeds and used as hair

tonic.

Used raw as salad.

19 Coronopus didymus L. Kakorai Brassicaceae Herb Whole plant Used by grazing animals.

Continued…

113

20 Opuntia dillenii Haw. Ghanzka Cactaceae Herb Stems Used as hedge around cultivated fields.

21 Cannabis sativa L. Bhang Cannabaceae Herb Leaves and

Stems Used as fodder and fuel.

22 Capparis decidua

(Forssk.) Edgew Jaba Capparaceae Herb Whole plant Used as fuel.

23 Stellaria media (L.)

Vill. Gulpullan Caryophyllaceae Herb

Stems and

Leaves

Used as fodder.

Leaves are used as vegetable.

24 Chenopodium album L. Spin Soba Chenopodiaceae Herb Leaves Green leaves are used as vegetable.

Used by grazing animals.

25 C. murale L. Tor Soba Chenopodiaceae Herb Whole plant Used as vegetable.

Used as fodder.

26 Convolvulus arvensis L. Prewatye Convolvulaceae Herb Whole plant Whole plant is used as fodder.

27 Citrullus colocynthis

(L.) Schrad Tarha Mara Cucurbitaceae Herb

Stems and

Leaves Used as fodder.

28 Cyperus rotundus L. Dela Cyperaceae Herb Whole plant Used as fuel and fodder.

29 Chrozophora tinctoria

(L) Raf. Skhabotay Euphorbiaceae Herb

Roots, Leaves

and Stems Used as fuel and fodder.

30 Euphorbia helioscopia

L. Ghanda Booti Euphorbiaceae Herb Whole plant Used as fuel.

31 Ricinus communis L. Rund Euphorbiaceae Shrub Leaves and

Stems Used as fuel.

Continued…

114

32 Fumaria indica

Hausskn.

Lewanai

Gazara Fumariaceae Herb Whole plant Used as fodder.

33 Ocimum bacilicum L. Bobrai Lamiaceae Shrub Stems and

Leaves

Used as fodder.

Plant used for ornamental purposes.

34 Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Zargeya Liliaceae Herb Stems and

Leaves

The fleshy leaves are used in detergent

industries.

35 Abutilon bidentatum

Hochst. ex A.Rich. ziary Malvaceae Shrub Whole plant Used as fuel.

36 Malva neglecta Waler. Tor Peshtara Malvaceae Herb Leaves and

Stems Used as vegetable and fodder.

37 Acacia arabica (Lam.)

willd. Kiker Mimosaceae Tree

Stems and

Leaves

Used as fuel, fodder, timber, in furniture

industries.

38 A. modesta Wall. Palosa Mimosaceae Tree Leaves Stems

and Gums

Used as fuel, fodder, timber, in furniture

industries.

Dried stems are used in thatching.

Gums are used by honey bees for collecting

nectar.

39 Albizia lebbeck Benth. Sirin Mimosaceae Tree Stems, Leaves

and Flowers

Stems are used as fuel, furniture and for

thatching.


Flowers are used for fragrance.

40 Prosopis juliflora

Swartz. Angrizi Kikar Mimosaceae Tree Stems

Stems are used in timber, as fuel, for

making furniture and in thatching.

Continued…

115

41 Morus nigra Shahtoth Moraceae Tree Leaves, Stems

and Fruits


Stems are used as fuel and for timber.

Fruits are edible.

42 Eucalyptus

camaldulensis Dehnh. Lachai Myrtaceae Tree Stems

Used as fuel and in furniture.

Wood is used as timber.

43 Boerhavia procumbens

Bank ex Roxb. Pendrawush Myrtaceae Herb

Stems and

Leaves Used as fodder and fuel.

44 Melia azedarach L. Bakara Meliaceae Tree Stems and

Leaves

Used as fuel and for furniture purpose.

Leaves are also used as fodder.

45 Olea ferruginea Wall.

ex G. Aitch. Shona

Oleaceae

Tree Leaves and

Stems

Wood is used in furniture industry.

Stems and leaves are used as a fuel.

46 Oxalis corniculata L. Gulbasho Oxalidaceae Herb Leaves Used as vegetable.

47 Pongamia pinnata L. Sukh chain Papilionaceae Tree Seeds Seeds yield edible oil.

48 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Shawa Papilionaceae Tree Leaves and

Stems


Wood is used as furniture, timber and fuel

purpose.

49 Medicago denticulata

Willd. Peshtara Papilionaceae Herb

Leaves and

Stems Used as fodder and vegetable.

Continued…

116

50 Melilotus indica (L.)

All. Uzmai Papilionaceae Herb

Leaves, Stems

and Flowers

Used as fodder.

Flowers are used by bees for collecting

nectar.

51 Trifolium alexandrinum

L. Shotall Papilionaceae Herb

Leaves and

Stems The whole plant used mainly as fodder.

52 T. resupinatum L. Zierawona Papilionaceae Herb Leaves and

Stems Leaves and stems are used as fodder.

53

Cenchrus

pennisetiformis Hochst

And Steud.

Shamloha Poaceae Herb Stems and

Leaves Used as fodder, fuel and thatching.

54 C. ciliaris L. Mumloha Poaceae Herb Stems and

Leaves

Sticks are used as thatching.

Used as fodder and fuel.

55

Cymbopogon

jwarancusa (Jones.)

Schult

Sargarra Poaceae Herb Whole plant It is used as thatching.

56 Cynodon dactylon L. Kabal Poaceae Herb Leaves, Stems

and Roots

Used as fodder.

Plant grown in lawns for

ornamental/beautification purpose.

57 Eragrostis cilianensis

(All.) Janchen. Mumloha Poaceae Herb Stems Used as fodder and in thatching.

58 Calligonum

polygonoides L. Balanza Polygonaceae Shrub

Leaves and

Stems

It is used as fodder.

Its ash is used in making snuff.

Continued…

117

59 Rumex dentatus L. Shalkhy Polygonaceae Herb Leaves and

Stems Used as vegetable and fodder.

60 Anagallis arvensis L. Sheen starga Primulaceae Herb Leaves and

Stems Used as fodder.

61 Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Bera Rhamnaceae Tree Fruits, Leaves

and Stems

The fruits are eadible and are largely

consumed by local people. Most valuable in

honey industry.


Its branches are used for making hedges

around cultivated fields.

Its stems are used as fuel.

62 Z. nummularia Burm. Badabera Rhamnaceae Tree Leaves and

Fruits

Fruits are eadible.


The plant is also used as hedges around

cultivated farms and is also used as fuel.

63 Populus nigra L. Sufaida Salicaceae Tree Leaves and

Stems It is mostly used for timber and also as fuel.

64 Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. Ghrasky Sapindaceae Shrub Stem

The branches are used in manufacture of

roofs.

Wood is used as fuel.

65 Monotheca boxifolia

Falc. Gurgura Sapotaceae Tree

Leaves, Stems

and Fruits

Used as fuel and fodder.

Fruits are edible.

Continued…

118

66 Datura alba Rumph. ex

Nees. Daltura Solanaceae Shrub

Leaves and

Stems Used as fodder and fuel

67 Solanum surattense

Burm.f. Speenazghai Solanaceae Herb Whole plant

Used in erecting hedges around cultivated

fields and also as fuel.

68 Withania somnifera L. Shapyanga Solanaceae Herb Leaves, Stems

and Fruits

Used as fodder.

Fruits are edible.

69 Solanum nigrum L. Kachmacho Solanaceae Herb Leaves and

Fruits Mainly used as vegetable.

70 Tamarix aphylla (L.)

Karst. Ghaz Tamaricaceae Tree Stems Mainly used for fuel and timber purposes.

71 Peganum harmala L. Spalanay Zygophyllaceae Herb Stems and

Leaves Used as fuel.

119

Table-3.8: Plants used as fodder

S.

No.

Botanical Name Local

Name Family Habit

1 Amaranthus viridis L. Ranzaka Amaranthaceae Herb

2 Scandix pecten- veneris L. Ziri Amaranthaceae Herb

3 Foeniculam vulgare Miller Sonf,

Kagah Apiaceae Herb

4 Sonchus asper (L.) Hill Tariza Asteraceae Herb

5 Calendula arvensis (L.) Vaill Zyer Gulley Asteraceae Herb

6 Conyza aegyptiaca L. Lalahozah Asteraceae Herb

7 Parthenium hysterophorus L. Lewanai


8 Silybum marianum L. Sohadaky Asteraceae Herb

9

Taraxacum officinale (L.)

Weber. Ziarrguli Asteraceae Herb

10 Heliotropium europaeum L. Wangai Boraginaceae Shrub

11 Coronopus didymus L. Kakorai Brassicaceae Herb

12 Cannabis sativa L. Bhang Cannabaceae Herb

13 Stellaria media (L.) Vill. Gulpullan Caryophyllaceae Herb

14 Chenopodium album L. Spin Soba Chenopodiaceae Herb

15 C. muraleL. Tor Soba Chenopodiaceae Herb

16 Convolvulus arvensis L. Prewatye Convolvulaceae Herb

17

Citrullus colocynthis (L.)

Schrad Tarha Mara Cucurbitaceae Herb

18 Cyperus rotundus L. Dela Cyperaceae Herb

19

Chrozophora tinctoria (L.)

Raf. Skhabotay Euphorbiaceae Herb

Continued…

120

20 Fumaria indica Hausskn. Lewanai

Gazara Fumariaceae Herb

21 Ocimum bacilicum L. Bobrai Lamiaceae Shrub

22 Malva neglecta Wallr. Tor

Peshtara Malvaceae Herb

23 Acacia arabica (Lam.) Willd. Kiker Mimosaceae Tree

24 A. modesta Wall. Palosa Mimosaceae Tree

25 Albizia lebbeck Benth. Sirin Mimosaceae Tree

26 Morus nigar L. Shahtoth Moraceae Tree

27

Boerhavia procumbens Bank

ex Roxb. Pendrawush Myrtaceae Herb

28 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb Shawa Papilionaceae Tree

29 Medicago denticulta Willd. Speshtara Papilionaceae Herb

30 Melilotus indica (L.) All. Uzmai Papilionaceae Herb

31 Trifolium alexandrinum L. Shotall Papilionaceae Herb

32 T. resupinatum L. Zierawona Papilionaceae Herb

33

Cenchrus pennisetiformis

Hochst. And Steud. Shamloha Poaceae Herb

34 C. ciliaris L. Mumloha Poaceae Herb

35 Cynodon dactylon L. Kabal Poaceae Herb

36 Eragrostis cilianensis All. Mumloha Poaceae Herb

37 Calligonum polygonoides L. Balanza Polygonaceae Shrub

38 Rumex dentatus L. Shalkhay Polygonaceae Herb

39 Anagallis arvensis L. Sheen

starga Primulaceae Herb

40 Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Bera Rhamnaceae Tree

41 Z. nummularia Burm. Badabera Rhamnaceae Tree

Continued…

121

42 Monotheca boxifolia Falc. Gurgura Sapotaceae Tree

43 Datura alba Rumph. ex Nees. Daltura Solanaceae Shrub

44 Withania somnifera L. Shapyanga Solanaceae Herb

45 Peganum harmala L. Spalanay Zygophyllaceae Herb

122

Table-3.9: Plants used as fuel

S.No. Botanical Name Local

Name Family Habit

1 Justicia adhatoda L. Baza Acanthaceae Shrub

2 Nerium oleander L. Ranzai Apocynaceae Shrub

3 Rhazya stricta Decne. Ganderai Apocynaceae Shrub

4 Parthenium hysterophorus L. Lewanai


5 Silybum marianum L. Sohadaky Asteraceae Herb

6 Xanthium strumarium L. Kata sora Asteraceae Herb

7 Artemisia vulgaris L. Tarkha Asteraceae Herb

8 Capparis decidua (Forssk.)

Edgew Jaba Capparaceae Herb

9 Cyperus rotundus L. Dela Cyperaceae Herb

10 Chrozophora tinctoria (L.)

Raf. Skhabotay Euphorbiaceae Herb

11 Euphorbia helioscopia L. Ganda

Booti Euphorbiaceae Herb

12 Ricinus communis L. Rund Euphorbiaceae Shrub




16 Prosopis juliflora Swartz. Angrizi

Kikar Mimosaceae Tree

17 Eucalyptus camaldulensis

Dehnh. Lachai Myrtaceae Tree

18 Boerhavia procumbens Bank

ex Roxb. Pendrawush Myrtaceae Herb

19 Olea ferruginea Wall. ex G.

Aitch. Shona Oleaceae Tree

20 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb Shawa papilionaceae Tree

21 Cenchrus pennisetiformis


Continued…

123


23 Ziziphus jujuba Mill. Bera Rhamnaceae Tree

24 Z. nummularia Burm. Badabera Rhamnaceae Tree

25 Populus nigra L Sufaida Saicaceae Tree

26 Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. Ghrasky Sapindaceae Shrub

27 Monotheca boxifolia Falc. Gurgura Sapotaceae Tree

28 Solanum surattense Burm.f. Speenazghai Solanaceae Herb

29 Tamarix aphylla (L.) Karst. Ghaz Tamaricaceae Tree

124

Table-3.10:Plants used in furniture industries

S.No. Botanical Name

Local

Name Family Habit

1 Melia azedarach L. Bakara Meliaceae Tree




5 Prosopis juliflora Swartz. Angrizi

Kikar Mimosaceae Tree




Aitch. Shona Oleaceae Tree

8 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb Shawa Papilionaceae Tree

9 Populus nigra L Sufaida Saicaceae Tree

10 Tamarix aphylla (L.) Karst. Ghaz Tamaricaceae Tree

Table-3.11: Plants used in thatching


Local

Name Family Habit

1 Acacia modesta Wall. Palosa Mimosaceae Tree




4 Cenchrus pennisetiformis



6 Cymbopogon jawarancusa

(Jones.) Schult. Sargarra Poaceae Herb

7 Eragrostis cilianensis All. Mumloha Poaceae Herb

8 Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. Ghrasky Sapindaceae Shrub

125

Table-3.12:Plants used as vegetables


Local

Name Family Habit

1 Chenopodium album L. Spin Soba Chenopodiaceae Herb

2 C. murale L. Tor Soba Chenopodiaceae Herb

3 Malva neglecta Wallr. Tor

Peshtara Malvaceae Herb

4 Rumex dentatus L. Shalkhay Polygonaceae Herb

5 Solanum nigrum L. Kachmacho Solanaceae Herb

6 Stellaria media (L.) Vill. Gulpullan Caryophyllaceae Herb

7 Oxalis corniculata L. Gulbasho Oxalidaceae Herb

Table-3.13: Plants used in hedge

S.No. Botanical Name Local

Name Family Habit

1 Opuntia dillenii Haw. Ghanzka Cactaceae Herb

2 Ziziphus nummularia Burm. Badabera Rhamnaceae Tree

3 Z. jujuba Mill. Bera Rhamnaceae Tree

4 Solanum surattense Burm.f. Speenazghai Solanaceae Herb

126

Table-3.14: Percentage of ethnobotanical usage of plants in district

Nowshera

S.No. Ethnobotanical Usage No. of Plants Percentage

1 Plants used as fodder 45 62.5 %

2 Plants used as fuel wood 29 41.66 %

3 Plants used for furniture 10 13.69 %

4 Plants used for ornamental

purpose

03 4.10 %

5 Plants used as coloring cloths 01 1.36 %

6 Oil yielding plants 01 1.36 %

7 Plants used as vegetable 07 9.58 %

8 Used as hedge 04 5.55 %

9 Plants producing edible fruit 04 5.47 %

10 As perfumes 01 1.36 %

11 For roof thatching purpose 08 10.95 %

127

Figure-3.4: Percentage of ethnobotinical usage of plants in district

Nowshera

128

Figure-3.5: Sheep and Goat of local breed grazing on meager forage in

the range land of district Nowshera

Figure-3.6: Ziziphus, Olea, Acacia, Dodonaea and Prosopis largely used

as fuel wood that further reduces local vegetations

129

Figure-3.7: Stem branches of Ziziphus used as fences

Figure-3.8: Gum of Acacia used in market

130

3.5 Ethnomedicine

Survey was carried out to explore the indigenous knowledge of

medicinal plants of the research area. 90 ethnomedicinal plant species were

recorded from the area belonging to 84 genera and 37 families. The wild

plants were mostly used by the local community for treatment of various

ailments. Indigenous medicinal plants of 66 species of wild herbs (73.95%),

followed by wild trees (13 spp., 14.58 %) and wild shrubs (11 spp., 12.45 %)

were in use by the locals. The highest number of indigenous medicinal plants

were contributed by family Asteraceae (12 spp), followed by Papilionaceae

with 07 species, Poaceae with 06 species, Solanaceae 05 species,

Mimosaceaeand Brassicaceae 04 species each,Amaranthaceae,

Malvaceae,Polygonaceae, Zygophyllaceae and Lamiaceae 03 species each,

Myrtaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Rhamnaceae, Apocynaceaeand Chenopodiaceae

02 species each. Rest of the families i-e Berberidaceae,Capparaceae,

Moraceae, Asclepidaceae,Caryophyllaceae, Cactaceae, Acanthaceae,

Verbenaceae, Alliaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Oxalidaceae, Convulvulaceae,

Cyperaceae, Cannabaceae, Oleaceae, Temaraceae, Plantaginaceae and

Sapindaceae were represented by one species each. Ethnomedicinal

information particularly for asthma, stimulant, dysentery, diarrhea, fever,

emollient, snake bite and for piles was documented from the study area.

During the survey maximum number of plants species (30 spp) were used for

fever treatment followed by diarrhea (09 spp), anthelmintic, stimulant and

dysentery (08 spp each), asthma (06 spp), snake bite (04 spp) and as emollient

(02 spp). Qamar et al. (2010) reported 32 species used against human diseases

(14 spp., used as antiseptic, 9 spp., used as tonic, and 9 spp., used as

anthelmintic)from Neelum valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Lulekal et al.

(2008) documented 78.7% of plant species for different ailments (Asthma,

cough and piles etc). Zereen & Sardar (2013) reported 38 plant species used

for asthma, cough and as stimulantfrom central Punjab. Haq (2012)

documented 47 plant species used for asthma, cough and as stimulantfrom

Allai Valley, Western Himalaya, Pakistan. Khan et al. (2009) reported

131

Tamarix and Calatropis species used against coughfrom F.R. Bannu. Jabbar et

al. (2006) reported 5 plant species used for asthma, cough and as

stimulantfrom Chapursan Valley, district Mian Wali. 22 medicinal weeds

belonging to 13 families were used by the local community for treatment of

various illnessesfrom district Shangla (Ishtiaq et al., 2007). 24 plants species

belong to 16 families were used for medicnal purpose by the local inhabitant

of Manipur, India (Rasila et al., 2013). Mahmood et al. (2013) investigated 71

ethnomedicinal plants belonging to 38 families from Gujranwala district,

Pakistan. Ghulam et al. (2015) documented a sum of 120 plant species

belonging to 50 families from Thar Desert of Sindh, Pakistan. There were 61

medicinal plants belonging to 40 families from 17 sites of Leepa valley, Azad

Jammu and Kashmir (Mahmood et al., 2012). Tag et al. (2012), Mahmood et

al. (2012) and Ghulam et al. (2015) reported the maximum usage of wild

herbaceous medicinal plants from their research area. During the present study

ethnomedicinal information of each species along other botanical data were

recorded in different seasons of the year (Table 17). Choudhury et al. (2015)

and Meena & Yadav 2010 reported 49 plant species from Southern Assam,

India used against the digestive system disorder. Ahmad et al. (2009) recorded

49% plant species used in research area as anti-diabetic.

Plant parts used for the treatment of various ailments comprised of

leaves, seeds, stems, flowers, roots, fruits, whole fresh and whole dry plant.

Leaves (62.12%) were the most preferred plant part used as indigenous

medicine, followed by stems (33.18%), roots (21.16%), seeds (17.50%), fruits

(16.37%), whole plant (15.37%), and flowers (3.08 %) (Fig.2). Mahmood et

al. (2013) from Gujranwala district, Mahmood et al. (2012) from Leepa

valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Ghulam et al. (2015) from Islamabad and

Thar Desert of Sindh, Pakistan and Choudhury et al. (2015) reported from

Southern Assam, India, that leaves are the most prominent part used by the

local community. The extensive use of leaves in indigenous recipes may be

probably due to their highest healing potential possessing secondary

metabolites (Verpoorte, 1998; Verpoorte & Memelink, 2002).

132

Sardar & Khan (2009) investigated that medicinal halophytes were

used to cure about 30 to 35 types of diseasesfrom tehsil Shakargarh, district

Narowal, Pakistan. About 27% species have been used as blood purifier, 13%

species are painkiller, 13% are laxative whereas 22% species specially used as

fodder. 11% species in the remaining have been used against asthma, 08%

species against ulcer while, 06% species have been used in soap industry.

Researchers are actively engaged in exploring plants that have important

medicinal properties such as anti-ulcer, anti-diabetes, antioxidant and anti-

inflammatory (Haq, 1983).

Plant extracts contain chemicals which ceased the formation and

development of crystals. Due to this character plants play a positive role to

avoid kidney stones and crystals accumulation (Goodman & Gafoor, 1992).

The present pharmacopoeia comprises of about 25% medications extracted

from plants (Shinwari, 2010). Hara & Williams (1997) reported 66 medicinal

plant species used to treat various diseases and ailments grouped under 11

disease categories.

133

Table-3.15: List of ethnomedicinal plants

S.No. Botanical name Vernacular

name Family name Habit Part use Ethnomedicinal Uses

1. Justicia adhatoda L. Baza Acanthaceae Shrub

Leaves,

Roots,

Flowers and

Fruits

Extracts of crushed leaves and roots are used in

asthma,cough, rheumatism, bronchitis, dysentery in animals

and also as anti-inflammation.

Extracts of flowers and fruits are used as anthelmintic.

2. Allium

griffithianum Boiss. Piazaky Alliaceae Herb

Leaves and

Bulbs

Bulbs are used as aphrodisiac. Leaves extract is used in optic

pain, flatulence and skin diseases.

3. Amaranthus viridis L. Ranzaka Amaranthaceae Herb Roots, Stems

and Leaves

Roots and stems decoctions are used in inflammation and

dysentery.They are also used as pain killer and in fever

Leaves decoctions are used as emollient and against snake

bite and in scorpion sting.

4. Foeniculam vulgare

Miller. Sonf, Kaga Apiaceae Herb

Fruits and

Leaves Used as carminative and stimulant.

5. Achyranthes aspera L. Spy boty Amaranthaceae Herb Whole plant

Decoctions of whole dry plant are useful in excessive

menstruation, diarrhea, dysentery, and piles.

Decoctions of leaves are used as remedy for toothache and

abdominal pain.

6. Scandix pecten- veneris

L. Ziri Amaranthaceae Herb Whole plant Whole plant extract is used for cooling of animal body.

Continued…

134

7 Nerium oleander L. Ranzai Apocynaceae Shrub Roots and

Leaves

Dried roots are grinded to make paste and usedin snake

bite, scorpion sting and for skin diseases.

Leaves decoctions are used for the treatment of skin

inflammation.

8. Rhazya stricta

Decne. Ganderai Apocynaceae Shrub

Roots, Stems

and Leaves

Decoctions of plant are used in blood purification, skin

diseases and for fever.

9. Calotropis procera

Aiton. Spalmy Asclepiadaceae Shrub

Stems and

Leaves

Dried leaves are grinded into powder, mixed with ghur

(local name of sugar) and their paste is used for snake

bite.

Latex is useful for ringworm and skin disease.

Leaves are heated in water. Extract obtained is used in

ear pain and against fever.

10. Calendula arvensis

(L.) Vaill Zyer Gulley Asteraceae Herb Flowers

The dried flowers are crushed and their extract is used for

toothache.

11.

Taraxacum

officinale (L.)

Weber.

Boda sary Asteraceae Herb Roots, Stems

and Leaves Decoctions are used for fever and stomachache

12. Cichorium intybus

Linn. Kashnee Asteraceae Herb Whole plant

Extract of whole plant is used for abdominal disorders,

indigestion, headache, asthma, gout, and joint pain.

13. Eclipta prostrata L. Daryai boti Asteraceae Herb Whole plant Whole plant decoctions have a tonic effect on the

circulatory, nervous and digestive system.

Continued…

135

14. Lactuca serriola L. Pae gully Asteraceae Herb Leaves and

Stems

The tea prepared from its leaves is used by pregnant

woman to keep them cool.

Decoctions of dried leaves and stems are used as cooling

agent, sedative and diaphoretic.

15. Carthamus

oxycantha L. Ghzanka Asteraceae Herb

Stems,

Flowers and

Seeds

Seeds and flowers are used in measles, as stimulant, for

fever and eruptive skin disease.

Oil obtained from its seeds is used as hair tonic.

Stems are dried, crushed and powder is made which is

used as antipyretic.

16. Conyza aegyptiaca

L. Lalahozah Asteraceae Herb

Stems and

Leaves

Extraction of stems is used as a stimulant.

Dried leaves decoctions are made which is used in

dysentery, diarrhea and is used as antipyretic.

17. Sonchus asper (L.)

Hill Tariza Asteraceae Herb Whole plant

Whole plant decoctions are used in asthma.

Extractions of roots and leaves are used in constipation,

inflammation of skin and for fever.

18. Xanthium

strumarium L. Kata sora Asteraceae Herb

Fruits and

whole plant

Fruits are dried and grinded into powder which is used

for urinary tract infection and as antipyretic.

19. Parthenium

hysterophorus L.

Lewanai


Leaves and

Stems

Leaves and stems decoctions are used as blood purifier

and fever.

Continued…

136

20. Silybum marianum

L. Sohadaky Asteraceae Herb

Leaves, Stems

and Seeds

Leaves and stems are used as diaphoretic.

Seeds are emollient and are used for hemorrhage

(bleeding).

21. Artemisia vulgaris

L. Tarkha Asteraceae Herb Leaves

Leaves decoctions are used as antiperiodic and as

carminative.

22.

Coronopus didymus

(L.) Sm.

Kakorai Brassicaceae Herb Stems and

Roots

Grounded roots are used as anthelmintic while powder

form of stems is used for fever.

23. Berberis lycium

Royle Ziarlargy Berberidaceae Herb

Stems, Leaves

and Roots

Decoctions of leaves and stems with honey are given

twice a day for 7-15 days in jaundice.

Roots extract is given twice a day for 3-6 months for

jaundice.

24. Heliotropium

europaeum L. Wangai Boraginaceae Shrub Leaves

Fresh leaves are grinded and decoctions are made which

is used as diuretic and purgative

25.

Eruca sativa Mill.

Jamama Brassicaceae Herb Seeds and

Leaves

The dried seeds are grinded and squeezed to extract oil. It

is given to the cattle’s as anthelmintic and also used as

hair tonic.

Fresh leaves are crushed, boiled and decoctions are made

which is used for fever.

26. Lepidium sativum L. Haliyon Brassicaceae Herb Seeds and

Fruits

Dried seeds are mixed with water, heated and upon

cooling are given for abdominal pain.

Roasted fruits are mixed with curd and usedfor fever and

in diarrhea.

Continued…

137

27. Sisymbrium irio L. Badal Bang Brassicaceae Herb Seeds and

Leaves

The dried seeds and leaves are grinded and used for

throat infection, as diaphoretic and fever.

Powder of the grinded seeds is used as expectorant and

stimulant.

28. Opuntia dillenii

Haw. Ghanzka Cactaceae Herb Seeds

Infusion of seeds is used in asthma, fever, as stimulant

and antispasmodic.

29. Cannabis sativa L. Bhang Cannabaceae Herb Leaves Used as sedative, diuretic and for fever.

30. Capparis decidua

(Forssk.) Edgew Jaba Capparaceae Herb Leaves

Leaves decoctions are used as carminative, for piles and

for fever.

31. Stellaria media (L.)

Vill. Gulpullan

Caryophyllacea

e

Herb Leaves and

Stems Dried leaves and stems are used as antipyretic.

32. Chenopodium

album L. Spin Soba Chenopodiacea Herb

Roots and

Seeds

Decoctionsare made of dried roots, which are used for

urinary tract infection.

Dried seeds are grinded into powder and this powder is

used in rheumatism.

33. C. murale L. Tor Soba Chenopodiacea Herb Seeds Extracts of its seeds are used in asthma, as aromatic, as

stimulant and as antispasmodic.

Continued…

138

34. Convolvulus

arvensis L. Prewatye Convolvulaceae Herb Whole plant

Dried fruits are grinded into powder and used for hair

washing to remove dandruff.

Whole plant decoctions are used for pain worms.

Dried roots are crushed and decoctions are made and

used as laxative.

35.

Citrullus

colocynthis (L.)

Schrad.

Tarha Mara Cucurbitaceae Herb Stems and

Roots

Stems and roots decoctions are used in dysentery and

diarrhea.

36. Cuscuta reflexa

Roxb. Chambal Cuscutaceae Herb Whole plant

Fresh plant decoctions are made which is used as

diuretic, anthelmintic, carminative andfor toothache,

Plant extraction is used in vomiting and as antipyretic

37. Cyperus rotundus L. Dela Cyperaceae Herb Leaves Leaves are used in back-ache, weakness and in

inflammation.

38. Euphorbia

helioscopia L. Ganda Booti Euphorbiaceae Herb

Stems, Roots

and Leaves

Dried stems are powdered and used in constipation.

Roots decoctions are used as anthelmintic.

Fresh leaves of the plant are grinded and decoctions are

made which is used in hepatitis.

Continued…

139

39. Ricinus communis

L. Arhund Euphorbiaceae Shrub

Seeds and

Stems

Seeds are crushed into powder and a paste is made which

is given to cattle in constipation and fever

The oil extracted from its seeds is used in snake bite and

also used to expel out the poison.

The bark of the stems is grinded into powder; paste is

prepared and is used for healing wounds.

40.

Fumaria indica

Hausskn.

Lewanai

Gazara Fumariaceae Herb Whole plant

Dried plant is crushed into powder and is used for

constipation. It is also used for purification of blood.

Extraction of plant is used as antipyretic,vermifuge,

antiperiodic and in skin eruption.

Leaves decoctions are used for diabetes, dyspepsia,

jaundice and joint pains.

41. Ocimum bacilicum

L. Bobrai

Lamiaceae

Shrub Leaves, Stems

and Seeds

Leaves and stems areheated and wrapped over the wound

till recovery in case of injury.

Seeds decoctions are used in dysentery and diarrhea.

42. Mentha spicata L. Bodina Lamiaceae Herb Leaves Used in wound healing, constipation, abdominal

disorders and as condiments.

43. M. longifolia L. Vinaly Lamiaceae Herb Whole plant Used as carminative also in indigestion, gastric troubles

vomiting and as antipyretic.

Continued…

140

44. Aloe vera (L.)

Burm.f. Zargeya Liliaceae Herb Leaves

Leaves extraction is mixed with salt and used in hepatitis

and fever

Heated leaves are used to treat the inflamed part of the

body.

45. Malva neglecta

Wallr. Tor Peshtara Malvaceae Herb

Leaves and

Roots

Leaves are crushed and decoctions are made which is

used in dysentery.

Grinded roots are used as anthelmintic.

46. Abutilon bidentatum

Hochst. ex A.Rich. Ziary Malvaceae Shrub Leaves

The decoctions of leaves are useful for diarrhea,

inflammation of bladder and for fever.

47.

Malvastrum

coromandelianum

L.

Balla Malvaceae

Herb

Leaves

Leaves paste is applied on minor wounds.

Leaves are used by the sugar patients to normalize biood

sugar level.

48. Melia azedarach L. Bakara Meliaceae Tree Roots and

Leaves

Leaves are given to cattles as carminative.

Leaves of the plant are grinded and decoctions are made

which is used as anthelmintic and antipyretic

Decoctions of roots are used as a vermifuge.

49. Acacia arabica

(Lam.) Willd. Kiker Mimosaceae Tree

Roots and

Stems

Stems and roots decoctions are used in dysentery and

diarrhea.

Stems decoctions are used in constipation.

50. A. modesta Wall. Palosa Mimosaceae Tree Leaves and

Gum

Leaves extract is used for animals as carminative.

Gum acts as a demulcent material that serves to sheathe

cuts, wounds and inflamed part of skin also used as

aromatherapy and as food.

Continued…

141

51. Prosopis juliflora

Swartz.

Angrizy

Kikar Mimosaceae Tree Stems Bark decoctions are used in rheumatism and for fever.

52. Albizia lebbeck

Benth. Sirin Mimosaceae Tree

Leaves and

stems Used as antipyretic and for ulcers.

53. Morus nigra L. Shahtoth Moraceae Tree Fruits, Leaves

and Roots

Decoctions of fruits and leaves are used for throat

infection.

Extracts of roots and barks is used to kill abdominal

worms.

54.

Eucalyptus

camaldulensis

Dehnh.

Lachai Myrtaceae Tree Leaves Leaves decoctions are used as antiperiodic, carminative,

expectorant and antiseptic.

55.

Boerhavia

procumbens Bank

ex Roxb.

Pendrawush Myrtaceae Herb Roots

Dried roots are grinded into powder and used to treat

hepatitis.

Roots decoctions are used as purgative, diuretic and also

used for fever.

56. Olea ferruginea

Wall. ex G. Aitch. Shona

Oleaceae

Tree

Fruits and

Leaves

Oil is obtained from its fruits which are used in

rheumatism, for back ache and for burns.

Leaves extracts are used as diuretic and antiseptic.

57. Oxalis corniculata

L. Gulbasho Oxalidaceae Herb

Leaves and

Roots

Used in wound healing, stomachache, as cooling agent

and antipyretic.

58. Dalbergia

sissooRoxb Shawa Papilionaceae Tree

Leaves and

stems

Decoctions of leaves are used for fever.

Wood is used in asthma.

Continued…

142

59. Pongamia pinnata

L. Sukh chain Papilionaceae Tree

Seeds and

Roots

Oil extracted from its seeds is used externally to cure

herpes and eczema.

Roots extract cures ulcer and fistula.

60. Lathyrus aphaca

Linn. Jangli matter Papilionaceae Herb Seeds Seeds extract is used as narcotics.

61. Alhagi maurorum

Medic. Spulmaka Papilionaceae Herb whole plant

Decoctions of plant are used in skin allergies and also

used as blood purifier.

62. Medicago denticulta

Willd. Speshtara Papilionaceae Herb

Leaves and

Stems

Leaves and stems are crushed and extraction is obtained

which is used as carminative.

63. Melilotus indica (L.)

All. Uzmai Papilionaceae Herb

Leaves and

Roots

Decoctions of leaves are used for toothache and

abdominal pain.

Roots decoctions are used for fever.

64. Trifolium

alexandrinum L. Shotall Papilionaceae Herb

Leaves ,Stems

and Fruits

Fruits are used in constipation.

Decoctions of leaves and stems are used for fever.

65. Plantago major L. Spinghol Plantaginaceae Herb Seeds and

Leaves

Decoctions of seeds are used in diarrhea, dysentery, and

constipation.

Leaves decoctions are used for skin diseases.

Crushed leaves are used as anti-coagulant.

Continued…

143

66.

Cymbopogon

jawarancusa

(Jones.) Schult.

Sargarra Poaceae Herb Stems and

Leaves

Extraction of crushed stems and leaves are used as

antipyretic.

67. Avena sativa L. Judar Poaceae Herb Leaves Leaves extract is used as stimulant.

68. Cynodon dactylon

L. Kabal Poaceae Herb

Leaves, Stems

and Roots

Plant decoctions are used as blood purifier and diuretic.

Mixture of leaves and milk is used for bleeding piles

vomiting, and irritation of urinary tract.

Leaves are given to cows for increasing milk production.

69. Eragrostis

cilianensis All. Mumloha Poaceae

Herb

Leaves Fruits are used to treat gas troubles and as antipyretic.

70. Cenchrus ciliaris L.

Mumloha

Poaceae

Herb

Seeds and

Leaves

Dried seeds and leaves are grinded and used as

diaphoretic and in fever.

71. C. pennisetiformis

Hochst. And Steud.

Shamloha

Poaceae Herb Stems and

Leaves Used in digestive disorders and as antipyretic.

72. Rumex dentatus L. Shalkhay Polygonaceae Herb Leaves and

Stems

Dried leaves and stems powder are mixed with honey and

used in fever.

Continued…

144

73. Polygonum

plebeium R. Br Adranaky Polygonaceae Herb Whole plant Plant decoctions are used in digestive disorders.

74. Calligonum

polygonoides L. Balanza Polygonaceae Shrub Leaves

Dried leaves are crushed, a powder is made which is used

to treat diabetes and in fever.

75. Anagallis arvensis

L. Sheen starga Primulaceae Herb Leaves Leaves extract is mixed with milk and used for fever.

76. Ranunculus

scleratus L. Ziara gaya Ranunculaceae Herb Whole plant Decoctions are used in skin diseases.

77. Ziziphus

nummularia Burm. Badabera

Rhamnaceae

Tree Fruits Fruits are used for constipation.

78. Z. jujuba Mill. Bera Rhamnaceae

Tree

Leaves and

Fruits

Fruits are used in constipation.

Dried leaves are crushed and a powder is made which is

used to treat diabetes.

79. Dodonaea viscosa

Jacq. Ghrasky Sapindaceae Shrub Whole plant

Decoctions are used to treat inflammation of skin and

wound healing.

Decoctions of leaves are used as astringent, stimulant

rheumatism and for burns.

Continued…

145

80. Verbascum thapsus

L. Khrghwagy

Scrophulariacea

e Herb

Seeds and

Leaves

Oil from seeds is used as demulcent and emollient.

Leaves are used as stimulants and also used in diarrhea,

cough and fever..

81. Solanum nigrum

var. nigrum L. Kachmacho Solanaceae Herb Fruits Fruits are used for cardiac diseases and as antipyretic.

82. S. surattense

Burm.f. Speenazghai Solanaceae Herb

Fruits,

Leaves, Stems

and Flowers

Fruits are used for sore throat, as purgative and in

constipation.

Leaves extractions are used as rheumatism.

Decoctions of stems, flowers are used as antipyretic and

carminative.

83. Withania somnifera

L. Odagy Solanaceae Herb Seeds Seeds are given to cattles to treat digestive disorders.

84. W. coagulans

(Stock) Dunal Shapyanga Solanaceae Herb

Leaves. Stems

and Fruits

Leaves, stems and fruits are given to cattle to treat gas

troubles.

85. Datura alba

Rumph. ex Nees. Daltura Solanaceae Shrub

Leaves and

Fruits

Dried fruits are grinded into powder and are given to

cattle to treat digestive disorder. The extractions of fruits

are used as hair tonic.

Decoctions of leaves are used in skin diseases and in

fever.

Continued…

146

86. Tamarix aphylla

(L.) Karst. Ghaz Tamaricaceae Tree

Leaves and

Stems

Stems decoctions are used for toothache.

Dried leaves are used for curing of burn spots.

87. Verbena officinalis

L. Shomokha Verbenaceae Herb Whole plant

Verbena, Fumaria indica and Solanum nigrum are dried

and crushed into powder, mixed with water and used

thrice a day before meals. it is effective in itching, warts,

in blood purification and for fever.

88. Peganum harmala

L. Spalanay Zygophyllaceae Herb Fruits Fruits are used in gas troubles.

89. Fagonia cretica L. Sperlaghzai Zygophyllaceae Herb Leaves and

Stems

Stems and leaves extractions are used for blood

purification and also used for skin diseases and fever.

90. Tribulus terrestris

L. Melai Zygophyllaceae Herb Fruits Fruits are used as diuretic and tonic.

147

Table-3.16: Plants used against asthma

S.No. Palnt Name Vernacular name Family

1 Justicia adhatoda L. Baza Acanthaceae

2 Cichorium intybus Linn. Kashnee Asteraceae

3 Sonchus asper (L.) Hill Tariza Asteraceae

4 Chenopodium murale L. Tor Soba Chenopodiacea

5 Opuntia dilleni Haw. Ghanzka Cactaceae

6 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Shawa Papilionaceae

Table-3.17: Plants used in dysentery

S.No. Plant name Vernicular name Family

1 Achyranthes aspera L. Spy boty Amaranthaceae

2 Amaranthus viridis L. Ranzaka Amaranthaceae

3 Conyza aegyptiaca L. Lalahozah Asteraceae


5 Citrullus colocynthis (L.)

Schrad

Tarha Mara Cucurbitaceae

6 Ocimum bacilicum L. Bobrai Lamiaceae

7 Malva neglecta Wallr. Tor Peshtara Malvaceae

8 Acacia arabica (Lam.) Willd. Kiker Mimosaceae

148

Table-3.18: Plants used as anthelmintic

S.No. Plant name Vernacular name Family


2 Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm. Kakorai Brassicaceae

3 Eruca sativa Mill. Jamama Brassicaceae

4 Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Chambal Cuscutaceae

5 Euphorbia helioscopia L. Ganda Booti Euphorbiaceae

6 Malva neglecta Wallr. Tor Peshtara Malvaceae

7 Melia azedarach L. Bakara Meliaceae

Table-3.19: Plants used as stimulant


1 Foeniculam vulgare Miller. Snof, Kagah Amaranthaceae

2 Carthamus oxycantha L. Ghzanka Asteraceae


4 Sisymbrium irio L. Badal Bang Brassicaceae

5 Opuntia dillini Haw. Ghanzka Cactaceae

6 Chenopodium murale L. Tor Soba Chenopodiacea

7 Avena sativa L. Judar Poaceae

8 Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. Ghrasky Sapindaceae

9 Verbascum thapsus L. Khrghwagy Scrophulariaceae

149

Table-3.20:Plants used in diarrhea


1 Achyranthes aspera L. Spy boty Amaranthaceae


3 Lepidium sativum L. Haliyon Brassicaceae

4 Fumaria indica Hausskn. LewanaiGajar Fumariaceae

5 Ocimum bacilicum L. Bobrai Lamiaceae

6 Abutilon bidentatum Hochst. ex

A.Rich.

Ziary Malvaceae

7 Acacia arabica (Lam.) Willd. Kiker Mimosaceae

8 Plantago major L. Spinghol Plantaginaceae


Table-3.21: Plants used as emollient




Table-3.22: Plants used in snake bite



2 Nerium oleander L. Ranzai Apocynaceae

3 Calotropis procera Aiton. Spilmaka Asclepiadaceae

4 Ricinus communis (L.) Rund Euphorbiaceae

150

Table-3.23: Plants used in fever

S.No. Plants name Vernacular

name Family


2 Rhazya stricta Decne. Ganderai Apocynaceae

3 Calotropis procera Aiton. Spilmaka Asclepiadaceae

4 Carthamus oxycantha L. Ghzanka Asteraceae

5 Sonchus asper (L.) Hill. Tariza Asteraceae

6 Taraxacum officinale (L.)

Weber.

Zyr gully Asteraceae

7 Parthenium hysterophorus L. Lewanai Bang Asteraceae

8 Eruca sativa Mill. Jamama Brassicaceae

9 Lepidium sativum L. Haliyon Brassicaceae

10 Sisymbrium irrioL. Badal Bang Brassicaceae

11 Coronopus didymus L. Kakorai Brassicaceae

12 Opuntia dillenii Haw. Ghanzka Cactaceae

13 Cannabis sativa L. Bhang Cannabaceae


Edgew

Jaba Capparaceae

15 Ricinus communis L. Rund Euphorbiaceae

16 Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Zargeya Liliaceae

17

Abutilon bidentatum Hochst. ex

A.Rich.

Ziary Malvaceae

18 Prosopis juliflora Swartz. Angrizi Kikar Mimosaceae

19 Boerhavia procumbens Bank. Pendrawush Mytraceae

20 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Shawa Papilionaceae

Continued…

151

21 Melilotus indica (L.) All. Uzmai Papilionaceae

22 Trifolium alexandrinum L. Shotall Papilionaceae

23 Cenchrus ciliarus L. Mumloha Poaceae

24 Anagallis arvensis L. Sheen starga Primulaceae

25 Rumex dentatus L. Shalkhay Polygonaceae

26 Calligonum polygonoides L. Balanza Polygonaceae


28 Datura alba Rumph. ex Nees. Daltura Solanaceae

29 Verbena officinalis L. Shomokha Verbenaceae

30 Fagonia cretica L. Sperlaghzai Zygophyllaceae

Table-3.24: Percentage of ethnomedicinal uses of plants

S.No. Ethnomedicinal Uses No. of Plants Percentage

1 For Asthma 06 6.59%

2 As Anthelmintic 07 7.62%

3 In Dysentery 08 8.79%

4 As Stimulant 09 8.79 %

5 In Diarrhea 09 9.37 %

6 As Emollient 02 2.08 %

7 For Snake bite 04 4.39 %

8 For Fever 30 33.11 %

152

Figure-3.9: Percentage of Ethnomedicinal usage of plants at district

Nowshera

153

3.6 Phytochemical screening

Pharmacognostic study is of utmost importance to correctly identify

crude drugs. For this purpose, emphasis is laid down on standardization of

medicinal plants used in health problems. Pharmacognostic techniques still

play an important role for identification and standardization of important

chemicals (Najafi & Deokule, 2010). Pharmacognosy is primarily the study of

physical, chemical, biochemical and biological properties of drugs of natural

origin as well as the search for new drugs from natural sources (Tyler, 1999).

It is a long established discipline of finding, characterization, manufacturing

and standardization of plant material in term of their morphological,

anatomical and biochemical features (Kinghorn, 2002). Plants contain several

active constituents of pharmacological importance (Ming et al., 2005). In the

present study qualitative phytochemical tests were carried out at two

phenological stages of ten selected plants Olea ferruginea, Chenopodium

album, Plantago lanceolata, Lactuca serriola, Parthenium hysterophorus,

Carthamus oxycantha, Chrozophora tinctoria, Achyranthes aspera, Withania

somnifera and Cichorium intybus. Preliminary phytochemical screening is

important and useful for isolation of pharmacologically active compounds

present in the plants (Sugumaran & Vetrichelvan, 2008). The anti-oxidant

activity of plants is due to the presence of secondary metabolites such as

flavonoids, terpenoids, tannins, phenolics and saponins (Ghias Uddin et al.,

2011; Rauf et al., 2012).

3.6.1 Alkaloids

Alkaloids are nitrogen containing secondary metabolites with

bitter/acrid taste providing safety to plants against grazing and browsing.

Alkaloids are physiologically and therapeutically active compounds (Tyler,

1999). Phytochemical screening for alkaloids at vegetative stage revealed

presence of alkaloids in the selected plants in methanolic and chloroform

fractions while absence in Chrozophora tinctoria and Achyranthes aspera in

chloroform fraction. Alkaloids were present in n-hexane fraction in all plants

except Chenopodium album, Lactuca serriola, Withania somnifera and

154

Cichorium intybus (Samuelsson, 2004; Trease et al., 1989). Siddiqui et al.

(2010) reported the absence of alkaloids in n-hexane fraction of Euphorbia

milli and their presence in n-butanol fraction. Naz & Bano (2013) investigated

high concentration of alkaloids, phenolics and flavonoids in leaves of Lantena

camara at fruiting stage which is in conformity with our findings. Methanol

and ethanol extracts showed the presence of more secondary metabolites than

other extracts (Naz & Bano, 2013).

3.6.2 Tannins

Tannins act as feeding deterrents against herbivores due to their

astringent effects. Presence of tannins also suggests a major curative role in

treatment of some human disorders (Asquith & Butler, 1986). At vegetative

stage the tannins were observed in the selected plants in methanolic fraction

while in chloroform fraction they showed their presence except Achyranthes

aspera and Withania somnifera. Tannins were absent in n-hexane fraction

except Lactuca and Carthamus (Table 3.25). The present results are similar to

the investigations of Urmila et al. (2013) who reported more active secondary

metabolites in methanolic and aqueous extracts as compared to other extracts.

At fruiting stage tannins were observed in the selected plants in all fractions.

Magaji et al. (2007) reported phytochemical constituents in methanolic extract

of various parts of Securinega virosa. Rauf et al. (2014) reported that ethyl

acetate contained the maximum phytochemicals than n-hexane and aqueous

extracts of Euphorbia milli. Skimmia laureola aqueous and ethanolic extracts

contained alkaloids, flavonoids and tannins, while they were absent in n-

hexane fraction (Barakatullah & Ibrar, 2011) which are in conformity with the

present study. Similarly Arjun et al. (2009) explored phytochemical

composition of Hygrophila spinosa leaves reporting the maximum

concentration of secondary metabolites in methanolic fraction.

3.6.3 Sugars

Sugars were found in methanolic fraction (extract) of all the tested

plants while their absence was recorded at vegetative stage. Such findings

155

were reported by Siddiqui et al. (2010). In chloroform fraction Chenopodium,

Parthenium and Carthamus showed their presence while rest of the plants

showed their absence. At fruiting stage sugars were found in all the tested

plants in methanolic fraction. In chloroform fraction sugars were absent in

Plantago, Achyranthes, Withania and Cichorium while in n-hexane fraction

their absence was recorded in all tested plants (Table 27). Ethyl alcohol extract

showed more plants chemicals than the choloroform and n-hexane (Rauf et al.,

2014)

3.6.4 Saponins

Saponins, special classes of glycosides that has a soapy characteristics,

acts as an antifungal agent (Fluck, 1973; Sodipo et al., 1991). Phytochemical

study revealed the presence of saponins in both methanolic and chloroform

fractions in all plants except Chrozophora. N-hexane fraction shows the

presence of saponins only in Chenopodium, Plantago and Parthenium and

absence in rest of the plants. At vegetative and post reproductive stage

saponins were present in methanolic and chloroform fractions, while in n-

hexane fraction maximum plants like Olea, Chenopodium, Lactuca,

Parthenium and Carthamus showed their presence and Plantago,

Chrozophora, Achyranthes, Withania and Cichorium showed absence of

saponins (Table 26). The qualitative phytochemical screening was carried out

using different extracts of whole plant at vegetative and post reproductive

phase. Nijveldt et al. (2001) investigated that flavonoids and phenolics were

present at higher concentration in native plant compared to exotic species.

Chirikova et al. (2010) investigated that maximum concentration of secondary

matabolites were present in methanolic fraction of Scutellaria baicalensis.

3.6.5 Flavoniods

Flavoniods in plants prevent oxidative cell damage; possess antiseptic,

anticancer, anti-inflammatory effects and mild hypersensitive properties which

help in preventing oxidative cell damage (Okwu, 2004). Havsteen (2002)

reported some biological activities of flavonoids like antimicrobial,

156

antioxidant, anti-viral, cardio-protective and neuro-protective properties. The

phytochemical screening for flavonoids in vegetative stage showed their

presence in all the tested plants in methanolic and chloroform fractions but n-

hexane fraction showed their absence in the selected plants. Siddiqui et al.

(2010) reported absence of flavonoids in n-hexane fraction of Euphorbia milli.

At fruiting stage the flavonoids were present in methanolic and chloroformic

fractions, while in n-hexane they were also found in some plants except

Chenopodium, Plantago, Chrozophora and Withania. The presence and

absence of flavonoids depended on plant material collection site (Mandindi,

2015). Ethanolic extract analysis of Clitoria ternatea seeds showed the

maximum presence of flavonoids (Kalyan et al., 2011).

3.6.6 Terpenoids

Terpenoids are known to possess anti-microbial activities mainly anti-

bacterial and anti-fungal (Ghias Uddin et al., 2011; Rauf et al., 2012).

Diterpenes like gibberellins have role in plant growth and development. At

vegetative stage methanolic fraction showed the presence of terpenoids in all

tested plants, also in chloroform and n-hexane fraction. Plantago, Carthamus

and Achyranthes showed absence of terpenoids in both fractions. The

terpenoids at fruiting stage showed its presence in methanolic and chloroform

fractions in all plants, while the result for n-hexane indicated their presence in

all tested plants except Plantago and Parthenium. Highest concentration of

tannins, phenolics and sugar contents were investigated in ethyl acetate and

methanolic fractions and less concentration in n-hexane fraction of selected

plant materials (Skerget et al., 2005).

3.6.7 Cardiac glycosides

Cardiac glycosides are plant secondary metabolites having volatile

poisons and toxins which are feeding deterrents to many insects and other

herbivores. The results at vegetative stage revealed that cardiac glycosides

were found in all tested plants except Carthamus and Withania in methanolic

and chloroform fraction. The n-hexane tests indicated the presence of cardiac

157

glycosides in Olea, Plantago and Cichorium, while their absence was recorded

at vegetative stage for rest of the tested plants. The absences of cardiac

glycosides were investigated in n-hexane fraction of Euphorbia milli (Siddiqui

et al., 2010). At fruiting stage methanolic and n-hexane fractions contained

cardiac glycosides in all the selected plants, while absent in n-hexane fraction

of Chenopodium, Plantago, Parthenium and Achyranthes. Less amount of

secondary metabolites were reported in n-hexane and methanolic fraction of

berries of Manitoba (Canada), choke cherries and sea buck thorn (Hosseinian

et al., 2007). Phenols and cardiac glycosides were found in leaves of

Euphorbia milli possessing anti-oxidant activity (Piett, 2000).

3.6.8 Phenolics

Phenolics compounds are responsible for antioxidant activity (Piett,

2000). Phenolics play an important role in pollinations, fruit and seeds

dispersal. Phenolics also contribute to allelopathic potential. The tests for

phenolics at vegetative stage revealed the presence of phenolics in methanolic

fractions in all selected plants, while Achyranthes showed their absence in

chloroform fraction. In n-hexane fraction, phenolics were present in

Parthenium and Chrozophora, their absence was observed in rest of the plants.

The present result was supported by Siddiqui et al. (2010). At fruiting stage

phenolic were found in all plants in methanolics, n-hexane and chloroform

fractions.Chenopodium album contained less phenolic than Solanum nigrum at

fruiting stage (Mandindi, 2015).

3.6.9 Anthraquinones

At vegetative stage in methanolic fraction anthraquinones were found

in Chenopodium, Parthenium, Carthamus, Chrozophora and Withania and

their absence were observed in Olea, Plantago, Lactuca, Achyranthes and

Cichorium. In chloroform fraction these were only found in Chrozophora and

absence was recorded in rest of all the tested species. While in n-hexane

fraction anthraquinones were absent in all tested plants. Euphorbia hirta is a

rich source of bioactive substances, which might be helpful in combating

158

diseases. There bioactive substances were mainly found in methanolic fraction

and absent in n-hexane (Bhagwat, 2008). Gu et al. (2004) reported that less

amount of secondary metabolites were present in n-hexane than methanol

fraction. At fruiting stage Cichorium showed the absence of anthraquinones

while their presence in rest of test plants. The n-hexane fraction showed

absence of anthraquinones in Olea, Achyranthes, Withania and Cichorium and

presence in the rest of test plants. Amaranthus dubius contained more

secondary metabolites than Urtica lobulata, Solanum nigrum, and

Chenopodium album (Mandindi, 2015). Ethanolic fraction of Hygrophila

spinosa leaves showed the presence of anthraquinones, alkaloids, steroids,

proteins, flavonoids, fats, oils, tannins, mucilage and organic acids (Patra et

al., 2009).

The findings of various researchers suggest that preliminary

phytochemicals screening play a significant role in providing ease in isolation

of pharmacological active plant constituents.

159

Table-3.25: Different phytochemical tests of selected ten plant species at vegetative stages

Chemical Test Test Name

Methanol fraction Chloroform fraction n-Hexane fraction

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Alkaloids + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - + + - - - - - - - - - - Dragon drof

Tannins + + + + + +

+ + + + + + + + + + + + - - + - - - + - + - - - - Ferric chloride

Sugars + + + + + + + + + + - + - - + + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Fehling

Saponins + + + + + + - + + + + + + + + + - + + + - + + - + - - - - - Frothing test

Flavonoides + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - - - - - - - - - - Alkali reagent

Terpenoids + + + + + + + + + + + + - + + - + - + + + + - + +

+ - + - + + Salkowiski

Cardiac

Glycosides + + + + + - + + - + + + + + + - + + - + + - + - - - - - - + Killaer killani

Phenolics + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + + - - - - + - + - - - Ferric chloride

Anthraquin

ones - + - - + + + - + - - - - - - - + - - - - - - - - - - - - - HCl detection

test

1= Olea ferruginea, 2= Chenopodium album, 3= Plantago lanceolata, 4= Lactuca serriola, 5=Parthenium hysterophorus, 6= Carthamus

oxycantha, 7= Chrozophora tinctoria, 8= Achyranthes aspera, 9=Withania somnifera, 10= Cichorium intybus

160

Table-3.26: Different phytochemical test of selected plant species at fruiting stage

Chemical Test Test Name

Methanol fraction Chloroform fraction N-Hexane fraction

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Alkaloids + + + + +

+

+

+

+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + - + + + + - - Dragon drof

Tannins + + + +

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Ferric

chloride

Sugars + + + +

+ + + + + + + + + - + + + + - - - - - - - - - - - - - Fehling

Saponins +

+ + + + + + - + + + + + + + + + - + + + + + - + + + - - - - Frothing test

Flavonoides +

+ + + + +

+

+ + + + +

+

+ + + + + + + + + + + - - + + + - + + -

Alkali

reagent

Terpenoids +

+ + + + + + + + + +

+

+ + + + + + + + + +

+

+ + - + - + + + + + Salkowiski

Cardiac

Glycosides

+

+ + + + + +

+

+ + + +

+

+ + + + + + + + + + + - - + - + + - + +

Killaer

killani

Phenolics +

+ + +

+

+ + + + + + +

+

+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + +

Ferric

chloride

Anthraquin

ones + + + + + + + + + - + + + + + + + + + - - + + + + + + - - -

HCl

detection test

1= Olea ferruginea, 2= Chenopodium album, 3= Plantago lanceolata, 4= Lactuca serriola, 5=Parthenium hysterophorus, 6= Carthamus

oxycantha, 7= Chrozophora tinctoria, 8= Achyranthes aspera, 9= Withania somnifera, 10= Cichorium intybus

161

3.7 Chemical evaluation of some selected plants

Plants play a significant role in providing primary health care services

to rural people and are used by about 80% of the marginal communities

around the world (Dastagir et al., 2013). All medicinal plants have specific

nutritional value in spite of medicinally important chemicals. These

phytochemicals plays a vital role for proper development of living body

(Adnan et al., 2010). Most of the researchers investigated the proximate

composition of several plants; Amaranthus viridis by Falade et al. (2004);

Sonchus eruca, Withania coagulans and Fagonia indica by Hussain et al.

(2010); Zingiber officinale, Allium sativum and Parkia biglobosa by

Odebunmi et al. (2010). Forages have always been an extremely important

source of nutrients of livestock. Additionally, they provide fibers which

enhance proper digestion in forage-consuming animals. Through their

conversion into milk and meat products, forages continue to be one of the

primary sources of nourishment in the human diet (Khan & Musharaf, 2014).

During periods of initial plant growth in the spring and summer all forage

species are high in nutrient content, although moisture content may also be

high and limit dry matter intake (Khan & Musharaf, 2014). The proximate

composition of some range forage has been carried out to find out its possible

role in the research area.

3.7.1 Proximate analysis

Moisture contents (%)

The moisture content in the test species ranged from 2.31% to 59.23%

in Olea ferruginea, Plantago lanceolata at vegetative stage and 1.46% to

62.51% in Chrozophora tinctoria and Plantago lanceolata at reproduction

stage. In Olea ferruginea and Plantago lanceolata and Chenopodium album

the moisture content increased from vegetative stage to fruiting stage from

2.92% to 60.87%. While in rest of the species the moisture content decreased

as the plant passed from vegetative to fruiting stage (Table 29). The result is in

conformity with Saidu & Jideobi (2009) where moisture contents decreased at

162

fruiting stage. Adnan et al. (2010) reported that in Rydingia limbata the

moisture contents decreased with age. Sowemimo et al. (2011) reported that

seeds of Detarium senegalense contained 5.89% moisture contents. Acharya

& Shrivastava (2011) reported less moisture contents in seeds of Arachis

hypogea than their leaves.

Ash contents (%)

In test species ash contents ranged from 0.9% to 18.50% in

Parthenium hysterophorus and Chenopodium album at vegetative stage, while

at reproductive stage it ranged from 2.1% to 20% in Parthenium, Plantago and

Chenopodium. The overall average ash contents ranged from 1.5% to 19.25%

in Parthenium and Chenopodium respectively. Ash contents increased with

developing phenological stages in Withania somniferai.e. 3.00% at vegetative

stage and 5.93% at fruiting stage. Khan & Musharaf (2014) also reported such

findings. Ash contents vary according to the part and age of plant (Vermani et

al., 2010). Dastagir et al. (2013) reported that ash contents in leavesof

Chrozophora tinctoria is highest (16.0%) then its roots (8.3%). According to

Zain Ullah et al. (2013) low concentration of ash contents were recorded in

Withania while high in Chenopodium. Hussain et al. (2010) reported that ash

contents declined towards maturity of plant which is in inconsistency to our

findings because ash contents increased with developing phenological stages

in all test species.

Crude fats (%)

Crude fat contents ranged from 0.98% to 23.45% at vegetative stage in

Achyranthes aspera and Carthamus oxycantha. While at fruiting stage it

ranged from 1.20% to 28.93% in Plantago and Carthamus. The average of

crude fatsin Achyranthes and Carthamus ranged from 1.14% to 26.19%.

Crude fat contents increased with increasing phenological stage in all test

species. Khan & Musharaf (2014) reported maximum percentage of crude fats

in Chrozophora obliqua (5.46%) at vegetative stage. It was observed that with

age of plant crude fat contents increased. Dastagir et al. (2013) reported

highest fat contents (13.0%) in leaves and lowest in stem and root of

163

Chrozophora tinctoria. Low concentration of crude fats was recorded in

Withania coagulans while highest in Datura alba and Chenopodium album

(Zain Ullah et al., 2013). Marconiet al. (2003) reported that the crude fats in

chicory seed ranged from 21% to 22% which is higher than that of

Achyranthes bidentata seeds.

Crude fibers (%)

Result revealed that crude fiber ranged from 0.2% to 15.11% in

Chenopodium album and Carthamus oxycantha at vegetative stage. At fruiting

stage it ranged from 0.3% to 20.68% in Chenopodium album and Cichorium

intybus. The average crude fibers ranged from 0.25% to 17.76% in

Chenopodium and Cichorium. According to Khan & Musharaf (2014)

minimum fiber percentage at vegetative stage was 2.42%, reproductive stage it

was 2.46% and 2.78% at post reproductive stage in Chrozophora.

Epidemiological evidence revealed that use of minimum amount of dietary

fibers from 20 to 35 g/day lower the risk of heart diseases and obesity (Ishida

et al., 2000; Abidemi, 2013). Gharibzahedi et al. (2011) reported high value of

proteins and fibers in Ricinus communis.Fibers in Chenopodium album

showed quite different result from the present study and may be due to

environmental condition (Zain Ullahet al., 2013). Hussain et al. (2011)

reported the highest fiber contents (40.15%) in Nepa suavis.

Protein contents (%)

In test species the crude protein contents ranged from 2.31% to 27.56%

at vegetative stage in Withania coagulans and Parthenium hysterophorus.

Whilein Plantago and Chenopodium album it ranged from 4.71% to 28.56% at

fruiting stage. Overall average ranged from 3.65% to 27.49% in Plantago and

Chenopodium album. Protein contents increased with increasing in

phenological stages except in Olea ferruginea which showed decreased

tendency from vegetative to fruiting stage. According to Jan et al. (2010)

reported that the highest values (18.55%) of crude proteins are found in seeds

and lowest (5.54%) in roots which are not in conformity to our results.

Heinrich et al. (2004) compaired Cichorium intybus with Trifolium repens for

164

their nutritional value in forage and investigated that Cichorium intybus

contained 3.74% of crude proteins. Khan & Musharaf (2014) reported the least

protein percentage at vegetative stage was 2.11% and 3.14% at fruiting stage.

Bukush et al. (2007) reported high protein contents in cultivated plants as

compared to wild plants and significantly high protein contents in leaves of

Eruca sativa as compared to Carthamus oxycantha and Plantago. The present

study also demonstrates the minimum amount of proteins in Plantago

lanceolata. Shah & Hussain (2009) investigated the highest protein contents

varied from 22% to 23% in Chenopodium and Plantago. Hussain & Durrani

(2009) stated that protein contents vary with progressing phenological stages.

The present results of test species are in line with James et al. (2010).

Carbohydrate contents (%)

Carbohydrate contents showed variation from vegetative stage to

fruiting stage. At vegetative stage it ranged from 28.39% to 83.53% in

Parthenium hysterophorus and Withania somnifera. At fruiting stage it ranged

from 20.14% to 74.95% in Parthenium and Chrozophora, while the overall

average value ranged from 29.35% to 78.83% in Plantago lanceolata and

Withania somnifera. The result showed that carbohydrate contents decreased

with progressing phenological stages, except in Carthamus oxycantha which

showed an increase of 32.34% to 33.17%. Audu et al. (2007) reported

carbohydrate contents in leaves of Lophira lanceolata. Lee & lim (2006)

isolated new glycoproteins from Solanum nigrum which contained 69.74% of

carbohydrate contents. Aberoumand (2012) reported that Solanum indicum

contained 40.67% carbohydrates. Abbasi (2013) recorded 7.680%

carbohydrate contents in Chenopodium album and 54.88% in Plantago

lanceolata.

165

Table-3.27: Proximate composition of the selected plants species

S.N

o. Plant Name

Phenological

Stage

Moisture

(%)

Avera

ge

Ash

(%)

Avera

ge

Crude

fat

(%)

Avera

ge

Crude

fiber

(%)

Avera

ge

Crude

protei

n (%)

Avera

ge

Carbohy

drate

(NFE)

(%)

Avera

ge

1

Olea ferruginea

Wall. ex G.

Aitch.

Vegetative

stage 2.31

2.92

4.62

4.92

20.12

21.56

9.47

9.49

15.25

13.89

48.23

47.17 Fruiting

stage 3.54 5.23 23.00 9.51 12.53 46.11

2 Chenopodium

album L.

Vegetative

stage 3.51

4.27

18.50

19.25

3.21

3.85

0.2

0.25

26.43

27.49

48.15

44.87 Fruiting

stage 5.04 20 4.5 0.3 28.56 41.59

3 Plantago

lanceolata L.

Vegetative

stage 59.23

60.87

1.5

1.8

1.20

1.56

2.31

2.75

2.60

3.65

33.16

29.35 Fruiting

stage 62.51 2.1 1.93 3.20 4.71 25.55

4 Lactuca

serriola L.

Vegetative

stage 33.35

27.67

3.61

4.42

8.24

12.82

3.9

5.5

13.25

15.39

37.66

30.04 Fruiting

stage 22.00 5.23 17.41 7.1 17.53 30.43

5 Parthenium

hysterophorus L

Vegetative

stage 30.11

24.94

0.9

1.5

3.54

7.37

9.50

10.90

27.56

31.01

28.39

24.26 Fruiting

stage 19.78 2.1 11.20 12.31 34.47 20.14

Continued….

166

6

Carthamus

oxycantha M.B

TH Mie

Vegetative

stage 17.85

12.22

1.0

1.85

23.45

26.19

15.11

15.67

10.25

11.31

32.34

32.75 Fruiting

stage 6.6 2.7 28.93 16.23 12.37 33.17

7 Chrozophora

tinctoria L. Raf.

Vegetative

stage 4.98

3.22

5.13

6.54

5.20

5.95

2.35

2.72

3.91

4.86

78.43

76.69 Fruiting

stage 1.46 7.96 6.71 3.10 5.82 74.95

8 Achyranthes

aspera L.

Vegetative

stage 5.00

4.47

10.32

10.91

0.98

1.14

9.51

10.02

18.38

20.01

55.81

53.44 Fruiting

stage 3.94 11.50 1.3 10.54 21.65 51.07

9

Withania

somnifera L.

Dunal

Vegetative

stage 4.10

3.55

3.00

4.46

2.13

2.64

4.93

5.96

2.31

4.54

83.53

78.83 Fruiting

stage 3.00 5.93 3.15 7.00 6.78 74.14

10 Cichorium

intybus Linn.

Vegetative

stage 11.25

9.59

2.56

4.33

9.63

10.74

14.85

17.76

17.29

20.36

44.42

37.21 Fruiting

stage 7.93 6.10 11.86 20.68 23.43 30.00

Average 15.37

5.99

9.38

8.10

15.25

45.86

167

Figure-3.10: Proximate composition of selcted plant species at vegetative stage

168

Figure-3.11: Proximate composition of selcted plant species at fruiting stage

169

3.8 Elemental nutrient analysis of selected plants

a) Macronutrients

Calcium (Ca)

Plants contain high amount of Ca that may be their natural composition

(Hussain et al., 2010). In present study Ca contents showed variation from

9.05ppm to 28.12 ppm in Achyranthes aspera and Lectuca serriola

respectively. While in Chenopodium album and Olea ferruginea it ranged

from 7.5 ppm to 14.51 ppm at vegetative and reproductive stage respectively

(Table 29). The results revealed that calcium contents decreased with

progressing phenological stages except Achyranthes aspera, where it

increased by 9.05 ppmat vegetative stageand 13.7 ppm at reproductive stage.

Calcium contents were invariably present in the tested plants. Similar results

were reported by Zafar et al. (2010). The concentration of certain elements

decreased with the maturity of plants (Hussain & Durrani, 2008). Generally

Ca content increases with maturity of herb plants. Ashraf et al. (2005) and

Khan & Shaukat (2005) reported significant increase in Ca towards maturity

of investigated plants. Hanif et al. (2006) found high Ca content (76 ppm) in

spinach; James et al. (2010) reported higher Ca level in Saba florida; Hussain

et al. (2009) reported higher concentration of Ca in Hypericum perforatum and

among the vegetables species.

Potassium (K)

Potassium plays significant role in activating enzymes which influence

the plant growth and development (Sultan et al., 2007, 2008; Hussain and

Durrani, 2007; Khan & Khatoon, 2007). Potassium varied from 3.06 ppm to

4.7 ppm in Withania somnifera and Lectuca serriola respectively at vegetative

stage and 0.87 ppm to 1.62 ppm at fruiting stage. Overall average ranged from

1.96 ppm to 3.16 ppm in Withania somnifera and Lectuca

serriolarespectively. The results showed that potassium contents decreased

with progressing phenological stages. Our results are in line with the findings

170

of Ahmad et al. (2008) and Pareet al. (1995). Hussain & Durrani (2008) and

Akhtar et al. (2007) reported that herbaceous plants are nutritionally rich in

potassium at early growing stages. Sultan et al. (2008) also stated that

potassium contents were higher at early stage than at maturity.

Magnesium (Mg)

Mg an important component of cell acts as enzyme cofactor. It

constitutes about 0.05% of the body mass of living cell (Hameed et al., 2008).

Mg contents exhibited variation at various phenological stages. It fluctuated

from 12.32 ppm to 35.13 ppm in Withania somnifera and

Carthamusoxycantha respectively at vegetative stage. The overall average

ranged from 1.71ppm to 23.31ppm in Withania somnifera and Carthamus

oxycantha repectively. Mg ranged from 8.96 ppm to 16.53 ppm at fruiting

stage of Parthenium hysterophorus and Plantago lanceolata respectively. Mg

contents showed a decreased trend toward maturity stage in all tested species.

Akubugwo et al. (2007) reported the decreasing order of Mg> Fe> Ca> Na>

Mn> Zn at fruiting stage of Solanum nigrum var. virginicum.

Sodium (Na)

Sodium contents varied at vegetative and fruiting stages in the tested

species. At vegetative stage Carthamus and Chenopodium showed variation in

Na from 23.89 ppm to 36.74 ppm respectively. At fruiting stage it varied from

32.53ppm to 48.86 ppm in Lectuca serriola and Parthenium hysterophorus

respectively. The overall average of Na contents ranged from 28.22 ppm to

42.28 ppm in Lectuca serriola and Chenopodium album respectively. Na

contents showed an increased trend towards plant maturity (Table 3.28).

Hussain et al. (2009) recorded highest Na concentration (458 ppm) in

Amaranthus viridis, followed by Chenopodium album (373 ppm). Highest Na

contents were recorded at reproductive stages. Similar results were reported by

Hussain & Durrani (2008). Na contants varied from 26.30 ppm and 9.10 ppm

in Withania somnifera at vegetative and fruiting stage respectively. Na

contents showed decreased trend toward plant maturity in Withania

171

somnifera.Amjad & Hameed (2012) reported highest Na contents (119.3 ppm)

in flowers followed by leaves (98.50 ppm) of Withania somnifera.

Phosphorous (P)

In the bodies of living organisms a minimum level of 0.16% to 0.37%

phosphorus is required for various metabolic reactions (Anonymous, 1991).

Phosphorus contents showed fluctuation at vegetative stage from 0.20ppm to

0.36ppm in Carthamus oxycantha, Olea ferruginea and Lectuca serriola. At

fruiting stage, it ranged from 0.08 ppm to 0.41 ppm in Carthamus and

Plantago respectively while the overall average ranged from 0.14 ppm to 0.37

ppm in Carthamus and Olea respectively. The study showed no significant

difference among herbs and woody plant species at different phenological

stages (Table 3.28).

172

Table-3.28: Macronutrients of the selected plant species

S.No. Plant Name Phenological

Stage

Ca

(ppm) Average K

(ppm) Average

Mg

(ppm) Average

Na

(ppm) Average

P

(ppm) Average

1

Olea ferruginea

Wall. ex G.

Aitch.

Vegetative

stage 21.68

18.09

4.38

2.68

23.86

19.90

29.81

31.71

0.36

0.37

Fruiting stage 14.51 0.99 15.95 33.62 0.39

2 Chenopodium

album L.

Vegetative

stage 15.03

9.76

3.96

2.53

19.56

15.39

36.74

42.28

0.24

0.25

Fruiting stage 7.5 1.10 11.23 47.83 0.27

3 Plantago

lanceolata L.

Vegetative

stage 19.56

16.40

3.8

2.39

21.61

19.07

29.52

32.1

0.31

0.36

Fruiting stage 13.25 0.98 16.53 34.68 0.41

4 Lactuca serriola

L.

Vegetative

stage 28.12

20.82

4.7

3.16

20.00

15.75

23.91

28.22

0.36

0.27

Fruiting stage 13.53 1.62 11.51 32.53 0.19

5 Parthenium

hysterophorus L

Vegetative

stage 24.37

19.09

3.90

2.44

26.58

17.77

31.67

40.26

0.27

0.20

Fruiting stage 13.81 0.98 8.96 48.86 0.14

Continued…

173

6

Carthamus

oxycantha M.B

TH Mie

Vegetative

stage 25.61

18.48

4.3

2.65

35.13

23.31

23.89

30.7

0.20

0.14

Fruiting stage 11.35 1.0 11.50 37.51 0.08

7

Chrozophora

tinctoria (L.)

Raf.

Vegetative

stage 17.01

12.62

4.50

2.86

22.01

18.84

28.39

34.81

0.21

0.18

Fruiting stage 8.23 1.23 15.68 41.23 0.16

8 Achyranthes

aspera L.

Vegetative

stage 9.05

11.38

4.67

2.92

17.21

13.53

35.48

41.59

0.23

0.2

Fruiting stage 13.71 1.18 9.86 47.71 0.17

9

Withania

somnifera (L.)

Dunal

Vegetative

stage 18.32

13.98

3.06

1.96

12.32

10.71

26.30

32.40

0.34

0.27

Fruiting stage 9.65 0.87 9.10 9.10 0.20

10 Cichorium

intybus Linn.

Vegetative

stage 16.81

12.35

4.00

2.66

17.83

14.54

33.30

39.94

0.31

0.23

Fruiting stage 7.90 1.32 11.26 46.58 0.16

174

Figure-3.12: Macronutrients of selected plant species at vegetative stage

175

Figure-3.13: Macronutrients of selected plant species at fruiting stage

176

b) Micronutrients

Nickle (Ni)

Results showed fluctuation of Ni at different phenological stages.

Lowest and highest values of Ni at vegetative stages ranged between 1.90 ppm

and 5.01 ppm in Olea ferruginea and Lactuca serriola respectively (Table

3.29). At fruiting stage lowest and higest values were recorded as 0.86 ppm

and 2.32 ppm in Olea ferruginea and Lactuca serriola respectively.

Nickel contents progressively increased at various phenological stages

except Achyranthes aspera showed an increased level (3.01 pmm) from

vegetative stage to fruiting stage (4.56ppm). Badshahet al. (2010) reported the

highest Ni quantity in Calotropis procera.

Iron (Fe)

Among the micronutrients Iron plays pivotal role in metabolism of

almost all living organisms. In humans, iron is an essential component of most

proteins and enzymes.

Iron contents showed variation at different phonological stages. In

Carthamus oxycantha and Achyranthes aspera it ranged from 51.62 ppm to

19.18 ppm at vegetative stage and from 18.53 ppm to 7.81 ppm at fruiting

stage while overall average ranged from 35.07 ppm to 13.46 ppm in

Carthamus oxycantha and Achyranthes aspera respectively. The results

revealed that Fe contents progressively decreased with developing

phenological stages. Plants which grow in polluted areas accumulate more

iron in their leaves (Rehman & Iqbal, 2008). Adnan et al. 2010 stated that

plant species and soil conditions influence iron level, as in Valeriana officinale

higher level (2787 ppm) of iron has been reported from their research area.

177

Copper (Cu)

Copper is an essential trace element that exists in Cu2+

form. It takes

part in redox reactions and is also scavenger of free radicals. In plants the

permissible limit of Cu is 10 ppm (Khuda et al., 2012). Result revealed

variation in Cu contants at different phonological stages of the selected plants.

At vegetative stage, it varied from 1.28 ppm to 11.3 ppm in Withania

somnifera and Olea ferruginearespectively while at fruiting stage; it fluctuated

from 3.67 ppm to 13.5 ppm in W. somnifera and O. ferruginea respectively.

The overall average value varied from 2.47 ppm to 12.4 ppm in W. somnifera

and O. ferruginea (Table 3.29). Results revealed that copper contents showed

an increased trend with progressing phenological stages. Badshah (2011)

reported decreased copper contents toward plant maturity. Gonzalez et al.

(2006) also reported a decrease trend in copper concentration towards maturity

stage in legumes and grasses. Herbaceous plant species are generally copper

deficient (Akhtar et al., 2007; Khan et al., 2006).

Zinc (Zn)

Zinc is the important component of approximately 200 enzymes. Zinc

plays significant role in structure and function of protein and cell membrane.

Loss of zinc from biological membranes increases their susceptibility to

oxidative damage (Erukainure et al., 2011). The permissible limit of zinc is 50

ppm in medicinal plants (Khuda et al., 2012). At vegetative stage zinc varied

from 27.61 ppm to 51.6 ppm in Parthenium hysterophorus and Chenopodium

album respectively. At fruiting stage, it varied from 24.34 ppm to 60.0 ppm in

Carthamus oxycantha and Chenopodium album. Results revealed that zinc

contents varied at different phenological stages. In some cases it increased

with increasing phenological stages while in some plants it showed a

decreasing trend. In Olea ferruginea zinc contents increased from 34.9 ppm to

42.1 ppm at vegetative and fruiting stage respectively. Our findings are

supported by Hussain & Durrani (2008), where significant increase in zinc

contents of herbaceous and woody plants has been reported. Amjad & Hameed

178

(2012) reported the highest zinc contents (0.628 ppm) in stem of Solanum

surattense, followed by Withania somnifera (0.245 ppm) at vegetative stage.

Khan et al. (2006) investigated variable concentration of zinc towards

progressive stage of plants.

Manganese (Mn)

Mn plays significant role in physiological processes of living

organisms as enzyme activator. Its quantity showed variation in all the

investigated plant species. At vegetative stage Mn exhibited variation from

7.53 ppm to 13.3 ppm in Withania somnifera and Olea ferruginea. At fruiting

stage, it varied from 3.14 ppm to 7.33 ppm in Carthamus oxycantha and

Lectuca serriola respectively. The overall average values ranged from 5.46

ppm to 10.87 ppm in C. oxycantha and O. ferruginea respectively. Mn

contents showed a decreased trend with increasing phenological stages in all

the tested plant species. Similar results were reported by Amjad & Hameed

(2012). Garg et al. (2007) reported that Nordostachys jatamansi contained rich

quantity of Co, Cr, Cu, Na, Mn, Fe, Rb, and Zinc. Present study showed that

herbs contained more Mn contents than woody plants (Table 3.29). These

findings are similar to the investigation of Hussain & Durrani (2008) who

reported high concentration of Mn in herbs than woody plants.

Chromium (Cr)

Biologically active form of chromium participates in glucose

metabolism. Results revealed that Cr contents varied at different phenological

stages. In present finding Cr contents varied from 1.7 ppm to 18.5 ppm in

Parthenium hysterophorus and Withania somnifera at vegetative stage

respectively. At fruiting stage, Cr varied from 1.9 ppm to 24.2 ppm in

Parthenium hysterophorus and Withania somniferarespectively. While as a

whole average values ranged from 1.8 ppm to 21.35 ppm in P. hysterophorus

and W. somniferarespectively. Result showed that Cr increased from

vegetative stage towards reproductive stage except Chenopodium album where

Cr decreased from 3.4 ppm (vegetative stage) to 2.1 ppm (reproductive stage)

179

and Cichorium intybus exhibited decreased trend from 11.01 ppm (vegetative

stage) to 6.53ppm (fruiting stage). Amjad & Hameed (2012) reported

increased Cr contents from vegetative to reproductive stage and then

decreased contents at post- reproductive stage. Rehman & Iqbal (2008)

evaluated accumulation of Cr contents in foliage of naturally growing plants

of Prosopis juliflora, Abutilon indicum and Senna holosericea. Hameed &

Hussain (2015) reported higher Cr contents (0.065 ppm) in leaves of Datura

anoxia, followed by leaves of Withania coagulans (0.115 ppm). Narendhira et

al. (2005) found low level of Cr in leaves of Murraya koenigii, Mentha

piperita, Ocimum sanctum and Aegle marmelos. Rehman & Iqbal (2008)

reported high concentration of Cr in Prosopis juliflora, Abutilon indicum and

Senna holosericea.

180

Table-3.29: Micronutrients of the selected plant species

S.No. Plant Name Phenological

Stage Fe

(ppm) Average

Cr

(ppm) Average Mn

(ppm) Average Ni

(ppm) Average Zn

(ppm) Average Cu

(ppm) Average

1

Olea

ferruginea

Wall. ex G.

Aitch.

Vegetative

stage 41.36

30.44

8.0

10.5

13.13

10.87

1.90

1.38

34.9

38.5

11.3

12.4 Fruiting stage 19.52 13.0 8.62 0.86 42.1 13.5

2 Chenopodium

album L.

Vegetative

stage 38.71

30.06

3.4

2.75

12.53

9.36

3.56

2.77

51.0

55.5

6.8

7.15 Fruiting stage 21.42 2.1 6.20 1.98 60.0 7.5

3 Plantago

lanceolata L.

Vegetative

stage 39.11

31.17

7.0

7.65

10.51

8.82

2.35

2.10

38.0

32.56

8.1

9.05 Fruiting stage 23.24 8.3 7.13 1.86 27.13 10.0

4 Lactuca

serriola L.

Vegetative

stage 43.81

32.02

2.0

3.5

11.61

9.47

5.01

3.66

39.94

32.58

6.3

6.65 Fruiting stage 20.23 5.1 7.33 2.32 25.23 7.0

5

Parthenium

hysterophorus

L

Vegetative

stage 29.91

22.14

1.7

1.8

8.65

6.83

3.50

2.75

27.61

30.06

8.0

8.65 Fruiting stage 14.37 1.9 5.02 2.0 32.51 9.31

Continued…

181

6

Carthamus

oxycantha

M.B TH Mie

Vegetative

stage 51.62

35.07

8.1

8.56

7.78

5.46

2.98

2.05

36.32

30.33

5.0

6.1 Fruiting

stage 18.53 9.03 3.14 1.13 24.34 7.20

7

Chrozophora

tinctoria (L.)

Raf.

Vegetative

stage 26.56

18.93

8.52

9.06

9.05

7.94

2.83

2.06

39.46

35.73

3.01

4.12 Fruiting

stage 11.31 9.61 6.83 1.30 32.01 5.23

8 Achyranthes

aspera L.

Vegetative

stage 19.18

13.49

8.0

8.55

8.70

7.01

3.01

3.78

41.23

38.88

2.56

3.62 Fruiting

stage 7.81 9.1 5.32 4.56 36.54 4.68

9

Withania

somnifera

(L.) Dunal

Vegetative

stage 25.98

16.17

18.5

21.35

7.53

6.38

2.67

2.32

48.60

45.65

1.28

2.47 Fruiting

stage 6.36 24.2 5.23 1.98 42.71 3.67

10 Cichorium

intybus Linn.

Vegetative

stage 47.56

27.99

11.01

8.11

9.11

7.16

5.0

3.66

32.50

30.05

2.91

4.74 Fruiting

stage 8.42 6.53 5.22 2.33 27.61 6.57

182

Figure-3.14: Micronutrients of selected plant species at vegetative stage

183

Figure-3.15: Micronutrients of selcted plant species at fruiting stage

184

CONCLUSIONS

1. This study was conducted during 2013-2015 to investigate the floristic

composition, vegetation structure, ethnobotanical usage, chemical

compositions and the interaction of people with plants in district

Nowshera.

2. The study revealed that flora is comprised of 221 species that belongs

to 75 families, in which 184 species belongs to dicot and 34 species to

monocot.

3. Seasonal variation of species diversity showed that the flora comprised

of 172 species (77.92%) in spring, followed by 119 species (54.5%) in

summer, 89 species (40.54%) in winter, and finally 83 species

(37.83%) in autumn.

4. Based on number of species, Poaceae with 28 species was the leading

family followed by Brassicaceae (15 spp.) and Papilionaceae (13 spp.).

5. Quantitatively, based on FIV, Mimosaceae and Rhamnaceae were

important families.

6. Therophytes were dominant in the area and were represented by 109

species (50.1%), followed by microphanerophytes with 24 species

(10.58%). Nanophylls were the leading leaf size spectra with 94

species (42.23%), followed by microphylls with 75 species (33.78%),

leptophylls with 32 species (14.41%), mesophylls with 16 species

(7.20%) and aphyllous with 04 species (2.25%).

7. As a whole, during the month of February, the major bulk of the flora

(22.52%) was in vegetative phase. In March 23.87% plants blossomed

and this number decreased towards the fall season. April was the peak

fruiting stage. The dormant period remained from November to

January.

185

8. The ethnobotanical data showed that there were 71 species that belong

to 65 genera and 39 families. Family Asteraceae contributed the

highest number of plant species (08). Leaves (50 spp; 70.42%) were

the commonly used plant part by the local community followed by

stems (44 spp; 61.16%), whole plant (16 spp; 23.22%), roots (11 spp;

15.17%) and fruits (10 spp; 14.27%). 45 species (63.38%) were used

as fodder followed by 29 species (41.25%) as fuel, 10 species

(14.69%) for furniture making, 08 species (11.95%) used for thatching

purpose, 07 species (9.58%) used as vegetables, 04 species (5.84%)

used in hedges, fruiting plant species were 04 (6.47%), and ornamental

species were 3 (4.22%).

9. Twenty plant communities were established in five habitats during

various seasons from 2013-2015. Among these Olea-Rydingia-

Justicia, Prosopis-Justicia-Acacia, Dodonaea-Rydingia-Olea,

Opuntia-Ziziphus-Acacia, Justicia-Ziziphus-Acacia, Microsisymbrium-

Dodonaea-Olea, Lactuca-Salvia-Allium and Euphorbia-Pennisetum-

Indigofera were the important communities.

10. The physico-chemical analysis of soil textural analysis showed thatsoil

was mostly sandy and clay-loamy with 7.3 to 8.1 pH and 0.3 to 7.2

electrical conductivity.

11. The ethnomedicinal data revealed that there were 90 plant species

belonging to 84 genera and 37 families. The plants used for treatment

of diseases by the local community were as under:

For fever 30 species, followed by diarrheaand stimulant (09 spp.

each),dysentery (08 spp.) as anthelmintic (07 spp.), asthma (06 spp.),

snake bite (04 spp.) and as emollient (02 spp.). Leaves were the most

preferred plant part used in indigenous medicine (57.12 %).

12. Qualitative analysis of secondary metabolites in selected plant species

revealed the presence of alkaloids, tannins, sugars, saponins,

flavonoids, terpenoids, cardiac glycosides, phenolics and

anthraquinones. These chemicals were mostly found at post

186

reproductive stage as compared to vegetative stage. Methanolic

fraction contained more secondary metabolites as compared to

chloroform and n-hexane fractions.

13. The proximate composition of the selected plants showed varied result

at two phenological stages.

14. Chemical analysis of forage plants, with a few exceptions, showed that

sufficient levels of macro- and micro-minerals and nutrients were

present in the investigated forage plants.

187

RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

1. Moderate and rotational grazing management needs to be enforced to

enhance the regeneration of primary producers i.e. vegetation.

2. There is severe deforestation pressure on woody and shrubby species

especially on Acacia nilotica, A. modesta, Dilbergia sissoo, Olea

ferruginea and Dodonaea viscosa for timber and fuel purposes.

Therefore, alternate sources of fuel/timber should be provided to the

local people and the area must be protected.

3. There is a tremendous need to promote principles of preservation and

development of natural vegetation which is indispensable for land

management.

4. There should be more avenues, such as exploration of research

activities for knowing the germination, seed production and growth

pattern for successful propagation and reintroduction of fodder, timber,

fuel wood and medicinal plants.

5. No marketing policies were prevalent in the investigated area;

therefore, marketing for livestock and medicinal plants should be

initiated and regulated.

6. Strong linkages among national, international, regional and sub-

regional research and developmental programs are required for

utilization of integrated management plans, so that ecological and

socio-economic conditions could be addressed appropriately.

7. Eco-tourism could be introduced in the area. It would be an additional

source of income for the local people and would uplift the overall

socio-economic condition of the area.

8. The local people must be responsive about the collection, preservation

and post-harvest loss of medicinal plants.

188

9. This is government responsibility to provide relief/aid to the local

people for cultivation and conservation of the valuable medicinal flora.

10. Awareness should be created among the local people about the

importance of vegetations and medicinal plants so as to reduce the

pressure of grazing and cutting (deforestration).

11. Cooperation and participation of local people is essential to implement

an effective management plan. It might become much easier with the

help of the elders and prominent personalities of the local area to

implement the effective management plan.

189

APPENDICES

Appendix-1: Phytosociological attributes of Olea ferruginea -Rydingia limbata -Justicia adhatoda community

S.No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size

Tree layer


Aitch. 0.19 19 100 10.34 30.48 30.61 71.43

NP Mic

2 Acacia modesta Wall. 0.04 4 40 2.17 6.41 12.24 20.83 McP Lp

Shrub layer

3 Rydingia limbata (Benth.)

Scheen & V.A.Albert 0.484 12.1 60 26.35 19.41 18.36 64.13 NP Np

4 Justicia adhatoda L. 0.368 9.2 30 20.03 14.75 9.18 43.97 NP Lp


Lawson 0.344 8.6 30 18.72 13.79 9.18 41.71

NP Mic

6 Monotheca buxifolia (Falc.)

A.DC 0.244 6.1 20 13.28 9.78 6.12 29.19

NP Np

Herb layer

7 Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. 0.0467 0.93 26.66 2.54 1.49 8.16 12.20 G Np

8 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. 0.12 2.4 20 6.53 3.85 6.12 16.50 H Lp

Total 1.8 62.33 326.67 100 100 100 300 - -

190

Appendix-2: Phytosociological attributes of Justicia adhatoda - Ziziphus nummularia - Corchorus tridens community


Tree layer

1 Ziziphus nummularia (Burm.

f.)Wight &Arn.

0.272 27.2 80 7.1654373 17.83607 11.50527 36.5067761 NP Np

2 Acacia modesta Wall. 0.226 22.6 60 5.95363541 14.81967 8.628955 29.4022625 McP Lp

3 Ziziphus mauritiana Lam 0.202 20.2 60 5.32139094 13.2459 8.628955 27.1962475 McP Np

4 Z. spinosa St. 0.122 12.2 40 3.21390938 8 5.752637 16.966546 McP Np

Shrub layer

5 Justicia adhatoda L 1.1 27.5 100 28.9778714 18.03279 14.38159 61.3922499 NP Lp

6 Withania coagulans (Stocks)

Dunal

0.544 13.6 70 14.3308746 8.918033 10.06711 33.3160215 Ch Mic

7 Monotheca Buxifolia (Falc.)

A.DC

0.476 11.9 60 12.5395153 7.803279 8.628955 28.9717489 NP Np

8 Periploca aphylla Decne. 0.044 1.1 40 1.15911486 0.721311 5.752637 7.63306296 Ch Ap

Herb layer

9 Corchorus tridens L 0.663333 13.2666667 66.66667 17.4745346 8.699454 9.587728 35.7617159 Ch Mic

10 Caryopteris odorata (D.

Don) B.L. Rob

0.043333 0.86666667 33.33333 1.14155251 0.568306 4.795683 6.50554198 NP Mic

11 Achyranthes aspera L. 0.06 1.2 33.33333 1.58061117 0.786885 4.796 7.16349642 Th Np

12 Aristidamonantha Michx 0.02 0.4 26 0.52687039 0.262295 3.741007 4.53017267 Th Np

13 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. 0.023333 0.46666667 26 0.61468212 0.306011 3.741 4.66169305 H Lp

Total 3.8 152.5 695 100 100 100 300

191

Appendix-3: Phytosociological attributes of Opuntia dillenii - Ziziphus nummularia - Desmostachya bipinnata community


Tree layer


f.)Wight &Arn.

0.374 37.4 80 16.251 36.5593 14.11 66.92 NP Np

2 Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile 0.128 12.8 60 5.562 12.5123 10.58 28.66 McP Lp

3 Dalbergia sissoo DC. 0.13 13 60 5.6489 12.7078 11 29.36 McP Np

Shrub layer

4 Opuntia dillenii Haw 1.08 27 100 46.929 26.393 17.64 90.96 NP Np

5 Calotropis procera Aiton 0.028 0.7 30 1.2167 0.68426 5.291 7.192 NP Mec

6 Rhazya stricta Decne. 0.028 0.7 30 1.2167 0.68426 5.3 7.201 Ch Np

7 Buddleja crispa Benth. 0.02 0.5 30 0.8691 0.48876 5.3 6.658 NP Np

Herb layer

8 Desmostachya bipinnata (L.)

Stapf

0.37 7.4 33 16.078 7.23365 5.82 29.13 H Np

9 Achyranthes aspera L. 0.023333 0.466667 20 1.0139 0.45618 3.527 4.997 Th Np

10 Verbena officinalis L. 0.016667 0.333333 20 0.7242 0.32584 3.527 4.577 Th Np

11 Convolvulus arvensis L. 0.02 0.4 26 0.8691 0.39101 4.586 5.846 Th Np

12 Euphorbia granulata Forssk. 0.026667 0.533333 26 1.1587 0.52134 4.6 6.28 H Lp

13 Cyperus rotundus L. 0.026667 0.533 26 1.1587 0.52102 4.6 6.28 G Np

14 Amaranthus viridis L. 0.03 0.533333 26 1.3036 0.52134 4.6 6.425 Th Np

Total 2.301 102.3 567 100 100 100 300

192

Appendix-4: Phytosociological attributes of Olea ferruginea -Rydingia limbata - Acacia modesta community


Tree layer

1 Olea ferruginea Wall. ex G. Aitch. 0.498 49.8 100 23.62429 44.90667 17.27116 85.80212 NP Mic

2 Acacia modesta Wall 0.212 21.2 60 10.05693 19.1169 10.36269 39.53652 McP Lp

3 Cornus macrophylla Wall. Ex Roxb. 0.044 4.4 40 2.087287 3.967658 6.908463 12.96341 McP Mic

4 Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile 0.028 2.8 40 1.328273 2.524873 6.908463 10.76161 McP Lp

Shrub layer

5 Rydingia limbata (Benth.) Scheen &

V.A.Albert

0.66 16.5 100 31.3093 14.87872 17.27116 68.57 NP Np

6 Lonicera griffithii Hook. f. &Thoms 0.356 8.9 60 16.88805 8.025489 10.36269 38.24 McP Mic

7 Isodon rugosus (Wall ex Benth) 0.18 4.5 40 8.538899 4.057832 6.908463 21.33 NP Np

8 Monotheca Buxifolia (Falc.)A.DC 0.02 0.5 30 0.948767 0.45087 5.181347 7.66 NP Np

9 Vitis jacquemontii Parker

0.02 0.5 30 0.948767 0.45087 5.1813 6.580937 NP Mic

Herb layer

10 Chenopodium album L. 0.0167 0.333 20 0.790639 0.30058 3.454231 4.54545 Th Np

11 Boerhavia diffusaL. 0.0167 0.33 13 0.790639 0.297574 2.24525 3.333464 H Np

12 Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze 0.03 0.6 20 1.42315 0.541044 3.454231 5.418426 NP Mic

13 Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeusch. 0.0267 0.533 26 1.265022 0.480928 4.490501 6.236451 G Lp

Total 2.1 111 579 100 100 100 300

193

Appendix-5: Phytosociological attributes of Prosopis juliflora -Justicia adhatoda - Acacia modesta community

S. No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life form Leaf size

Tree layer



Aitch.

0.064 6.4 60 4.047218 10.78052 10.97568 25.80342 NP Mic

3 Tecomela undulate 0.036 3.6 40 2.27656 6.064043 7.317118 15.65772 McP Mic


f.)Wight &Arn

0.032 3.2 40 2.023609 5.39026 7.317118 14.73099 NP Np

Shrub layer

5 Prosopis juliflora Swartz. 0.648 16.2 100 40.97808 27.28819 18.29279 86.55907 McP Lp


7 Monotheca buxifolia

(Falc.)A.DC

0.016 0.4 30 1.011804 0.673783 5.487838 7.173425 NP Np

Herb layer

8 Celosia argentea L 0.01 0.2 13.33333 0.632378 0.336891 2.439039 3.408308 NP Lp

9 Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. 0.01 0.2 13.33 0.672 0.348 2.43843 3.45843 G Lp

10 Aerva javanica (Burm. f.)

Juss.

0.0166667 0.333333 20 1.053963 0.561485 3.658559 5.274007 Ch Lp

11 Achyranthes aspera L. 0.02 0.4 20 1.264755 0.673783 3.659 5.597538 Th Np

12 Abutilon bidentatum Hochst.

ex A.Rich.

0.0166667 0.333333 20 1.053963 0.561485 3.659 5.274448 Ch Np

0.0166667 0.333 20 1.053963 0.560924 3.659 5.273887

Total 1.581 59.4 547 100 100 100 300

194

Appendix-6: Phytosociological attributes of Olea ferruginea-Rydingia limbata -Justicia adhatoda community


Tree layer


Aitch.

0.57 57.8 100% 34.05 59.46 20.57 114.09 NP Mic

2 Salix tetrasperma 0.08 8 30% 4.713 8.23 6.17 19.11 McP Mic

3 Ficus carica L. 0.06 6 30% 3.53 6.17 6.17 15.88 NP Mic

Shrub layer

4 Otostegi limbata (Benth.)

Boiss

0.39 9.9 100% 23.33 10.18 20.57 54.09 NP Np

5 Maytenu sroyleanus Wall.

Ex Lawson

0.04 1.2 40% 2.82 1.23 8.23 12.29 NP Mic


A.DC

0.03 0.8 20% 1.88 0.82 4.11 6.82 NP Np

7 Justicia adhatoda L. 0.31 9.4 70% 18.46 9.67 14.40 42.53 NP Lp

8 Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq 0.06 1.5 30% 3.53 1.54 6.17 11.25 NP Np

Herb layer

9 Aristidamonantha Michx 0.08 1.66 40% 4.90 1.71 8.23 14.85 Th Np

10 Anisomeles indica (L.)

Kuntze

0.046 0.93 26% 2.74 0.96 5.34 9.05 NP Mic

Total 1.69 97.2 486% 100% 100% 100 300

195

Appendix-7: Phytosociological attributes of Justicia adhatoda-Ziziphus nummularia- Acacia modesta community


Tree layer

1 Ziziphus nummularia

(Burm. f.) Wight & Arn.

0.168 16.8 100% 13.49036 27.3022752 16.83502 57.62766 NP Np

2 Acacia modesta Wall. 0.124 12.4 100% 9.957173 20.1516793 16.83502 46.94387 McP Lp

3 Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. 0.07 7 30% 5.620985 11.375948 5.050505 22.04744 McP Np

4 Z. spinusa 0.062 6.2 30% 4.978587 10.0758397 5.05051 20.10494 McP Np

Shrubs layer


6 Withania coagulans

(Stocks) Dunal

0.064 1.6 50% 5.139186 2.60021668 8.417508 16.15691 Ch Mic


A.DC

0.044 1.1 40% 3.533191 1.78764897 6.734007 12.05485 NP Np

Herb layer

8 Aristida monantha Michx 0.07 1.4 46% 5.620985 2.2751896 7.744108 15.64028 Th Np

9 Caryopteris odorata (D.

Don) B.L. Rob.

0.05 1 46% 4.014989 1.62513543 7.74411 13.38423 NP Mic

10 Mentha longifolia (L.) 0.03 0.266667 26% 2.408994 0.43336945 4.377104 7.219467 NP Mic

11 Medicago laciniata (L.)

Mill.

0.023333 0.266667 26% 1.873662 0.43336945 4.377104 6.684135 Th Np

Total 1.24533 61.533 594% 100% 100% 100% 300

196

Appendix-8: Phytosociological attributes of Opuntia dillenii-Ziziphus nummularia- Acacia nilotica community


Tree layer


f.) Wight &Arn.

0.14 14 40% 12.26636 27.25503 8.032129 47.55351 NP Np

2 Acacia nilotica (L.) Wild. ex

Delile

0.1 10 40% 8.761682 19.46788 8.03213 36.26169 McP Lp

3 Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. 0.052 5.2 30% 4.556075 10.1233 6.024096 20.70347 McP Np

4 Ailanthus altissima (Mill)

Swingle

0.028 2.8 40% 2.453271 5.451006 8.032129 15.93641 McP Mic

Shrub layer

5 Opuntia dillenii Haw 0.456 11.4 100% 39.95327 22.19338 20.08032 82.22697 NP Np

6 Cannabis sativa L. 0.084 2.1 50% 7.359813 4.088254 10.04016 21.48823 McP Np


Edgew

0.048 1.2 40% 4.205607 2.336145 8.03213 14.57388 NP Ap

Herb layer

8 Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. 0.093333 1.866667 60% 8.17757 3.634004 12.04819 23.85977 G Lp

9 Chenopodium album L. 0.07 1.4 46% 6.133178 2.725503 9.236948 18.09563 Th Np

10 Cynodon dactylon 0.043333 0.866667 26% 3.796729 1.687216 5.220884 10.70483 H Lp

11 Eruca sativa Mill. 0.026667 0.533333 26% 2.336449 1.038287 5.022088 8.396823 NP Mic

Total 1.14133 51.36 498% 100 100 99.80121 299.8012

197

Appendix-9: Phytosociological attributes of Olea ferruginea- Acacia modesta-Rydingia limbata community


Tree layer


Aitch.

0.18 18 100% 18.6593 34.3949 15.92357 68.97777 NP Mic

2 Acacia modesta Wall 0.156 15.6 30% 16.17139 29.80892 4.77707 50.75738 McP Lp

3 Ailanthus altissima (Mill)

Swingle

0.052 5.2 30% 5.390463 9.936306 4.77707 20.10384 McP Mic

Shrub layer


Scheen & V.A.Albert

0.184 4.6 100% 19.07395 8.789809 15.9236 43.78736 NP Np

5 Lonicera griffithii Hook. f. &

Thoms

0.04 1 50% 4.14651 1.910828 7.961783 14.01912 McP Mic

6 Isodon rugosus Benth. 0.052 1.3 50% 5.390463 2.484076 7.96178 15.83632 NP Np

7 Berberis lycium Royle 0.056 1.4 50% 5.805114 2.675159 7.96178 16.44205 NP Np

8 Monotheca buxifolia

(Falc.)A.DC

0.068 1.7 60% 7.049067 3.248408 9.55414 19.85161 NP Np

Herb layer


Stapf.

0.07 1.4 53% 7.256393 2.675159 8.43949 18.37104 H Np

10 Anisomeles indica (L.) Kuntze 0.05 1 53% 5.183138 1.910828 8.43949 15.53346 NP Mic

11 Rumex hestatus L. 0.026667 0.533333 26% 2.76434 1.019108 4.140127 7.923576 NP Mec

12 Polygonum plebeium R. Br. 0.03 0.6 26% 3.1098 1.146497 4.1401 8.39650 G Mec

Total 0.96466 52.33 628% 100 100 100 300

198

Appendix-10: Phytosociological attributes of Prosopis juliflora -Justicia adhatoda - Acacia modesta community


Tree layer

1 Acacia modesta Wall. 0.08 8 80% 7.697242 19.01743 10.88435 37.59903 McP Lp


Aitch.

0.06 6 60% 5.772931 14.26307 8.163265 28.19927 NP Mic

3 Tecomela undulate 0.036 3.6 40% 3.463759 8.557845 5.442177 17.46378 McP Mic

4 Albezia lebbeck 0.06 6 60% 5.772931 14.26307 8.163265 28.19927 McP Np

Shrub layer

5 Prosopis juliflora Swartz. 0.264 6.6 100% 25.4009 15.68938 13.60544 54.69572 McP Lp



A.DC

0.044 1.1 40% 4.233483 2.614897 5.442177 12.29056 NP Np

Herb layer

8 Aristida monantha Michx 0.05 1 46% 4.810776 2.377179 6.258503 13.44646 Th Np

9 Celosia argentea L 0.046667 0.933333 46% 4.490058 2.2187 6.258503 12.96726 NP Lp

10 Anisomeles indica (L.)

Kuntze

0.053333 1.066667 46% 5.131495 2.535658 6.258503 13.92566 NP Mic

11 Abutilon bidentatum

Hochst. ex A.Rich.

0.026667 0.533333 26% 2.565747 1.267829 3.537415 7.370991 Ch Np

12 Ajuga bracteosa Wall.ex

Benth

0.036667 0.733333 33% 3.527903 1.743265 4.489796 9.760963 Th Mic

13 Coronopus didymus (L.)

Smith

0.02 0.4 26% 1.92431 0.950872 3.537415 6.412597 Th Mic

14 Asparagus asiaticus L. 0.023333 0.466667 26% 2.245029 1.10935 3.537415 6.891794 G Np

15 Poa annua L. 0.026667 0.333333 26% 2.565747 0.792393 3.537415 6.895555 Th Lp

Total 1.039333 42.06667 735% 100 100 100 300

199

Appendix-11: Phytosociological attributes of Microsisymbrium-Torularia afghanica- Dodonaea viscosa community

S. No. Plant species Density Cover Frequency R.D R.C R.F IV Life

form

Leaf

size

Tree layer


Aitch.

0.052 5.2 60 0.001265207 14.3185 7.2874789 21.60723883 NP Mic

2 Ficus carica L. 0.036 3.6 40 0.000875912 9.9128 4.85831926 14.77199922 NP Mic

Shrub layer

3 Maytenus royleanusWall. Ex

Lawson

0.435 0.15 60 1.04 0.41303 7.2874789 8.740512398 NP Mic


Scheen & V.A.Albert

0.805 0.29 100 1.95 0.99828 12.1457982 15.09407699 NP Np

5 Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. 0.476 11.9 80 1.36 32.7673 9.71663853 43.84396299 NP Np


A.DC

0.335 0.12 60 0.815085158 0.41308 7.2874789 8.51564495 NP Np

7 Justicia adhatoda L 0.635 0.19 60 1.54 0.65404 7.2874789 9.481523647 NP Lp

Herb layer

8 Microsisymbrium O.E. Schulz 18 2.38 80 45 6.55346 9.71663853 61.27010342 Th Mic

9 Oxalis corniculata L. 1.53 3.17 33.33 3.12 8.72877 4.04819453 15.89696919 Th Np

10 Torularia afghanica (Gilli)

Hedge

18.2 2.05 60 44.28223844 5.64479 7.2874789 57.21450853 Th Mic

11 Tulipa clusiana DC. 0.236667 4.733333333 86 0.579109639 13.0335 10.4453864 24.05 Th Mic

12 Eragrostis ciliaris (L.) R.Br. 0.026667 0.533333333 26 0.06525179 1.46856 3.15790752 4.691722874 NP Mic

13 Enneapogon persicus Boiss. 0.036667 0.733333333 26 0.089721212 2.01927 3.15790752 5.26690363 Th Mp

14 Cymbopogon jwarancusa

(Jones) Schult.

0.03 0.6 26 0.073408264 1.65213 3.15790752 4.88 H Np

Total 40.9 36.3167 823.33 99.9985 100 100 300

200

Appendix-12: Phytosociological attributes of Sedum hispanicum-Geranium rotundifolium- Indigofera linifolia community


Tree layer


(Burm. f.) Wight & Arn.

0.06 6 60 2.667457024 9.972299 6.9364162 19.57617238 NP Np


3 Ziziphus mauritiana

Lam.

0.044 4.4 60 1.956135151 7.313019 6.9364162 16.20557073 McP Np

Shrub layer

4 Dodonaea viscosa (L.)

Jacq.

0.052 1.3 60 2.311796088 2.160665 6.9364162 11.40887709 NP Np

5 Withania coagulans

(Stocks) Dunal

0.056 1.4 50 2.489626556 2.32687 5.7803 10.59679636 Ch Mic


7 Capparis spinosa L 0.048 1.2 50 2.133965619 1.99446 5.7803468 9.908772274 McP Mic

8 Periploca aphylla

Decne.

0.052 1.3 40 2.311796088 2.160665 4.6242775 9.096738364 Ch Ap

Herb layer

9 Sedum hispanicum L. 0.596666667 11.9333 100 26.52637819 19.8338 11.560694 57.92086684 Th Lp

10 Geranium rotundifolium

L.

0.47 9.4 80 20.89508002 15.62327 9.2485549 45.76690364 Th Mic

11 Indigofera linifolia

(Linn.f.) Retz

0.433333333 8.666667 73 19.2649674 14.40443 8.4393064 42.10870589 Th Np

Continued…

201

12 Linum corymbulosum

Rchb.

0.136666667 2.733333 60 6.075874333 4.542936 6.9364162 17.55522681 Th Np

13 Erodium ciconium L. 0.093333333 1.866667 26 4.149377593 3.102493 3.0058 10.25767067 Th Mic

14 Galium tricornutum

Dandy.

0.05 1 40 2.222880854 1.66205 4.6243 8.509230715 Th Lp

15 Alyssum desertorum

Stapf.

0.023333333 0.466667 26 1.037344398 0.775623 3.0057803 4.818748014 Th Lp

16 Coronopus didymus (L.)

Smith.

0.02 0.4 20 0.889152341 0.66482 2.3121387 3.866111014 Th Mic

Total 2.2493 60.2 865 100 100 100 300

202

Appendix-13: Phytosociological attributes of Lactuca dissecta-Salvia moorcroftiana- Allium griffithianum community


Tree layer


f.) Wight & Arn. 0.052 5.2 60 1.4964 9.48774324 6.603081486 17.5872276

NP Np

2 Acacia nilotica (L.) Wild. Ex

Delile 0.064 6.4 60 1.84173 11.6772225 6.603081486 20.12203056

Mcp Lp

3 Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. 0.06 6 60 1.72662 10.947396 6.603081486 19.27709624 Mcp Np

Shrub layer

4 Cannabis sativa L. 0.6 0.089 80 17.2662 0.16238637 8.804108649 26.23268207 Mcp Np

5 Opuntia dillenii Haw 0.432 0.063 60 12.4317 0.11494766 6.603081486 19.14968382 NP Np

Herb layer

6 Lactuca dissecta D. Don 0.64 12.8 100 18.4173 23.3544449 11.00513581 52.77 Th Mic

7 Allium griffithianum Boiss. 0.496667 9.933333 100 14.2926 18.1240223 11.00513581 43.42 Th Np

8 Salvia moorcroftiana Wall.ex

Benth. 0.523333 10.46667 100 15.06 19.0971242 11.00513581 45.16

Th Mic

9 Phagnalon niveum Edgew. 0.296667 0.488888 40 8.53717 0.89200843 4.402054324 13.83123301 Th Lp

10 Oxytropis campestris (L.)

DC. 0.103333 0.111111 33.33333 2.97362 0.20272935 3.668378237 6.844728694

Th Np

11 Verbascum thapsus L. 0.04 0.055555 33.33333 1.15108 0.10136376 3.668378237 4.920821138 Th Mic

12 Eruca sativa Mill. 0.02 0.4 26 0.57554 0.7298264 2.860286029 4.165652

NP Mic

Continued…

203

13 Persicaria glabra (Willd.) M.

Gomez 0.02 0.4 26 0.57554 0.7298264 2.860286029 4.165652

NP Mic

14 Stellaria media L. 0.027 0.466667 26 0.77698 0.85146414 2.860286029 4.488728583 Th Np

15 Polypogon monspeliensis (L.)

Desf. 0.026667 0.466667 26 0.78 0.85146 2.860286029 4.491746029

Ch Mic

16 Setaria viridis (L.) P.Beauv. 0.02 0.4 26 0.58 0.7298264 2.860286029 4.170112432 Th Mic

17 Malcolmia africana (L.) R. Br. 0.03 0.6 26 0.86331 1.0947396 2.860286029 4.818334986 Th Np

18 Chenopodium ambrosioides L. 0.023333 0.466667 26 0.67146 0.85146414 2.860286029 4.383212995 Th Lp

Total 3.48 54.8 909 100 100 99.99 299.9

204

Appendix-14: Phytosociological attributes of Phagnalon niveum-Torularia afghanica-Kickxia ramosissima community


Tree layer

1 Olea ferruginea

Wall. ex G. Aitch. 0.066 6.6 60 2.52165053 9.99689296 7.731958763 20.25050226 NP Mic

2 Acacia modesta

Wall. 0.06 6 40 2.29240958 9.08808451 5.154639175 16.53513326 McP Lp

Shrub layer

3

Rydingia limbata

(Benth.) Scheen &

V.A.Albert

0.512 12.8 60 19.5618951 19.3879136 7.731958763 46.68176745 NP Np

4 Lonicera griffithii

Hook. f. &Thoms 0.068 1.7 60 2.59806419 2.57495728 7.73196 12.90498147 McP Mic

5 Maytenus royleanus

Wall. Ex Lawson 0.108 1.8 30 4.12633724 2.72642535 3.865979381 10.71874197 NP Mic

6 Berberis lycium

Royle 0.02 0.5 30 0.76413653 0.75734038 3.86598 5.387456902 NP Np

Herb layer

7 Phagnalon niveum

Edgew. 0.603333333 12.06667 100 23.0514519 18.2771477 12.88659794 54.21519754 Th Lp

8 Torularia afghanica

(Gilli) Hedge 0.42 8.4 93 16.046867 12.7233183 11.98453608 40.75472144 Th Mic

Continued…

205

9 Kickxia ramosissima

(Wall.) Janch. 0.31 7.153846 93 11.8441161 10.8357931 11.98453608 34.6644453 Th Np

10 Rubus fruticosus L. 0.126666667 2.533333 26 4.83953133 3.83719124 3.350515464 12.02723803 McP Mic

11 Artemisia scoparia

L. 0.103333333 2.066667 26 3.94803872 3.13034022 3.350515464 10.4288944 NP Np

12 Digera muricata (L.)

Mart. 0.1 2 26 3.82068263 3.0293615 3.35052 10.20056413 Th Mic

13 Valeriana wallichii

DC. 0.016666667 0.333333 20 0.63678044 0.50489358 2.577319588 3.71899361 Th Mec

14

Setaria pumila

(Poir.) Roem. &

Schult.

0.02 0.4 26 0.76413653 0.60606061 3.350515464 4.720712596 Th Mic

15 Oenanthe javanica

(Blume) DC 0.02 0.4 20 0.76414 0.60606061 2.577319588 3.947520194 Th Np

16 Bidens tripartite L. 0.02 0.4 26 0.76414 0.60606061 3.350515464 4.72071607 Th Np

17 Indigofera lignifolia

(Linn.f.) Retz 0.023333333 0.466667 20 0.89149261 0.70685102 2.577319588 4.175663219 Th Np

18 Polygonum plebeium

R. Br. 0.02 0.4 20 0.76414 0.60606061 2.577319588 3.947520194 G Mec

Total 2.61 66 776 100 100 100 300

206

Appendix-15: Phytosociological attributes of Euphorbia pilulifera-Pennisetum orientale-Indigofera lignifolia community


Tree layer

1 Acacia modesta Wall. 0.052 5.2 60 0.7585335 3.550295777 8.31793 12.3

Mcp Lp


ex G. Aitch. 0.06 6 60 0.875231 4.096495128 8.31793 13.3

NP Mic

Shrub layer


Swartz. 0.08 2 60 1.1669746 1.365498376 8.31793 10.85040275

Mcp Lp

Herb layer

4 Euphorbia pilulifera

L. 2.566667 51.33333 100 37.440436 35.04779165 13 85.48822732

Th Np

5 Indigofera linifolia

(Linn.f.) Retz 1.486667 29.73333 60 21.686278 20.3 8.31793 50.30420808

Th Np

6 Pennisetum orientale

Rich. 1.936667 38.73333 86 28.250511 26.44515188 11.8 66.49566243

Th Np

7 Trifolium repens L. 0.083333 1.666667 40 1.2155986 1.137915313 5.545287 7.89880038

Th Np

8 Vicia monantha Retz. 0.396667 7.933333 40 5.7862491 5.416476891 5.545287 16.74801255

Th Np

9 Silene vulgaris

(Moench) Garcke 0.023333 0.466667 26 0.3403676 0.318616288 3.66886 4.32784387

Th Np

Continued…

207

10 Cymbopogon

jwarancusa (Jones)

Schult. 0.02 0.4 20 0.2917437 0.273099675 3.66886 4.233703316

H

Np

11 Papaver pavoninum

Schrenk 0.023333 0.466667 26 0.3403676 0.318616288 3.66886 4.327843871

Th Np

12 Cynodon dactylon

(L.) Pers. 0.02 0.4 26 0.2917437 0.273099675 3.66886 4.233703316

H Lp

13 Bromus

pectinatus Thunb. 0.02 0.4 26 0.2917437 0.273099675 3.66886 4.233703316

Th Mic

14 Artemisia vulgaris L. 0.023333 0.46667 26 0.3403676 0.318618564 3.66886 4.327846147

NP Np

15 Rorippa palustris (L.)

Besser 0.02 0.4 26 0.2917437 0.273099675 3.66886 4.233703316

Th Np

16 Misopates orontium

(L.) Raf 0.03 0.6 26 0.4376155 0.409649513 3.66886 4.516124981

Th Lp

17 Polygonum aviculerL. 0.013333 0.266667 13.33333333 0.1944958 0.18206645 1.802219 2.178781167

Ch Mic

Total 6.86 146 721.33 100 100 100 299.9

208

Appendix-16: Phytosociological attributes of Dodonaea viscosa-Rydingia limbata-Olea ferruginea community


Tree layer

1 Olea ferruginea Wall. ex G. Aitch. 0.09 9 60 20.0905 12.44395 16.97793 49.51237 NP Mic

2 Salix tetrasperma 0.036 3.6 40 4.886878 12.10762 6.791171 23.78567 Mcp Mic

3 Ficus carica L 0.032 3.2 40 4.343891 10.76233 6.791171 21.89739 NP Mic

Shrub layer

4 Rydingia limbata (Benth.) Scheen

& V.A.Albert

0.148 3.7 100 12.21719 30.26906 10.18676 52.67301 NP Np



Lawson

0.02 0.5 40 2.714932 1.681614 6.791171 11.18772 NP Mic



Herb layer

9 Eclipta alba (L.) Hassk. 0.01 0.2 13 1.357466 0.672646 2.207131 4.237243 G Np

10 Chenopodium album L. 0.02 0.4 20 2.714932 1.345291 3.395586 7.455809 Th Np

11 Caryopteris odorata (D. Don) B.L.

Rob.

0.02 0.4 20 2.714932 1.345291 3.395586 7.455809 NP Mic

12 Apluda mutica L.

0.026667 0.533333 33 3.61991 1.793722 5.602716 11.01635 Th Np

13 Chrysopogon gryllus (L.) Trin. 0.03 0.6 33 4.072398 2.017937 5.60272 11.69306 NP Mic

Total 0.736667 29.73333 589 100 100 100 300

209

Appendix-17: Phytosociological attributes of Dodonaea viscosa-Withania coagulans-Justicia adhatoda community


Tree layer



f.)Wight &Arn. 0.04 4 40 3.450259 9.909166 6.486487 19.84591

NP Np

3 Z. Spinosa 0.046 4.6 40 3.967798 11.39554 6.486487 21.84983 McP Np

4 Z. mauritiana Lam. 0.04 4 40 3.450259 9.909166 6.486487 19.84591 McP Np

Shrub layer



7 Withania coagulans (Stocks )

Dunal 0.256 6.4 90 22.08166 15.85467 14.59459 52.53092

Ch Mic

8 Periploca aphylla Decne. 0.02 0.5 30 1.725129 1.238646 4.864865 7.82864 Ch Ap

Herb layer

9 Cyperus bulbosus Vahl 0.02 0.4 26.66667 1.725129 0.990917 4.324324 7.04037 G Np


Stapf 0.023333 0.466667 20 2.012651 1.156069 3.243243 6.411964

H Np

11 Lactuca serriola L. 0.023333 0.466667 26.66667 2.012651 1.15607 4.324324 7.493045 Th Mec

12 Carthamus oxycantha M.B

TH Mie 0.026667 0.533333 26.66667 2.300173 1.321222 4.324324 7.945719

Th Mic

13 Astragalus amherstianus

Benth. 0.03 0.6 33.33333 2.587694 1.486375 5.405405 9.479474

Th Np

14 Leucas cephalotes (Roth)

Spreng 0.03 0.6 33.33333 2.587694 1.486375 5.405405 9.479474

Ch Mic

Total 1.15933 40.36667 616.6667 100% 100% 100% 300

210

Appendix-18: Phytosociological attributes of Cannabis sativa-Alternanthera pungens- Ageratum conyzoide community


Tree layer


2 Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. f.)

Wight & Arn

0.04 4 40 2.697842 9.188361 5.312085 17.19829 NP Np

3 Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh 0.056 5.6 60 3.776978 12.86371 7.968128 24.60881 McP Np

Shrubs layer

4 Cannabis sativa L. 0.564 14.1 100 38.03957 32.38897 13.28021 83.70875 Th Mic

5 Opuntia dillenii Haw 0.04 1 50 2.697842 2.29709 6.640106 11.63504 McP Lp

6 Sorgham halepense (Linn) Bres 0.036 0.9 50 2.428058 2.067381 6.64011 11.13555 Th Np

7 Cotoneaster Microphyllsus Wall.

Ex Lindl.

0.024 0.6 30 1.618705 1.378254 3.984064 6.981023 Th Mic

Herb layer

8 Alternanthera pungens Kunth. 0.293333 5.8666667 66 19.78417 13.47626 8.76494 42.02538 Th Mic

9 Echinochloa colona (L.) Link. 0.02 0.4 40 1.348921 0.918836 5.312085 7.579842 Th Np

10 Serratula pallida DC. 0.016667 0.3333333 26 1.124101 0.765697 3.452855 5.342653 Th Mic

11 Ageratum conyzoides L. 0.17 3.4 73 11.46583 7.810107 9.694555 28.97049 Th Mic

12 Boerhavia diffusa L 0.043333 0.8666667 26 2.922662 1.990812 3.452855 8.366329 H Np

13 Chrozophora tinctoria (L.) Raf. 0.026667 0.5333333 33.333333 1.798561 1.225115 4.426738 7.450414 Th Mic

14 Lepidium ruderaleL. 0.026667 0.5333333 33.33333 1.798561 1.225115 4.426737 7.450413 Th Np

15 Cyperus rotundus L. 0.026667 0.5333333 33.33333 1.798561 1.225115 4.42674 7.450416 G Np

16 Cirsium arvense L. Scop 0.03 0.6 26 2.023381 1.378254 3.452855 6.854491 Th Mic

17 Cucumus melo vari aragratis 0.033333 0.6666667 26 2.248201 1.531394 3.452855 7.23245 Th Mic

Total 1.48266 43.5333 752.99999 100 100 100 300

211

Appendix-19: Phytosociological attributes of Euphorbia heterophylla-Delphinium kohatense-Olea ferruginea community


Tree layer


Aitch. 0.052 5.2 60 4.4801838 15.3694581 8.823529412 28.67317 NP Mic


3 Cornus macrophylla Wall. Ex

Roxb. 0.036 3.6 40 3.10166571 10.6403941 5.882352941 19.62441 McP Mic

Shrub layer

4 Lonicera griffithii Hook. f. &

Thoms 0.048 1.2 60 4.13555428 3.54679803 8.823529412 16.50588 McP Mic


Scheen & V.A.Albert 0.044 1.1 40 3.79092476 3.25123153 5.882352941 12.92451 NP Np

6 Maytenus royleanusWall. Ex

Lawson 0.036 1.1 40 3.10166571 3.25123153 5.882352941 12.23525 NP Mic

7 Isodon rugosus (Wall ex Benth) 0.044 1.1 40 3.79092476 3.25123153 5.882352941 12.92451 NP Np


Herb layer

9 Rubus fruticosus L. 0.03666667 0.733333 40 3.15910396 2.16748768 5.882352941 11.20894 McP Mic

10 Euphorbia heterophylla L. 0.44666667 8.933333 100 38.4836301 26.4039409 14.70588235 79.59345 Th Mic

11 Delphinium kohatense Munz. 0.23666667 4.733333 86 20.3905801 13.9901478 12.64705882 47.02779 Th Mec

12 Ageratum conyzoides L. 0.03333333 0.666667 26 2.87191269 1.97044335 3.823529412 8.665885 Th Mic

13 Ammannia baccifera L. 0.02666667 0.533333 26 2.29753016 1.57635468 3.823529412 7.697414 Ch Np

14 Boerhavia diffusa L 0.03666667 0.733333 26 3.15910396 2.16748768 3.823529412 9.150121 H Np

15 Poa infirma Kunth 0.03 0.6 26 2.58472142 1.77339901 3.823529412 8.18165 Ch Lp

Total 1.16066 33.83 680 100% 100% 100% 300%

212

Appendix-20: Phytosociological attributes of Delphinium kohatense - Dittrichia graveolens - Prosopis juliflora community


Tree layer



ex G. Aitch. 0.046 4.6 40 2.84888522 9.84308131 5.253940455 17.94591 McP Mic

3 Tecomela undulata 0.052 5.2 60 3.22047894 11.1269615 7.880910683 22.22835 McP Mic


(Burm. f.)Wight &Arn. 0.056 5.6 60 3.46820809 11.9828816 7.880910683 23.332 NP Np

Shrub layer


Swartz 0.3 7.5 100 18.5796862 16.0485021 13.13485114 47.76304 McP Lp


7 Monotheca Buxifolia

(Falc.) A.DC 0.036 0.9 40 2.22956235 1.92582026 5.253940455 9.409323 NP Np

8

Cotoneaster

Microphyllsus Wall. Ex

Lindl.

0.04 1 40 2.47729149 2.13980029 5.253940455 9.871032 NP Np

Herb layer

9 Delphinium kohatense

Munz. 0.45666667 9.133333 100 28.2824112 19.5435093 13.13485114 60.96077 Th Mec

10 Dittrichia graveolens

(L.) Greuter 0.37666667 7.533333 80 23.3278282 16.1198288 10.50788091 49.95554 Th Np

Continued…

213

11 Asparagus asiaticus L. 0.04 0.8 26.66667 2.47729149 1.71184023 3.50262697 7.691759 G Np

12 Cichorium intybus Linn. 0.03 0.6 20 1.85796862 1.28388017 2.626970228 5.768819 NP Mic

13 Digera muricata (L.)

Mart.

0.02 0.4 20 1.23864575 0.85592011 2.626970228 4.721536 Th Mic

14 Chrozophora tinctoria

(L.) Raf.

0.02666667 0.533333 26.66667 1.65152766 1.14122682 3.50262697 6.295381 Th Mic

15 Chenopodium

ambrosioides L.

0.02 0.4 20 1.23864575 0.85592011 2.626970228 4.721536 Th Lp

16 Tetrapogon villosus Desf. 0.02333333 0.466667 26 1.44508671 0.99857347 3.415062791 5.858723 Th Lp

17 Sorgham

halepense (Linn) Bres

0.02333333 0.466667 26 1.44508671 0.99857347 3.415062791 5.858723 Th Mic

18 Lepidium sativum Linn. 0.02 0.4 26 1.23864575 0.85592011 3.415062791 5.509629 Th Np

Total 1.61466667 46.73333 761.3333 100% 100% 100% 300%

214

REFERENCES

Abbas, F., T. Akhtar and A. Mian. 2009. Phytosociological analysis

within the range of Grey Goral in Pakistan and Azad Kashmir. Pak. J.

Bot., 41(2): 667-682.

Abbasi, A.M. 2013. Ethnobotanical and nutraceutical investigation of wild

edible fruits and vegetables used by the tribal communities of Lesser

Himalayas – Pakistan. PP.160

Aberoumand, A. 2012. Assay of nutritional potential of the fruits of Solanum

indicum L. in Iran. J. Agric. Tech., 8: 923-929.

Abidemi, O.O. 2013.Proximate composition and vitamin levels of seven

medicinal plants.Int. J. Eng. Sci. Inventioni., 2 (5): 47-50.

Acharya, D. and A. Shrivastava. 2008. Indigenous Herbal Medicines: Tribal

Formulations and Traditional Herbal practices, Aavishkar publishers,

Distributor, Jaipur, India. PP. 440.

Adiaratou, T., D. Drissa, D. Seydou, B. Hilde and S.P. Berit. 2005.

Ethnopharmacological survey of different uses of seven medicinal

plants from Mali, (Western Africa) in the regions Doila, Kolokani and

Siby. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed.,1: 7.

Adnan, M., J. Hussain, M.T. Shah, Z.K. Shinwari, F. Ullah, A. Bahader, N.

Khan, A.L. Khan and T. Watanabe. 2010. Proximate and nutrient

composition of medicinal plants of humid and sub-humid regions in

North-west Pakistan. J. Med. Plants. Res., 4(4): 339 - 345.

Ahmad, M., S.S. Shoukat and D. Khan. 2010. Status of vegetation analysis in

Pakistan.Int. J. Biol. Biotech., 7(3): 147-158.

Ahmad, P., M. Sarwat and S. Sharma. 2008. Reactive oxygen species,

antioxidants and signaling in plants. J. Plant Biol., 51(3): 167-173.

215

Ahmed, E., M. Arshad, Abdulsaboor, R. Qureshi, G. Mustafa, S. Sadiq and S.

K. Chaudhari. 2013. Ethnobotanical appraisal and medicinal use of

plants in Patriata, New Murree, evidence from Pakistan. J. Ethnobiol.

Ethnomed., 9:13.

Ahmed, M., T. Hussain, A. H. Sheikh, S. S. Hussain and M. F. Siddiqui. 2006.

Phytosociology and structure of Himalayan forests from different

climatic zones of Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 44 (4): 1225-1228.

Ahmad, S.S., S. Fazal, E.E. Valeem, Z.I. Khan, G. Sarwar and Z. Iqbal. 2009.

Evaluation of ecological aspects of roadside vegetation around

Havalian city using multivariate techniques.Pak. J. Bot., 41(1): 53-60.

Ahmad, T., I. Ahmad and M. Qasim. 2008. Present Status and Future

Prospects of Gladiolus Cultivation in Punjab, Pakistan. J. Tekirdag

Agr.Fac., 5: 227-238.

Ahmed, M. 1988. Plant communities of some northern temperate forests of

Pakistan. Pak. J. For., 38:33-40.

Ahmed, M. and S.A. Qadir. 1976. Phytosociological studies along the way of

Gilgit to Gopis. Pak. J. For., 26:93-104.

Ahmed, M., N. Khan, M. Wahab, H. Salma, F. Siddiqui, K. Nazim and U.

Khan. 2009. Description and Structure of Olea ferruginea (Royle)

forests of Dir lower District of Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 41(6): 2683-

2695.

Ahmed, M., E. E. Naqvi and E. L. M. Wang. 1990. Present Status of Juniper

in Rodhmallazi forest of Baluchistan. Pakistan. Pak. J. For. , 227-236.

Ajaib, M., Z. Khan, N. Khan and M. Wahab. 2009. Phytosociological studies

on the vegetation of Goharabad valley District Diamer (Northern area)

of Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 42(4): 2429-2441.

216

Ajaib, M., Z.U. Khan, N. Khan and M. Wahab. 2010. Ethnobotanical studies

on useful shrubs of District Kotli, Azad Jammu and Kashmir,

Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 42(3): 1407-1415.

Akhtar, M. Z., A. Khan, M. Sarwar and A.Javaid. 2007. Influence of soil and

forage minerals on buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) haemoglobinaria. Asian-

Australian J. Ani. Sci., 20: 393-399.

Akhtar, N. and S. Begum. 2009. Ethnopharmacological important plants of

Jalala, District Mardan, Pakistan. Pak. J. Pl. Sci., 15(2): 95-100.

Akubugwo, I. E., A.N. Obasi and S.C. Ginika. 2007. Nutritional potential of

the leaves and seeds of black nightshade Solanum nigrum L. var

virginicum from Afikpo-Nigeria. Pak. J. Nutr., 6: 323-326.

Ali, S.I. and M. Qaisar. 1995 – 2009. Flora of Pakistan. Pakistan Agricultural

Research Council, Islamabad.

Ali, S.I. and M. Qaisar.1991-2004. Flora of Pakistan. University of Karachi,

Pakistan.

Amin, A. and R.M. Ashfaque. 1982. Phytosociological studies of Ayub

National Park, Rawalpindi. Pak. J. For., 32: 130-135.

Amjad, M. S. and A. Hameed. 2012. Life form and leaf spectra reported from

sub-tropical to Alpine and Subalpine Zoane of Basu Hills, District

Sakardu Gilget Pakistan. Int.j.emerg. sci., 2(4): 543.

Amrit, P.S. 2007.Ethics in Herbal medicine.J.Ethnobot. leaflets., 11:206-211

and forages in southwestern Punjab-Pakistan: Micro-minerals.Asian

Australas. J. Anim. Sci., 19 (8): 1139-1147.

Anonymous. 1991. A guide to a global environment. World FAO Resources.

pp. 383.

AOAC. 1984. Official Methods of Analysis. (11th

ed) Association of Official

Analytical Chemists, Washington, DC.

217

Arenas, P. and G.F. Scarpa. 2007. Edible wild plants of the Chorote Indians,

Gran Chaco, Argentina. Bot J. Linn. Soc., 153(1): 73-85.

Arjun, P., J. Shivesh and P.N. Murthy. 2009. Pharmacognostical

Standardization of Leaves of Hygrophila spinosaT.

Anders.Pharmacog. Jour., 1 (2): 82-87.

Arnold, M., G. Kohin, R. Person and G. Sheperd. 2003. Fuel wood revisited:

what has changed in the last decade? CIFOR Occasional paper No. 39.

Arshad, M., A.U. Hussan, M.Y. Ashraf, S. Noureen and M. Moazzam. 2008.

Edaphic factors and distribution of vegetation in the Cholistan

desert, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 40(5):1923-1931.

Ashkenazi, M. 1997. Informant networks and their anthropologists.Human

Organization. 56(4): 471-483.

Ashraf, M.Y., K. Akhtar, G. Sarwar and M. Ashraf. 2005. Role of rooting

system in salt tolerance potential of different guar accessions. Agron

Sustain Dev., 25: 243-249.

Asquith, T.N. and L.G. Butler. 1986. Interaction of condensed Tannins with

selected Proteins. Phytochem., 25 (7): 1591-1593.

Attaullah, S.M.W and A. Farooq. 2010. Ethnobotanical survey of plants of

Kurram River beds of District Bannu, Pakistan. Pak. J. Pl. Sci., 16(1):

25-18.

Audu, S. A., I. Mohammed and H. A. Kaita. 2007. Phytochemical screening of

the leaves of Lophira lanceolata (Ochanaceae). Life Sci. J., 4(4): 75-

79.

Aylooa, G.A., H.A.B. Coker, S.A. Adesegum, B.A.A. Adepoju, K. Obaweya,

E.C. Ezennia and T.O Atangbaylia. 2008. Phytochemical screening

and anti-oxidant activities of some selected medicinal plants used for

malaria therapy in southern Nigeria. Trop.J.Pharm.Res., 7(3):1019-

1024.

218

Badshah, L. 2011. Ecological evaluation of plant resources and vegetation

structure of district Tank,Pakistan (Doctoral dissertation, University of

Peshawar, Peshawar).

Badshah, L., F. Hussain, G. Dastagir and T. Burni. 2006. Ethnobotany of fuel

wood plants of Ladha, South Waziristan, Pakistan. Pak. J. Pl. Sci., 12

(2): 193-201.

Badshah, L., M. Ibrar and F. Hussain. 2010. An ethnobotanical study on the

usage of wild medicinal herbs from Malana hills, Parachinar, Kurram

Valley. J. Biol. Biotech., 7(3): 267-271.

Bajracharya, D., T.B. Bhattarai, M.R. Dhakal, T.N. Mandal. M.R. Sharma, S.

Sitaula and B.K. Vimal. 1985. Some feed valves for fodder plants

from Nepal.J. Appl. Bot. Food Qual., 59: 357-365.

Balick, M.J. and P.A. Cox. 1997. Plants, people and culture: the science of

ethnobotany, New York, NY.

Banyal, R. and S.D. Bhardwaj. 2003. Effect of sewage water on the growth

and development of fodder tree plantation. The Indian

Forester.,129(12): 1488-1492.

Barkatullah., M. Ibrar and N. Muhammad. 2011. Evaluation of Skimmia

laureola DC for in-vitro and in-vivo pharmacological screening. Afr.

J. Pharm. &Pharmacol.,5 (14): 1718-1723.

Barkatullah. and M. Ibrar. 2011. Plants profile of Malakand Pass Hills, District

Malakand, Pakistan. Afr J. Biotechnol., 10(73):16521-16535.

Batalha, M.A. and F.R. Martins. 2002. The vascular flora of the cerrado in

Emas National Park (Goiás, central Brazil). SIDA, contributions to

Botany, 295-311.

219

Beg., A.R. and M.H. Khan. 1984. Some more plant communities and the

future of dry oak forest zone in Swat Valley. Pakistan J. Forest., 34:

25–35.

Bhagwat, G.G. 2008.Pharmacognostic Study of Plant Euphorbia hirta L.J.

Pharm. Res., 1 (1): 39-43.

Bhatt, A.B., R. Neelam and C. Amol. 1992. Nutritional quality, fodder valve

and regeneration potential of Helicteres isora Linn. The Indian

Forester.,118(9): 647-649.

Bhatti, G. R., Qureshi, R. A. H. A. M. A. T. U. L. L. A. H. and M. Shah. 2001.

Ethnobotany of Qadanwari ofNara Desert. Pak. J. Bot., 33: 801-812.

Bin, C., W. Xiaoru and F.S.C. Lee. 2001. Pyrolysis coupled with atomic

absorption spectrometry for determination of mercury in Chinese

medicinal materials. Anal.Chim.Acta.,447 (1-2): 161-169.

Boggs, K. 2000. Classification of community types, successional sequences

and landscapes of the Copper River Delta, Alaska. Gen. Tech. Rep.

PNW-GTR-469.US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific

Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR. : 244.

Bourdy, G., M.L. Willcox, H. Ginsburg, P.H. Rasoanaivo, B. Graz and E.

Deharo. 2008. Ethnopharmacology and malaria. New hypothetical

leads or old efficient antimalarials.Int. J. Parasitology., 38(1): 33-41.

Bouyoucos, G.J. 1936. Directions for making mechanical analysis of soils by

the hydrometer method.Soil Sci., 42: 225-228.

Bocuk, H., C. Ture and O. Ketenoglu. 2009. Plant diversity and conservation

of the northeast Phrygia region under the impact of land degradation

and desertification (Central Anatolia, Turkey). Pak. J. Bot., 41 (5):

2305-2331.

Box, E. 1981. Macroclimate and plant formations: An introduction to

predictive modeling in phytogeography. Tasks for vegetation

science.The Hague,Junk Publ. pp1- 258.

220

Brady, N.C. 1990. The Nature and Properties of Soils. (10th

Ed) Macmillan

Publishing Co. New York, pp: 621.

Braun – Blanquet, J. 1913. The Vegetationsverha¨ltnisse the snow - tage in the

Ra - table Lepontischen Alps. Denkschr . d. Switzerland. Naturf.Ges.

48th

Braun – Blanquet, J. 1918.A phytogeographical excursion through the Lower

Engadine and in the Swiss National Park.Posts Geobot

Landesaufnahme, 4: 1-80.

Bremner, J.M. and C.S. Mulvaney. 1982. Nitrogen - Total. In: Methods of

Soil Analysis (A. L. Page et al., Ed.). Agronomy Monograph 9, Part

2, (2nd Ed). American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI. PP. 595-

624.

Bukhari, S.S.B., A. Haider and M.T. Laeeq. 2012. Land cover Atlas of

Pakistan, Pakistan forest institute Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Peshawar. pp.

62 -200.

Bukhsh, E., S.A. Malik and S.S. Ahmad. 2007. Estimation of nutritional value

and trace elements content of Carthamus oxycantha, Eruca sativa and

Plantago ovate. Pak. J. Bot., 39(4): 1181-1187.

Cain, S.A., G. M. D. Castro. 1959. Manual of Vegetation Analysis, PP: 225-

285. Harpers and Brothers Publishers, New York, USA.

Cajander, A.K. 1909. Uber Waldtypen. Acta Botanica Fennia 28: 1909/10.

Helsingfors.

Chaghtai, S.M., S.Z. Shah and J. Shah. 1989. Temporal changes in vegetation

of Miranjani Top, Gali, Hazara, N.W.F.P. Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot.,

21(1): 107-117.

Chaudhri, I.I. 1960. The vegetation of Kaghan valley.Pak. J. For., 10: 285-

294.

221

Chirikova, N.K., D.N. Olennikov and L.M. Tankhaeva.2010. Pharmacognostic

Study of Aerial Parts of Baikal Skullcap (Scutellaria baicalensis

Georgi).Russ. J. Bioorg. Chem., 36 (7): 909-914.

Choudhury, P.R., M.D. Choudhury, S.S. Ningthoujam, A. Mitra, D. Nath and

A.D. Talukdar. 2015. Plant utilization against digestive system

disorder in Southern Assam, India. J. Ethnopharmacol., 175:192–197.

Cline – Cole, R.A., J.A. Falola and H.A.C.Main. 1990. Wood – fuel in Kano.

United Nations University Press, Tokyo.pp. 24.

Congre's International de Botanique. Bruxelles, Rich.

Costa, R.C., F.S. Araujo and L.W. Lima-Verde. 2007. Flora and life-form

spectrum in an area of deciduous thorn woodland (Caatinga) in

Northeastern, Brazil. J. Arid Environments.,68(2): 237-247.

Dastagir, G., F. Hussain, F. Khattak and Khanzadi. 2013. Proximate analysis

of plants of family Zygophyllaceae and Euphorbiaceae during winter.

Sarhad J. Agric., 29(3): 395-400.

Dasti, A.A., S. Saima, Z. Mahmood, M. Athar and S. Gohar. 2013. Vegetation

zonation along the geological and geomorphological gradient at eastern

slope of Sulaiman Range, Pakistan. African J Biotechnol., 9(37): 6105-

6115.

Devineau, J.L. and A. Fournier. 2007. Integrating environmental and

sociological approaches to assess the ecology and diversity of

herbaceous species in a Sudan-type savanna (Bondoukuy, Western

Burkina Faso). Flora.,202(5): 350-370.

Digiovinazzo, P., G.F. Ficetola, L. Bottoni, C. Andreis and E.P.Schioppa.

2010. Ecological thresholds in herb communities for the

management of suburban fragmented forests. For. Ecol. Manage.,

259(3): 343-349.

222

Doubenmire, R.F. 1979. Ecología vegetal: tratado de autoecología de

plantas. Limusa. México, DF.

Dhole, J. A., K. D. Lone, N. A. Dhole and S. S. Bodke. 2013. Studies on weed

diversity of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) crop fields of Marathwada

Region. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci., 2(6), 293-298.

Durrani, M.J., A. Razaq, S.G. Muhammad and F. Hussain. 2010. Floristic

diversity, ecological, characteristics and ethnobotonical profile of

plants of Aghberg rangelands, Balochistan, Pakistan. Pak. J. Pl. Sci.,

16(1): 29-36.

Durrani, M.J., F. Hussain and S.U. Rehman. 2005. Ecological characteristics

of plants of Harboi rangeland, Kalat, Pakistan. J. Trop. and Sub Trop.

Bot., 13(2): 130-138.

Durrani, M., A. Jan and F. Hussain. 2005. Ethnoecological profile of plants of

Harboi rangeland, Kalat, Pakistan. Int. J. Bio. Biotech.,2(1): 15-22.

Eilu, G., and R. Bukenya-Ziraba. 2004. Local use of climbing plants of

Budongo forest reserve, Western Uganda. J. Ethnobiol., 24(2): 307-

327.

Erukainure, O.L., O.V. Oke, A.J. Ajiboye and O.Y. Okafor. 2011. Nutritional

qualities and phytochemical constituents of Clerodendrum volubile, a

tropical non-conventional vegetable. Inter. Food. Res. J., 18:1393-

1399.

Ewald, J. 2003. A critique for phytosociology.J. Veg. Sci., 14(2): 291-296.

Falade, O.S., A.F. Dare, M.O. Bello, B.O. Osuntogun and S.R.A. Adewusi.

2004. Varietal changes in proximate composition and the effect of

processing on the ascorbic acid contents of some Nigerian vegetable. J.

Food. Tech., 2(2): 103-108.

FAO, 1981.Fuel wood situation in developing countries, Explanatory note,

Rome.

FAO, 1984.Wood for energy. Forestry topics report No. 1

223

FAO, 1986.Forestry for rural communities, explanatory note.

Farooq, S., A. Z. Khan, M. Yousaf and H. Fazal. 2010. Phytosociological

study of Push Ziarat area (Shawal) in the South Waziristan, Pakistan.

Pak. J. Weed Sci. Res., 16(1): 47-55.

Fazal, H., N. Ahmad, A. Rashid and S. Farooq. 2010. A Checklist of

phanerogamic flora of Haripur Hazara, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa,


Felting, P. 1956. Plant Community and Environment.Results and problems of

botanical tandortforschung. (2nd

Ed) Stuttgart. Ferdinand Enke Verlag

.pp.143

Filzer, P. 1956. Plant community and environment.Results and problems of

botanical tandortforschung. (2nd

Ed) Stuttgart. Ferdinand Enke

Verlag,pp. 143.

Flahault, C. and C. Schroter. 1910. Phytogeographical nomenclature. Reports

and proposals. III

Fluck, H. 1973. Medicinal Plants and Their Uses, W. Feulsham and Comp

Ltd, New York, pp. 7-15.

Francisco, J.C., M.D.L. Estrella, C. Aedo and M. Velayos. 2009. Checklist of

Commelinaceae of Equatorial Guinea (Annobón, Bioko and Río

Muni). Bot. J. Linn. Soc., 159(1): 106-122.

Garg, A.N., A. Kumar, A.G.C. Nair and A.V.R. Reddy. 2007. Analysis of

some Indian herbs by INAA. J. Radioanal. Nucl. Chem., 271(3): 611-

619.

Ganapthy, S., Ramaiah, M., Sarala, S., & Mahesh Babu, P. (2013).

Ethnobotanical literature survey of three Indian medicinal plants for

hepatoprotective activity. Int. J. Res. Ayurveda. Pharm., 4(3).

224

Gharibzahedi, S.M.T., S.M. Mousavi and M. Ghahderijani. 2011. A survey on

moisture- dependent physical properties of castor seed (Ricinus

communis L.). Aus. J. Crop Sci., 5(1):1-7.

Ghulam, D., H. Farrukh, K. Fatima and Khanzadi. 2013. Proximate Analysis

of Plants of Family Zygophyllaceae and Euphorbiaceae during winter.

Sarhad J. Agric., 29(3): 397-398.

Ghulam, Y., M. Ahmad, M. Zafar, S. Sultana, S. Kayani, A.A. Cetto and S.

Shaheen. 2015. Traditional management of diabetes in Pakistan:

Ethnobotanical Investigation from Traditional Health Practitioners. J.

Ethnopharmacol., 152: 312-330.

Ghiasuddin., A. Rauf, M. Arfan, M. Ali, M. Qaisar, M. Saadiq and M. Atif.

2012. Preliminary phytochemical screening and antoxidant activity of

Bergenia caliata. Middle-East J. Sci. Res., 11:1140.

Ghiasuddin., A. Rauf, M. Qaisar, A. Latif and M. Ali. 2011. Preliminary

phytochemical screening and antimicrobial activity of Hedera halix L.

Middle-East J. Sci. Res., 8: 198.

Giménez, E., M. Melendo, F. Valle, F. Gómez-Mercado and E. Cano. 2004.

Endemic flora biodiversity in the south of the Iberian Peninsula:

altitudinal distribution, life forms and dispersal modes. Biodivers.

Conserv., 13(14): 2641-2660.

Golluscio, R.A., M. Oesterheld and M.R. Aguiar. 2005. Relationship between

phenology and life form: a test with 25 Patagonian species.

Ecography.,28(3): 273-282.

Gonzalez-V, E. A., M.A. Hussey and J.A.Ortega-S. 2006. Nutritive value of

desmanthus associated with Kleingrass during the establishment year.

Rangeland Ecol. Manag., 58 (3): 308-314.

Goodman, S.M. and Ghafoor. A. 1992. The Ethnobotany of Southern

Baluchistan, Pakistan, with particular reference to medicinal plants.

Published by Field Museum of Natural History., pp. 104.

225

Gulshan, Allah. B., A. A. Dasti, S. Hussain, M. I. Atta and M. Amin-ud-Din.

2012. Indigenous uses of medicinal plants in rural areas of Dera Ghazi

Khan, Punjab, Pakistan. J. Agri. and Bio. Sci., 7(9).

Grunwaldt, E., A.R. Pedrani and A.I. Vich. 1994. Goat grazing in the arid

piedmont Argentina. Small Ruminant Research.,13(3): 211-216.

Gu, L., M.A. Kelm, J.F. Hammerstone, G. Beecher, J. Holden, D. Haytowitz,

S. Gebhardt and R.L. Prior. 2004. Concentrations of

proanthocyanidins in common foods and estimations of normal

consumption. J. Nutr., 134: 613 617.

Guo, Q.S., X.F. Wang, G. Bar, Y. Kang, M. Hong, S.X. Pei and F.J. Zhang.

2009. Life form spectra leaf character, and hierarchical-synusia

structure of vascular plants in Thuja sutchuehensis community.

PubMed., 20(9): 2057-2062.

Hadi, F., M. Naseem, S. M. Shah, Asadullah and F. Hussain. 2009. Prevalence

and ecologicalcharacteristics of summer weeds in crop and vegetable

fields of Botanicalgarden Azakhel, University of Peshawar, Pakistan.

Pak. J. Pl. Sci., 15(2): 101-105.

Hameed, I., G. Dastagir and F. Hussain. 2008b. Nutritional and elemental

analyses of some selected medicinal plants of the family

Polygonaceae. Pak. J. Bot., 40(6): 2493-2502.

Hameed, I. and F. Hussain. 2015. Proximate and elemental analysis of five

selected medicinal plants of family Solanaceae. Pak. J. Pharma. Sci.,

28 (4): 1203-1215.

Hanif, R., Z. Iqbal, M. Iqbal, S. Hanif and M. Rasheed. 2006. Use of vegetable

as nutritional role in human health. J. Agric. Biol Sci., 1: 18-22.

Haq, F. 2012. The Ethno Botanical Uses of Medicinal Plants of Allai Valley,

Western Himalaya Pakistan. Int. J. Pl. Res., 2(1): 21-34.

226

Haq, I. 1983. Medicinal Plants: Report of Committee on economic and

therapeautic importance of Medicinal plants. Ministry of health,

government of Pakistan Hamdard foundation press, Karachi.

Hara, H. and L.H.J. Williams. 1997. An Enumeration of the Flowering Plants

of Nepal, Vol II. London: British Museum of Natural History.

Harshberger, J.W. 1896. The purpose of ethnobotany.Bot. Gaz.,21: 146-158.

Havsteen, B.H. 2002.The biochemistry and medical significance of the

flavonoids.Pharmacol.Therapeutics., 96: 67–202.

Hazrat, A., J. Shah, S. Ahmad, M. Nisar, A.K. Jan and Sikandar. 2010.

Medicinal plants of Usherai valley, Dir, KPK, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot.,

42 (1): 31-34.

Heinrich, M., J. Barnes, S. Gibbons, E.M and Williamson. 2004.

Fundamentals of Pharmacognosy and phytotherapy. Churchill

Livingstone, Elsevier science Ltd. UK.

Hillring, B. 2006. World trade in forest products and wood fuel. Biomass

Bioenergy., 30:815-825.

Hinterlang, D. 1992. Vegetationsökologie der Weichwasserquellgesell

schaftenzentral europäischer Mittelgebirge.Crunoecia.,1:1-117.

Hosseinian, F.S., W. Li, A.W. Hydamaka, A. Tsopmo, L. Lowry, J. Friel and

T. Beta. 2007. Proanthocyanidin profile and ORAC values of

Manitoba berries, chokecherries and seabuckthorn. J. Agric. Food.

Chem., 55(17): 6970-6.

Humboldt, A.V. 1805. Essay on the geography of plants. Paris.

Hussain, A., S.N. Mirza, I.A. Khan and M.A. Naeem. 2009. Determination of

relative species composition and seasonal plant communities of nurpur

reserved forest in scrub rangelands of District Chakwal. Pak. J. Agri.

Sci., 46(1): 55-59.

227

Hussain, F., S. M. Shah, Fazal-e-Hadi and Asadullah. 2009. Diversity and

ecological characteristics of weeds of wheat fields of University of

Peshawar Botanical Garden at Azakhel, District Nowshera, Pakistan.

Pak. J. Weed Sci. Res., 15(4): 283-294.

Hussain, F. 1989. Field and Laboratory Manual of Plant Ecology.UGC.

Islamabad.

Hussain, F. and A. Shah. 1989. Phytosociology of vanishing subtropical

vegetation of Swat with special reference to Docut Hills II in spring

aspect. Scientific Khyber.,2: 20-28.

Hussain, F. and H. Sher. 1998. In- situ protection management and

conservation of some important medicinal plants of District Swat.

Proc.National Seminar on Medicinal Plants of Pakistan. PGRI, NARC-

IUCN Islamabad December 2-3.

Hussain, F. and I. Illahi. 1991. Ecology and Vegetation of Lesser Himalayan

Pakistan. Bot. Dept.Uni, of. Peshawar, pp. 187.

Hussain, F. and M.J. Durrani. 2007. Forage productivity of arid temperate

Harboi rangelands, Kalat, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 39(5): 1455 - 1470.

Hussain, F. and M.J. Durrani. 2008. Mineral composition of some range

grasses and shrubs from Harboi rangeland Kalat, Pakistan. Pak. J.

Bot., 40 (6): 2513-2523.

Hussain, F. and M.J. Durrani. 2009. Nutritional evaluation of some forage

plants from Harboi Rangeland, Kalat, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 41(3):

1137-1154.

Hussain, F., H. Sher, M. Ibrar and M.J. Durrani. 2005. Ethnobotanical uses of

some plants of District Swat, Pakistan.Pak. J. Pl. Sci., 11(2): 137-158.

Hussain, F., I. Hag and H. H. Naqvi. 1981. Phytosociological study on some

saline areas of Peshawar valley. J. Sci. Tech., 5: 65-68.

228

Hussain, F., I. Iqbal and P. Akhtar. 2005. Floristic and vegetation studies of

Ghalegay Hills, District Swat, Pakistan. Inter. J. Biol & Biot

.Pak.,2(4): 847-852.

Hussain, F., M. Ahmed, M.J. Durani and G. Shaheen. 1993. Phytosociology of

the vanishing tropical dry deciduous forests in district Swabi, Pakistan.

IA Community Analysis. Pak. J. Bot., 25, 51-51.

Hussain, J., F. Khan, R. Ullah, Z. Muhammad, N. Rehman, Z.K. Shinwari, I.

Khan, M. Zohaib, I. Din and S.M. Hussain. 2011. Nutrient evaluation

and elemental analysis of four selected medicinal plants of Khyber

Pakhtunkhawa, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 43(1): 427-434.

Hussain, J., N.U. Rehman, A.L. Khan, M. Hamayun, S.M. Hussain and Z.K.

Shinwari. 2010. Proximate and essential nutrients evaluation of

selected vegetables species from Kohat region, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot.,

42: 2847-2855.

Hussain, J., Riazullah, N. Rehman, A.L. Khan, Z. Muhammad, Farmanullah

and S.T. Hussain. 2010. Endogenous Transitional Metal and Proximate

Analysis of Selected Medicinal Plants from Pakistan. J. Med. Plant

Res., 4(3): 267-270.

Hussain, J., Z. Muhammad, R. Ullah, F.U. Khan, N. Rehman, N. Khan, S.

Ahmad, M. Naseem, F. Khan and M. Ismail. 2010. Proximate

composition and metal evaluation of four selected medicinal plant

species from Pakistan. J. Med. Plant Res., 4(14): 1370-1373.

Hussain, K., Z. Ismail, A. Sadikun and P. Ibrahim. 2009. Proximate and

qualitative analysis of different parts of Piper sarmentosum, and

quantification of total amides in various extracts. Pharmacognosy Res.,

1(3): 113 - 119.

Hussain, M., G.M. Shah and M.A. Khan. 2006. Traditional Medicinal and

Economic uses of Gymnosperms of Kaghan Valley. Pakistan. J.

Ethnobot. leaflet.,10: 72-81.

229

Hussain, M.I. and A. Perveen. 2009. Plant biodiversity and phytosociological

attributives of Tiko Baran (Kirthar Range). Pak. J. Bot., 41(2): 581-

586.

Hussain, R.W. 1990. Trees and fuel – wood from rainforest lands. Field

Documents NO.22, FAO – RWEDP, Bangkok.

Hussain, S.S. 1984. Pakistan Manual of Plant Ecology. National Book

Foundation. Islamabad: 255.

Hussain, S.S. 1969a. Vegetational survey of Ayub National Park,

Rawalpindi.Pak. J. Forst., 19: 339-348.

Hussain, S.S. 1969b. Phytosociological survey of Wah Garden.(Campbelpur

District).Agri. Pak., 20: 309-325.

Hussain, S.S. and S.A. Qadir. 1970.An Autecological study of Euphorbia

caducifolia Haines.Vegetation., 25(6): 329-380.

Ibrar, M., F. Hussain and A. Sultan. 2007. Ethnobotanical studies on plant

resources of Ranyal Hills, District Shangla, Pakistan. Pak.J. Bot.,

39(2): 329-337.

Igoli, J.O., O.G. Ogaji, T.A. Tor-Anyiin, N.P. Igoli. 2005. Traditional

medicine practice amongstthe Igede people of Nigeria. Part II.Afr. J

Tradit.Complem., 2: 134-152.

Ingale, S. and Shrivastava, S.K., 2011. Nutritional study of new variety of

groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) JL-24 seeds. African Journal of Food

Science, 5(8), pp.490-498.

Ilyas, M., R. Qureshi, M. Arshad and S.N. Mirza. 2013. A Preliminary

checklist of the vascular flora of Kabal Valley, Swat, Pakistan. Pak. J.

Bot, 45(2): 601-615.

230

Ilyas, S.Z. 2006.A case study to bottle the biogas in cylinders as source of

power for rural industries development in Pakistan. World Appl Sci J.,

1(2):127-130.

Ishida, H., H. Suzano, N. Sugiyama, S. Innami, T. Todokoro and A.

Maekawa. 2000. Nutritional evaluation of chemical component of

leaves stalks and stems of sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas Poir).

Food Chem., 68: 359-367.

Ishtiaq, M., W. Hanif, M.A. Khan, A. Ashraf and A.M. Butt. 2007. An

ethnomedicinal survey and documentation of important medicinal

folklore food phytonims of flora of Samahni valley, (Azad

Kashmir) Pakistan. Pak. J. Biol. Sci., 10(13): 2241-2256.

IUCN. 2001. IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria: Version 3.1.IUCN

Species Survival Commission. IUCN.Gland.Switzerland and

Cambridge UK. 2:30.J. Anim Sci., 19 (8): 1139-1147

Jabbar, A., M.A. Raza, Z. Iqbal and M.N. Khan. 2006. An inventory of the

ethnobotanicals used as anthelmintics in the southern Punjab

(Pakistan). J. Ethnopharmacol., 108 (1): 152-154.

Jackson, M.L. 1962. Soil chemical Analysis. Constable & Co., Ltd., 10

London, pp. 406-407.

Jadeja, B.A. and Nakar, R.N. 2010. Study on ethno-medico botany of weeds

from Saurashtra region, Gujarat, India. Plant Archives., 10(2): 761-

765.

James, O., A.A. Rotimi and B.O.J. Bamaiyi. 2010. Phytoconstituents,

proximate and nutrient investigations of Saba Florida (Benth.) From

Ibaji forest.Int. J. Nutr. Metab.,2(5): 88 – 92.

Jan, F.A., M. Ishaq, S. Khan, I Ihsanullah, I. Ahmad and M. Shakirullah. 2010.

A comparative study of human health risks via consumption of food

crops grown on wastewater irrigated soil (Peshawar) and relatively

231

clean water irrigated soil (Lower Dir).J. Hazard. Mater.,179(1): 612-

621.

Kalyan, B.V., H. Kothandam, V. Palaniyappan and A.R. Praveen. 2011.

Hypoglycaemic Activity of Seed Extract of Clitoria ternatea Linn in

Streptozotocin- Induc Ed Diabetic Rats. Pharmacon. J., 3 (19): 45-48.

Kamal, M., S.M. Wazir, M. Hassan, M. Subhan, S.U. Khan, A. Muhammad

and S. Taj. 2009. Ethnobotanically important plants of District

Bannu, Pakistan. Pak. J. Pl. Sci., 15(2): 87-93.

Khan, N., M. Ahmed, M. Wahab, M. Ajaib and S. S. Hussain. 2010. Studies

along an altitudinal gradient in monotheca buxifolia (falc.) a.d, forest,

district lower Dir, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 42(5): 3029-3038.

Khan, A., S. Gillani, S. Hussain, M.J. Durrani. 2003. Ethno botany of Gokand

Valley, District Buner, Pakistan. Pak. J. Biol. Sci., 6(4): 362–369.

Khan, D. and S.S. Shaukat. 2005. Above ground standing phytomass of some

grass-dominated communities of Karachi: Winter aspect. Int. J.

Bio.Biot., 2(1): 85-92.

Khan, M. and F. Hussain. 2013. Conservation status of plant species in Tehsil

Takht-e-Nasrati, District Karak, Khyber Pakhtunkhawa, Pakistan. Int.

J. Biodivers. Conserv.,5(1); 20-26.

Khan, M. and S. Musharaf. 2014. Conservation Position of Plant Species in

Tehsil Katlang, District Mardan, Pakistan. J.Med.Plant Res, 4.

Khan, M.S. 2011.Diversity of vascular plants, ethnobotany and their

conservation status in Ushairy valley, distt.Dir (upper) northern

Pakistan.Ph.D Dissertion.

Khan, N.A. and M. Shah. 2013. Eco-taxonomic study of family Brassicaceae

of District Mardan, Khyber Pukhtoon-Khwa, Pakistan. Pakhtunkhwa.

J. Life Sci., 1(2): 28-35.

232

Khan, S.U., S.M. Wazir, M. Subhan, M. Zahoor, M. Kamal and S. Taj. 2009.

Some of the ethnobotanically important plants of F.R. Bannu, NWFP,

Pakistan. Pak. J. Pl.Sci., 15(1): 81-85.

Khan, S.W. and S. Khatoon. 2007. Ethnobotanical studies on useful trees and

shrubs of Haramosh and Bugrote Valleys in Gilgit northern areas of


Khan, W., H. Ahmad and G.M. Shah. 2010. Phytosociology and Geographical

distribution of Thandiani forests. M.Phil thesis Department of Botany,

Hazara University, Mansehra, KPK. Pakistan.

Khan, Z.I., A. Hussain, M. Ashraf and L.R. Mcdowell. 2006a. Mineral status

of soils and forages in southwstran Punjab-pakistan:Micro-

minerals. Asian Australas. J. Anim. Sci., 19 (8): 1139.

Khan, M.A. 2008. Biodiversity and Ethnobotany of Himalayan Region

Poonch Vally, Azad Kashmir Pakistan (Doctoral Dissertation, Quaid-I-

Azam University, Islamabad).

Khuda, F., Z.Iqbal, Z. Ullah, A. Khan, F. Nasir, N. Muhammad, J.A. Khan and

M.S. Khan. 2012. Metal analysis, phytotoxic, insecticidal and

cytotoxic activities of selected medicinal plants of Khyber

Pakhtunkhwa. Pak. J. Pharma. Sci., 25(1): 51 - 58.

Kinghorn, A.D. 2002. The role of pharmacognosy in modern medicine.Expert

opinion on pharmacotherapy, 3(2): 77-79.

Knapp . R. 1954. Experimental Sociology of Ho heren plants.Vol. I: effects of

flanzen each other. Sociology of germination and growing

population.(1st Ed), Stutt - gart. Verlag Eugen Ulmer, pp. 202.

Kufer, J., J. Forther, E. Poll and M. Heinrich.2005. Historical and modern

medicinal plant uses the example of the Ch’orti’ Maya and Ladinos in

Eastern Guatemala.J. Pharm Pharmacol., 57:1127–1152.

233

Kumar, A., V.C. Pandey, A.G. Singh, and D.D. Tewari. 2013. Traditional uses

of medicinal plants for dermatological healthcare management

practices by the Tharu tribal community of Uttar Pradesh,

India. Genetic resources and crop evolution., 60(1): 203-224.

Kumar, M., Y. Paul and V.K. Anand. 2009. An ethnobotanical study of

medicinal plants used by the locals in Kishtwar, Jammu and Kashmir,

India. Ethnobot Leaflets., 2009(10): 5.

Lee, S. J. andK. T. Lim. 2006. Apoptosis induced by glycoprotein (150-kDa)

isolated from Solanum nigrum L. is not related to intracellular reactive

oxygen species (ROS) in HCT-116 cells. Cancer Chemoth

Pharm., 57(4): 507-516.

Lohan, O.P., D. Lall, J. Vaid and S.S. Negi. 1983. Utilization of Oak tree

(Quercus incana) fodder in cattle rations and fate of oak-leaf tannins

in the ruminant system. Ind. J. Ani. Sci., 53(10): 1057-1063.

Lumbres, R. I. C., J. A. Palaganas, S. C. Micosa, K. A. Laruan, E. D. Besic, C.

W. Yun and Y. J. Lee. 2014. Floral diversity assessment in Alno

communal mixed forest in Benguet, Philippines. Landscape Ecol Eng.

DOI 10.1007/s11355-012-0204-5.

Long, C.L. and J.R.Wang. 1994. On social and cultural values of ethnobotany.

J. Plant. Resour.Environt., 3(2): 45-50.

Lucy, H. and J.D. Edgar. 1999. Medicinal plants are re-emerging health aid.

Elect. J. Biot., 2(2).

Lulekal, E., E. Kelbessa, T. Bekele and Y. Yineger. 2008. An ethnobotanical

study of medicinal plants in Mana Angetu District, southeastern

Ethiopia. J ethnobiol Ethnomed., 4(1), 1.

Lumbres, R. I.C., Y.J. Lee and Y.O. Seo. 2014. Development of height-dbh

growth model and biomass estimation of Pinus kesiya Royle ex

Gordon in La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines. Asia Life Sci., 21(1):

177-188.

234

Magaji, M.G., A. Yaro, A.H.A. Mohammad, A.U. Zezi, Y. Tanko and T.Y.

Bala. 2007. Preliminary antidiarrhoeal activity of methanolic extracts

of Securinega virosa (Euphorbiaceae). Afr. J. Biotech., 6 (24): 2752-

2757.

Mahmood, A., A. Mahmood and R.N. Malik. 2012. Indigenous knowledge of

medicinal plants from Leepa valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir,

Pakistan. J. Ethnopharmacol., 143: 338–346.

Mahmood, A., M. Aqeel, N.M. Riffat and K.S. Zabta. 2013. Indigenous

knowledge of medicinal plants from Gujranwala district, Pakistan. J.

Ethnopharmacol., 148: 714–723.

Makkar, H.P.S., M. Bluemmel, N.K. Borowy and K. Becker. 1993.

Gravimetric determination of tannins and their correlation with

chemical and protein precipitation methods. J. Sci. Food Agric., 61:

161.

Malik, N.Z. and Z.H. Malik. 2004. Life Form and Index of Similarity of

Communities Recorded at Kotli Hills during Monsoon 2000. Pakistan

J. Life. Soc. Sci., 2: 54-6.

Malik, R.N. and S.Z. Husain. 2008. Linking remote sensing and ecological

vegetation communities: a multivariate approach. Pak. J. Bot., 40(1):

337-349.

Malik, R.S. and S.K. Sharma. 1990. Moisture extraction and crop yield as a

function of distance from a row of Eucalyptus tereticornis. Agroforest

Sys., 12(2): 187-195.

Malik, Z.H. and F. Hussain. 1987. Phytosociological studies of the vegetation

around Muzaffarabad, Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Modern Trends of

Plant Sci. Res. in Pakistan., 13-17.

235

Malik, Z.H., F. Hussain and N.Z. Malik. 2007. Life form and leaf size spectra

of plant communities harbouring Ganga chotti and bedori hills during

1999-2000. Int. J. Agri. Biol., 9(6): 833-838.

Manan, Z., Sirajuddin, A. Razzaq, M. Islam and Ikramullah. 2007. Diversity

of medicinal plants in Wari sub division District Upper Dir, Pakistan.

Pak. J. Pl. Sci., 13(1): 21-28.

Mandindi, T.K. 2015. Phytochemical and Antioxidant Composition of

Selected Local Wild Plants in South Africa: Consideration of

Alternative Nutrients for Health Promotion. 5th

International

Conference on Biomedical Engineering and Technology (ICBET

2015) Singapore.

Manhas, R.K., L. Singh, H.B. Vasistha and M. Negi. 2010. Floristic diversity

of protected ecosystems of Kandi Region of Punjab, India. NY.

Sci J., 3(4): 96-103.

Manzoor, M., M. Durrani, R. Jabeen, S. Irfan, A. Luqman and S. Bibi. 2013.

Medicinal folk remedies of vegetables. Int. J. Basic Appl Sci., 2(1): 1.

Maoe, A.A., T.M. Hynniewta and M. Sanjappa. 2009. Plant wealth of

Northeast India with reference to ethnobotany. IJTK.,8(1): 96-103.

Martin, A.J.S. 1983. Medicinal Plants in Central Chile.Econ. Bot., 37(2): 216-

217.

Marcone, M.F., F. Jahaniaval, H. Aliee and Y. Kakuda. 2003. Chemical

characterization of Achyranthes bidentata seed. Food chem., 81(1): 7-

12.

Marshal, N. 1988. Searching for a cure. Conservation of Medicinal Wild life.

Meena, K.L and B.L. Yadav. 2010. Some traditional ethnomedicinal plants of

southern Rajasthan.IJTK.,9(3): 471-474.

236

Megersa, M., Z. Asfaw, E. Kelbessa, A. Beyene and B. Woldeab. 2013. An

ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in Wayu Tuka district, east

Welega zone of oromia regional state, West Ethiopia. J ethnobiol

ethnomed., 9(1): 1.

Mendez, E. 2005.The vegetation of the Laguna de Llancanelo Provincial

Reserve (Mendoza, Argentina). Candollea., 60(1): 123-148.

Mesfin, K., G. Tekle and T. Tesfay. 2013. Ethnobotanical study of traditional

medicinal plants used by indigenous people of Gemad District,

Northern Ethiopia. J Med Plant Stu., 1(4).

Miah, M.D., H.A. Rashid and M.Y. Shin. 2009. Wood fuel use in the

additional cooking stoves in the rural floodplain areas of Bangladesh:

A socio-environmental perspective. Biomass Bioenergy.,33(1): 70-78.

Ming, D.S., B.J. Hillhouse, E.S. Guns, A. Eberding, S. Xie, S. Vimalanathan

and G.H.N. Towers. 2005. For Bioactive compounds from Rhodiola

rosea (Crassulaceae). Phytotherapy Res., 19 (9): 740-743.

Miyawaki, A., editor. 1980. Vegetation of Japan. Vol. 1.Yakushima, with 6

color vegetation maps and a seperate table volume (in Japanese).

Tokyo: Shibundo,pp. 376.

Mizaraite, D., S. Mizaras and L. Sadauskiene. 2007. Wood fuel supply, costs

and home consumption in Lithuania. Biomass Bioenergy.,31(10): 739-

746.

Morellato, L.P.C. 2003.South America. Phenology: an integrative

environmental science. The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic, 75-92.

Muhammad, S. K. 2011. Diversity of vascular plants, ethnobotany and their

conservation status in Ushairy valley, distt.Dir (Upper) Northern

Pakistan.Ph.D Dissertion.

237

Musila, W.M., J.O. Abuodha and H. van der Hagen. 2003. Floristic

composition and vegetation ecology of the Malindi Bay coastal dune

field, Kenya. J Coast Conserv., 9(2): 97-112.

Muthuram., K. S., N. Ayyappan, N. Parthasarathy, M. Divya, S.T.R. Raman,

S.M. Arthur and P.L. Arul. 2006. Plant community structure in

tropical rain forest fragments of the Western Ghats, India.

Biotropica.,38(2): 143-160.

Nasrullah., M. Nisar, Suliman, and Z. Ali. 2012. Ethnobotanical Wealth of

Jandool Valley, Dir Lower, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Pakistan. Int. J. of

Phytomedicine., 4: 351-354.

Najafi, S. and S.S Deokule. 2010. Pharmacognostic study of Tylophora

dalzellii Hook. f. J Med Plant Res., 4(5): 403-406.

Naqvi, H.H. 1976. Vegetation zonation of Murree Hazara Hills. University

grant commission Project, Islamabad, Pakistan.

Narendhira.K.R.T., S. Subramanian and M. Kandaswamy. 2005. Mineral

content of some medicinal plants used in the treatment of diabetes

mellitus. Biol. Trace Elem. Res.,103: 109-115.

Nasir, E. and S.I. Ali. 1971-2007. Flora of West Pakistan Department of

Botany, University of Karachi, Karachi, Pakistan.

Naz, R. and A. Bano. 2013. Phytochemical screening, antioxidants and

antimicrobial potential of Lantana camara in different solvents. Asian

Pac J Trop Dis.,3(6): 480–486.

Nazir, A. and Z.H. Malik. 2006. Life-form and index of similarity of plant

communities recorded at Sarsawa Hills, District Kotli. J Res

Sci., 17(1): 27-33.

Nazir, H., K. Hayat, F.U. Khan, A. Aziz and Q.U. Zaman. 2003. Evaluation of

different maize varieties under agro ecological conditions of D.I.

Khan. Sarhad.J. Agric., 19: 539-542.

238

Nazir, A., R. N. Malik and M. Ajaib. 2012. Phytosociological Studies of the

vegetation of Sarsawa Hills District Kotli, Azad Jammu & Kashmir.

BIOLOGIA (PAKISTAN)., 58(1&2): 123-133.

Nichter, M. 1992. Anthropological Approaches to the study of

Ethnomedicines. (Eds.) Amsterdam. Gordon and Breach, pp.223-259.

Nijveldt, R.J., E.V. Nood, E.C.V. Hoorn, P.G. Boelens, K.V. Norren and P.V.

Leeuwen. 2001. Flavonoids: a review of probable mechanisms of

action and potential applications. Am. J. Clin. Nutr.,49: 418-42.

Odebunmi, E.O., O.O. Oluwaniyi and M.O. Bashiru. 2010. Comparative

proximate analysis of some food condiments. J. App. Sci. Res., 6(3):

272-274.

Ogunkunle, A.T. and F.A. Oladele. 2004. Ethnobotanical study of fuelwood

and timber wood consumption and replenishment in Ogbomoso, Oyo

State, Nigeria. Environ. Monit.Assess.,91 (1-3): 223-36.

Okello, J. and P. Sesgawa. 2007. Medicinal plants used by communities of

Ngai Subcounty, Apac District, northern Uganda. Afr. J. Eco., 45(1):

76-83.

Okwu, D.E. 2004.Phytochemicals, Vitamins and Mineral contents of two

Nigeria Medicinal plants.Int. J. Mol. Med. Adv. Sci., 1: 378-381.

Olsen, S.R. and L.E. Sommers. 1982. Phosphorus. In: Methods of Soil

Analysis, Part 2 (2nd

Ed.), Madison, WI, USA, pp. 406-407.

Oosting, H.J. 1956. The Study of Plant Communities.(2nd

Ed).W.H. Freeman

and Co, Sanfrancisco,pp. 69-78

Osada, M., T. Sato, M. Watanabe, M. Shirai and K. Arai. 2006. Catalytic

gasification of wood biomass in subcritical and supercritical water.

Combustion Science and Technology, 178(1-3): 537-552.

239

Paczoski, J.K. 1896. The social life of plants. (Wszescha - wiat, 15 , Polish).

Warsaw.

Pandey, K.K. and A.J. Pitman. 2003. FTIR studies of the changes in wood

chemistry following decay by brown-rot and white-rot fungi. Int

biodeter.Biodeger., 52(3): 151-160.

Pare, T., E.G. Gregorich and B.H. Ellert. 1995. Comparison of Soil Nitrate

Extracted by Potassium Chloride and Adsorbed on an Anion Exchange

Membrane in Situ. Commun.Soil. Sci. plan.,26 (5-6):883-898.

Parvaiz, M., K. Hussain, M. Shoaib, G. William, M. Tufail, Z. Hussain and S.

Imtiaz. 2013. A review: therapeutic significance of olive Olea

europaea L. (Oleaceae family). Global J. Pharmacol., 7(3):333-336.

Patra, A., S. Jha and A.N. Sahu. 2009. Antidiabetic activity of aqueous extract

of Eucalyptus citriodora hook. In alloxan indu CED diabetic

rats.Phcog. Mag., 5 (19): 51-54.

Pawar, N., S. Arora, R.R. Bijoy and B.K. Wadhwa. 2012. The effects of

Asparagus racemosus (shatavari) extract on oxidative stability of ghee,

in relation to added natural and synthetic antioxidants. Int j dairy

technol., 65(2): 293-299.

Perevolotsky, A., A. Brosh, O. Ehrlich, G. Gutman, Z. Henkin and Z. Holzer.

1993. Nutritional values of common Oak (Querus calliprinos) browse

as fodder for goats experimental results in ecological perspective.

Small Ruminant Res., 11: 95-106.

Perveen, A. and M.I. Hussain. 2007. Plant biodiversity and phytosociological

attributes of Gorakh hill (Khirthar range). Pak. J. Bot., 39(3): 691-698.

Perveen, A., G.R. Sarwar and I. Hussain. 2008. Plant biodiversity and

phytosociological attributes of Dureji (Khirthar Range). Pak. J. Bot.,

40(1): 17-24.

240

Petrak, M. 1992. Red deer (Cervus clapus Linn. 1758) as a cultivating factor

in the maintenance of poor meadow, S. Arnicetum Montance Schw,

1944 Meo-Festucetum in the northwest Fifel. Z. Jagdwiss. 38(4): 221-

234.

Pietta, P.G. 2000. Flavonoids as antioxidants.J. Nat. Prod., 63: 1035.

Pott, R. 2011. Phytosociology: A modern geobotanical method. Plant Biosyst.,

145: 9-18.

Qadir, S.A., S.Z. Qureshi and M.A. Ahmed. 1966. A phytosociological survey

of Karachi University Campus. Vegetation.,13(8): 339-362.

Qadri, M.Z.H. 1986. Phytosociological study on the vegetation of Kotli Hill,

Azad Kashmir, M.Phil Thesis, Bot. Dep. Peshawar University, : 211.

Qamar, Q., M. Anwar, N. Dar and U. Ali. 2010. Ethno-Botanical Study of

Wild Medicinal Plants of Neelum Valley, Azad Jammu and Kashmir,

Pakistan. Pak. J. Wildl., 1(1), 25-30.

Qasim, M., S. Gulzar, Z.K. Shinwari, I. Aziz and M.A. Khan. 2010.

Traditional ethnobotanical uses of halophytes from Hub, Baluchistan.

Pak. J. Bot., 42(3): 1543-1551.

Qureshi, R. 2008. Vegetation assessment of Sawan Wari of Nara desert,

Pakistan.Pak. J. Bot.,(5): 1885-1895.

Qureshi, R. and G.R. Bhatti. 2005. Nara Desert, Pakistan: Part II: Human

Life. Rangelands USA., 27(5): 32-35.

Qureshi, R. and G.R. Bhatti.2008a. Ethnobotany of plants used by the Thari

people of Nara Desert, Pakistan.Fitoterapia.,79(6): 468-473.

Qureshi, R. and G.R. Bhatti.2008b. Taxonomy of Scrophulariaceae from Nara

Desert, Pakistan.Pak. J. Bot., 40(3): 973-978.

241

Rasila, M., M. Bawari and S. B. Paul. 2013. Ethnobotanical survey of some

useful plants of Manipur, India with reference to their toxicity. Int. J.

Curr. Res.,5(3): 574-577.

Rauf, A., A. Khan, N. Uddin, M. Akram, M. Arfan, G. Uddin and M. Qaisar.

2014. Preliminary phytochemical screening, antimicrobial and

antioxidant activities of Euphorbia milli. Pak. J. Pharm. Sci.,

27(4):947-951.

Rauf, A., M. Qaisar, G. Uddin, S. Akhtar, N. Muhammad and M. Qaisar.

2012. Preliminary Antinociceptive Studies of Methanol Extract of

Euphorbia milli. Middle-East J.Med. Plants Res., 1: 09-13.

Raunkiær, C. 1934. The Life Formsof Plantsand Statistical Plants Geography

being the collected Papers of C. Raunkiaer. Clarendon press, Oxford.

Rayan, J.N., R.W. Harvey, D.W. Metge and J.E. Larson. 1997. Transport of

bacteriophage PRD1 and silica colloids in a sewage-contaminated

aquifer. Eos, Transactions of the American Geophysical Union 86,

F231. Presented at the Fall Meeting of the American Geophysical

Union.

Razzaq, A., Rashid, A., Islam, M and A. Iqbal. 2013. Medicinal biodiversity

of weeds and livelihood security of District Shangla, Pakistan. J Med

Plants Res., 7(16): 1039-1042.

Rehman, S.A.U and M.Z. Iqbal. 2008. Level of heavy metals in the foliage of

naturally growing plants collected from Korangi and Landhi industrial

areas of Karachi city, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 40: 785-789.

Rehmanullah., L. Hussain, M. Badshah, M. Shah and I. Hameed

.2011.Phytosociological Study of Tehsil Manki Sharif, Nowshera,

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.Pak. J. PL., 17(1): 65-77.

Rhoades, J.D. 1982. Soluble salts. In: Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 2 (2nd

Ed.), Madison, WI, USA, pp. 169–173.

242

Richard, L.A. 1954. Diagnoses and improvement of saline and alkali soils.

Agriculture Hand Book, 60: USDA, USA.

Said, O., K. Khalil and S.A. Fulder. 2002. Ethnopharmacological survey of

medicinal herbs in Israel, the Golan Heights and the West Bank

Region. J. Ethnopharmacol., 83: 251-265.

Saidu, A. N. and N.G. Jideobi. 2009. The proximate and elemental analysis of

some leafy vegetables grown in Minna and Environs. J Appl Scien

Environ Manag, 13(4).

Saima, S., A.A. Dasti, Q. Abbas and F. Hussain. 2010. Floristic diversity

during monsoon in Ayubia National Park District Abbottabad

Pakistan. Pak. J. Pl. Sci., 16(1): 43-50.

Samuelsson, G. 2004. Drugs of natural origin: a textbook of Pharmacognosy,

(5th

Ed) Swedish Pharmaceutical Press, Stockholm.

Sardar, A.A. and Z. Khan. 2009. Ethnomedicinal studies on plant resources of

Tehsil Shakargarh, District Narowal, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 41(1):11-

18.

Sarmiento, G. and M. Monasterio. 1983. Life form and phenology In: F.

Bourliere (Ed.) Ecosystem World; Tropical Savannas, Elsevier,

Amsterdam, pp. 79-108.

Schouw, J.F. 1822. Grundtraek til en almindelig

plantegeographie.Gyldendalske boghandlings forlag.

Schultes, R.E. 1992. Ethnobotany and Technology in the North West

Amazon.A partnership sustainable harvest and marketing of rainforest

products. Eds. Plotkin and Famolare, Island Press, G.A,pp. 45-76.

Segawa, P. and D.N. Nkuutu. 2006. Diversity of vascular plants on Ssese

islands in Lake Victoria, central Uganda. Afr. J. Eco., 44(1): 22-29.

243

Shah, A., S.K. Marwat, F. Gohar, A. Khan, K.H. Bhatti, M. Amin and M.

Zafar. 2013. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants of semi-tribal

area of Makerwal & Gulla Khel (lying between Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

and Punjab Provinces), Pakistan.

Shah, M. and F. Hussain. 2008. Ethonobotanical study of some meduicinal

plants of Mount Elum, District Bunir, Pakistan. Pak. J. Pl Sci.,

14(2):91-95.

Shah, M. and F. Hussain. 2009. Phytosociological study of the vegetation of

Hayat Abad Peshawar, Pakistan. Pak. J. Pl. Sci., 15(2): 123-128.

Shah, M and Rozina. 2013. Phytosociological attributes and phytodiversity of

Dheri baba hill and Peer Taab Graveyard, District Swabi, Khyber

Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. PJLS.,1(1): 1-16.

Shah, S.M. and F. Hussain. 2012. Ethnomedicinal plant wealth of Mastuj

valley, Hindukush range, District Chitral, Pakistan. J. Med. Plants

Res., 6(26), 4328-4337.

Shaukat, S.S. and S.A. Qadir. 1970. Observation on the vegetation of

Calcareous hills around Karachi. Agri. Pak., 21(3), 285-299.

Sheikh, M.I. 1987.Energy plantations for marginal and problematic lands,

Pakistan.GCP/RAS/III / NETFD.Document 5. Bangkok, FAO,pp. 81.

Shenwari, M.I. and M.A. Khan. 1999. Folk medicinal herbs of Margalla Hills

National Park, Islamabad. J. Ethnopharamacol., 69(2000): 45-56.

Sher, H. and M. Al_yemeni. 2011. Economically and ecologically important

plant communities in high altitude coniferous forest of Malam Jabba,

Swat, Pakistan. Saudi j biol sci., 18(1): 53-61.

Sher, Z., F. Hussain, L. Badshah and M. Wahab. 2011. Floristic composition,

communities and ecological characteristics of weeds of wheat fields of

Lahor, District Swabi, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 43(6): 2817-2820.

244

Sher, H., M.N. Alyemeni, L. Wijaya and A.J. Shah. 2010.

Ethnopharmaceutically important medicinal plants and its utilization in

traditional system of medicine, observation from the Northern Parts of

Pakistan. J. Med. Plants Res., 4(8): 1853-1864.

Sher, H., Midrarullah, A. U. Khan, F. Hussain and S. Ahmad. 2003. Medicinal

Plants of Udhigram, District Swat, Pakistan. Pak. J.For., 53(1): 65-74.

Sher, Z. and Z.U. Khan. 2007. Floristic composition, life form and leaf

spectra of the vegetation of Chagharzai Valley, District Buner. Pak. J.

Pl. Sci., 13(1): 57 - 66.

Sher, Z., F. Hussain, L. Badshah, A.U. Khan, F. Ahmad, F. Sharif and Q.M.

Ali. 2013. Phytosociology of summer vegetation of Sudan Galli hills,

District Bagh, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 45(1):1-9.

Shinwari, Z.K. 2010.Medicinal plant research in Pakistan.Journ. Med. Pl.

Res., 4(3) 161-176.

Shukla, R.P. 2009. Patterns of plant species diversity across Terai landscape in

north-eastern Uttar Pradesh, India. Trop. Ecol., 50(1), 111.

Siddique, N.A., M. Mujeeb, A.K. Najmi and M. Akram. 2010. Evaluation of

antioxidant activity, quantitative estimation of phenols and flavonoids

in different parts of Aegle marmelos. Afri. J. plant sci., 4(1):001-005.

Siddiqui, F.M., M. Ahmed, M. Wahab, N. Khan, M.U. Khan, N. Kanwal and

S.S. Hussain. 2009. Phytosociology of Pinus roxburghii Sargent.

(Chir Pine) in Lesser Himalayan and Hindukush Range of

Pakistan.Pak. J. Bot.,41(5): 2357-2369.

Siddiqui, M.F., M. Ahmad, N. Khan and I.A. Khan. 2010. Quantitative

description of moist temperate conifer forests of Himalayan

region of Pakistan and Azad Kashmir. Int. J. Biol. Biotech., 7(3):

175-85.

245

Skerget, M., P. Kotnik, M.Hadolin, A.R. Hras, M. Simonic and Z. Knez.

2005. Phenols, proanthocyanidins, flavones and flavonols in some

plant materials and their antioxidant activities. Food Chem., 89: 191-

198.

Smith, N. 1981. Wood: an ancient fuel with a new future. World Watch paper

No. 42. World Watch Institute, Washington, DC,pp. 48.

Sodipo, O.A., M.A. Akanji, F.B. Kolawole and A.A. Odutuga. 1991. Saponin

is the active antifungal principle in Garcinia kola heckles seed. Bio sci.

Res. Commun., 3: 171.

Sofowara, A. 1993.Medicinal plants and traditional medicine in Africa.

Spectrum books, Ibadan PP. 150.

Sowemimo, A., A.O. Adio and S. Fageyinbo. 2011. Anticonvulsant activity of

the methanolic extract of Justicia extensa T. Anders. J.

ethnopharmacol., 138(3): 697-699.

Srivastava, P., A. Pandey and D.P. Sinha. 2011. Genetic diversity analysis in

different varieties of black gram using RAPD markers. J. Plant Breed.

Crop Sci., 3(3):53-59.

Sugumaran, M. and T. Vetrichelvan. 2008. Studies on some Pharmacognostic

Profiles of Bauhinia purpurea Linn. Leaves

(Caesalpinaceae).Ethnobot.Leaflets., 12: 461-468.

Sultan, J.I., I. Rahim, H. Nawaz and M. Yaqoob. 2007. Nutritive value of

marginal grasses of northern grassland of Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 39:

1071 – 1082.

Sultan, J.I., I.U. Rahim, M. Yaqoob, H. Nawaz and M. Hameed. 2008.

Nutritive value of free rangeland grasses of northern grasslands of

Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 40(1): 249 - 258.

246

Tag, H., P. Kalita, P. Dwivedi, A. Das and N.D. Namsa. 2012. Herbal

medicines used in the treatment of diabetes mellitus in Arunachal

Himalaya, Northeast, India. J. Ethnopharmacol., 141: 786–795.

Taj, S., S.M. Wazir, M. Subhan, M. Hassan, S.U. Khan and M. Kamal. 2009.

Some of the ethnobotanically important plants of Godi khel and

its outskirts hilly areas, District Karak, Pakistan. Pak. J. Pl. Sci.,

15(1): 39-43.

Tardío, J., M.P.D. Santayana and R. Morales. 2006. Ethno botanical review of

wild edible plants in Spain. ‎coS ‎n ‎L JJ ‎toB., 152(1): 27-71.

Tareen, R.B., T. Bibi, M.A. Khan, M. Ahmad and M.D. Zafar. 2010.

Indigenous knowledge of folk medicine by the women of Kalat and

Khuzdar regions of Balochistan, Pakistan. Pak. J. Bot., 42(3): 1465-

1485.

Teklay, A., B. Abera and M. Giday. 2013. An ethnobotanical study of

medicinal plants used in Kilte Awulaelo District, Tigray Region of

Ethiopia. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed., 9(1): 1.

Tor-Anyiin, T. A., R. Sha'ato and H. O. A. Oluma. 2003. Ethnobotanical

survey of anti-malarial medicinal plants amongst the Tiv people of

Nigeria. J Herbs Spices Med Plants., 10(3): 61-74.

Trease, G.E. and W.C. Evan. 1989.Pharmacogonosy. (13th

Ed) Bailliere

Tindall,pp. 176-180.

Tripathi, S. and R.P. Shukla. 2007. Effect of clipping and grazing on various

vegetational parameters of grassland communities of Gorakhpur, U. P.

Tropical Ecology., 48(1): 61-70.

Tyler, V.E. 1999. Phytomedicines: back to the future. J. Nat. Prod., 62 (11):

1589-1592.

247

Urmila, G.H., B. G. Rao and T. Satyanarayana. 2013. Physicochemical and

Preliminary Phytochemical Screening for Medicinal Plants. Int. J.

Pharm. Chem .Sci.., 2 (4).

Van V., P.C.J., J. Bloem and R.G.M. De Goede. 2006. Microbial diversity,

nitrogen loss and grass production after addition of Effective Micro-

organisms (EM) to slurry manure. Appl Soil Ecol., 32(2): 188-198.

Vermani, A., Navneet, Prabhat and A. Chauhan. 2010. Physico-chemical

analysis of ash of some medicinal plants growing in Uttarakhand.

Indian Nat. Sci. 8(6): 88

Verpoorte, R., 1998. Exploration of nature's chemodiversity: the role of

secondary metabolites as leads in drug development. Drug

Discov.Today., 3: 232-238.

Verpoorte, R., J. Memelink. 2002. Engineering secondary metabolite

production in plants.Curr.Opin.Biotechnol., 13: 181-187.

Wahab, M., M. Ahmed and N. Khan. 2008. Phytosociology of some Pine

forest from Afghanistan. Pak. J. Bot., 40(30): 1071-1079.

Walther, G.R. 2003.Plants in a warmer world. Perspect plant Ecol, Evol.

syst., 6(3): 169-185.

Wazir, S.M., S. Saima, A.A. Dasti and M. Subhan. 2007. Ethnobotanical

importance of Salt Range species of District Karak Pakistan. Pak. J.

Pl. Sci., 13(1): 29-31.

Zafar, M., M.A Khan, M. Ahmad, G. Jan, S. Sultana, K. Ullah , S.K. Marwat,

F. Ahmad, A. Jabeen, A. Nazir, A.M. Abbasi, Z. Rehman and Z.

Ullah. 2010. Elemental analysis of some medicinal plants used in

traditional medicine by atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS).

J. Med. Plant Res., 4: 1987-1990.

248

Zahoor, M., S.M. Wazir, A. Muhammad and S.F. Muhammad. 2009. Ethno

botany of some plants from Darrae Pezo, District Lakki Marwat,

Pakistan. Pak. J. Pl. Sci. 15(1): 75-80.

Zaman, S. and A. Hazrat. 2013. Ethnobotanical Survey of Medicinal Plants

From Tehsil Dargai, District Malakand, Pakistan. Fuuast. J. Biol., 3(1):

109.

Zainullah., K. Baloch, Musa, A. Jameel, Khader, B. Baloch, Imam, Riaz

Ullah, M. Naser, AbdulIslam and N. Shumaila. 2013. Proximate and

nutrient analysis of selected medicinal plants of Tank and South

Waziristan area of Pakistan.Middle East. J. Sci. Res., 7(5): 179-184

Zereen, A. and A.A. Sardar. 2013. Ethnobotanical studies of wild herbs of

central Punjab, Pakistan. Bangladesh. J. Plant Taxon., 20(1): 67.

Zhang, D., P. Xie, Y. Liu and T. Qiu. 2009. Transfer, distribution and

bioaccumulation of microcystins in the aquatic food web in Lake

Taihu, China, with potential risks to human health. Sci.Total Environ,

407(7): 2191-2199.

Zimmerman, J.K., S.J. Wright, O. Calderón, M.A. Pagan and S. Paton. 2007.

Flowering and fruiting phenologies of seasonal and aseasonal

neotropical forests: the role of annual changes in irradiance. J. Trop.

Ecol., 23(02): 231-251.

249

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR ETHNOBOTANICAL

SURVEY

Date _____________ Name

Age ______ Gender________

Education___________ Locality____________

Information about potential plant species used in the area

Local name of the plant species Habit of plant ________

Uses in the area

Quantities harvested each year

Who collected the plant? (Women/Men/Children)

Why collected?

Which part is collected?

How the plant is collected

Is it sold? To whom is it sold?

Whether the plant material is stored? Why?

For how long is it stored and why?

Local price per Kg. (Rs) Quantity sold each year

Availability status of the plant in last 10 years (Increased/ Decreased)

Which part is used and how is it used?

Any other observation.

250

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR ETHNOMEDICINAL

SURVEY

Date _____________ Name

Age ______ Gender________

Education___________ Locality____________

Information about potential plant species used in the area

Local name of the plant species. Habit of plant ________

Local uses in the area.

Disease name for which it is used

Method how to use the plant

Quantities harvested each year

Who collected the plant? (Womaen/Men/Children)

Why collected?

Which part is collected?

How the plant is collected

Is it sold? To whom is it sold?

Whether the plant material is stored why?

For how long it is stored and why?

Local price per Kg. (Rs) Quantity sold each year

Availability status of the plant in last 10 years (Increased/ Decreased)

Which part is used and how it is used.

Any other observation.

PHYTOSOCIOLOGICAL AND ETHNOBOTANICAL STUDIES OF...

Documents

Transcript of PHYTOSOCIOLOGICAL AND ETHNOBOTANICAL STUDIES OF...