UNCLASSIFIE
UNClASSIFIED
UNCLASSIFIED MARCH 1996
0 Copyright I 995 by the United States Government. No coP';right
claimed under Title I 7 U.S.C. Prepared and published by the
Defense Mapping Agency. Printed through Government Printing
Offlce.
fOREWORD
The history of 'artography comprises many technological
breakthroughs that stand as milestones of our profession. The use
of aerial imagery as a source for mapping represented a tremendous
breakthrough for cartography. The use and introduction of airborne
sensors tor photogrammetric exploitation and feature identification
continues to affect the production of geo-spatiai
information.
More recently, the introduction of Geographic Information Systems
(GIS) has enabled cartographers to selectively portray various
aspects of the earth and its surface by querying a data base
populated with spatial and feature information. The fidelity of the
resulting product is directly related to the quality of the infor
mation resident in the data base from which the query was
drawn.
The Image Interpretation Course was produced under the auspices of
the Integrated TrainiPg Working Group (ITWG) and approved by the
Activation Control Team (ACTI. The Photo Interpretation Training
Working Group (P!TWG) performed extensive research in the planning
and development stages of the course. The PITWG was composed of
representatives from Defense Mapping Agency-Aerospace Center,
Hydrographic/Topographic Center, and Reston Center. The PITWG
determined both course format and content.
The information contained in the Imagery Interpretation Course and
the Student Handbooks will assist the trained image analyst in the
accurate identification of physical and cultural features viewed on
aerial imagery. TI1e Imagery Interpretation Course Student
Handbooks are pall of a training course that was developed by the
Defense Mapping Agency in recugnition of the need to maintain a
highly skilled and profi<:ient cartographic work force.
The course developer staff at the Defense Mapping Agency
includes:
George SzigetJ, Cartographer. Mr. Szigeti produced Module 1, 2, and
edited Module 3, 4, and 5. His expertise is based on a MS in
Geological Engineering, 4 years experience as a topographic and
terrain intelli gence officer in the US Army Corps of Engineers,
and at DMA on the AS-11 and FE systems for 11 years. His knowledge
of physical and cultural geography and his knowledge of application
software helped make the document a valued training resource.
Gregory J. Bushur, Cartographer. Mr. Bushur produced the majority
of Module 2 and the Supplemental Handbook. His expertise is based
on a B.S. in Geophysics, 3 years cryptographic and electronic
engineering experience with the U.S. Marine Corps, 8 years
engineering experi ence in private industry, and 6 years of
experience on the Feature Extraction sy5tem. Without his knowledge
of industrial processes, electronics, and surface transportation
the cultural handbook would not have been possible.
:::r:: !Jefeno;e Mapping Agency
II Photo Interpretation Principles
Stephen L Wheat, Cartographer. Mr. Wheat produced the Airfield
module. His expenise is based on a BS in Geography, 18 years
experience as an Intelligence Officer, 2 years as an Imagery Intel.
instructor for the USAF, and 12 years experience at DMA. His
knowledge of airfields and experience as an Imagery Interpretation
instructor has enabled him to produce the Airfield Module and
assist in designing the overall structure of the courS<!.
Chris Riopelle, Cartographer. Mr. Riopelle produced the Coastal
Hydro graphy Module and the Climate Section of the Vegetation
Module. His expenise is based on a BS in Meteorology and Earth
Science, 2 years with the National Weather Service and 7 years
experience at DMA. He has worked in Manual DTED compilation,
Terrain Analysis, DE cartog raphy and is now a DE Segment
Production Engineer.
Debra L Hinrkhll, cartographer. Ms. Hinrichs produced the
Physiography and Inland Waterway Modules. Her expenise is based on
a BS in Geology , and 8 years experience at DMA in Terrain Analysis
and the Automatic Graphic Digitization System. Her contribution to
the course made a significant difference.
Sandra Fleming, Computer Operator. Ms. Fl~ming assisted in the
editing and formatting of the final documents. Her expenise is
based on 15 years experience in DMA and she is nearing completion
of undergradu ate work in Geography. Her contributions helped make
the document usable and understandable.
Photo Interpretation Training Course
. Photo Interpretation Principles Ill
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The compilation and preparation of materials for the DMA Photo
Interpretation Course involved much more than just the authoring of
this student handbook. The other cnmponents of the photo
interpretation library include the Photo Interpretation Jllu~trated
Glossary, the teaching images, instructor image view graphs and
templates, lesson plans and other instruction~) materials. The
timely completion of this project would not have been possible
without the assistance of our co-workers. We thank the following
individuals for their assistance with the development of the Photo
Interpretation Course:
A large number of images were required to cover the many cul!ural
features discussed in Module 2. Mr. Paul Burrows used his
experience as an image Inter preter in the US Marine Corps and as
an analyst on the FE and DE systems to locate and identify features
on source imagery for inclusion In the teaching imagery >el. He
also as,.isted with the compilation of the instructor templates and
maintenance of the feature/image database.
A substantial pan of the image scanning for the teaching images and
Instructor viewgraphs was done via the Point Graphics Production
System at St. Louis. Kerry Antoniewicz, Robyn Burris, Luther Claus,
Laurence Englehard, David Nelson and Garth Sutton performed the
scanning and formatting, volunteering to work second shift.
Technical expertise, proofreading and editorial support were
provided by Sam Adamcyzk, Cliff Hardin, Debbie Knox, Patti May, Tom
Obelenus, Victoria Sanders, james Sarcinello, Todd Stovall, and
Glen Tewkesbury. Brian Fleming and Tamara Warden assisted with text
development and illustrations were prepared by Tobi Bordihn and
Ellen Krafcisin. Terrance Moore played a significant part in the
development of lesson plans.
Many more of our co-workers provided significant support to this
effort, but it would be impractical to name them all. Nevertheless,
their assistance is appreciat ed.
Finally, we wish to thank Steve Handwerk, Phyllis Farris, Rose
Pangborn and Pat Han for their roles in the administration of the
project. They provided guidance and direction through the sometimes
tumultuous history of this team.
Photo Interpretation Training Course
Photo Interpretation Principles v
Forward
.............................................................................
;
Tables of Contents
............................................................. v
Module 1-Pbolo lrtterprvnlllion Prlttclplea
............................................ v Module 2-Cullurm
Pelllurea
...................................................................
vi
Module 3 -Hydrography
.......................................................................
xvt Module 4 - Veget.rallofr
...........................................................................
xvUi
Module S - Pbyaldgrapby
........................................................................
xx Modue 6 -A.dvaJU:ed A.lr.Jf61tla
.............................................................
xxU
Module 1 - Photo Interpretation Principles ........................
1 Introduction
.................................................................................................
1
Photo Interpretation PJv -::ess
......................................................................
2
Elements of Photo Interpretatlon
...............................................................
4
Problem Solving
.........................................................................................
10
UmJtations of Panchromatic Imagery
..................................................... 14
Indices
.............................................................................
15 Module 1
.....................................................................................................
1S Module 2
.....................................................................................................
16 Module 3
.....................................................................................................
40 Module4
.....................................................................................................
43 ModuleS
.....................................................................................................
4S
Bibliographies
..................................................................
4 7 Module2
.....................................................................................................
47 Module 3
.....................................................................................................
68 Module4
.....................................................................................................
71
ModuleS
.....................................................................................................
7S
Chapter 1 - Introduction
................................................... 1
Chapter 2- Buildings
..•..•••....•...........••....•...•...••.....•...•...•.. 2 General
..........................................................................................................
:ll
Building Structures
......................................................................................
2 Structural Supports
•••••••••••••••••.••.••..•••••••••.••••••..•............••.....••••••••••••
2 Structure Types
.................................................................................
4 RoofTypes
.......................................................................................
13 Roof-top Struaures
.........•.•••.••••••..•.••...•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••...•••
t6
Geographic Variations
...............................................................................
19
Unefl of Communlcat!on
................................................................ 21
Transportation Systems
.................................................................
22
Roads
...........................................................................................................
24 Road Construc:tion ••••••.•••••••••••••.• "
••••..••••.•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••. 2S Drainage
..........................................................................................
26 Aligsunent
........................................................................................
26
Road Classitk:atfon
••.••.••••••••.••••••...•.............••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
27 TraUs and Footpaths
•••••••••.•••..••••••••••••••••..•........•.••••••••••••.••••••••
27 Tracks
.........................................................................................
28 Loose Surface Roads
..................................................................
29 Hard surta.:e Roads
...................................................................
30 Pavement Types
.........................................................................
34 Mlsc:ellaneous Roads
.................................................................
35
Fords
................................................................................................
36 Prepared Float Bridge Sltes
............................................................ 38
Drop Gates
......................................................................................
38 Terminal Faclllties
..........................................................................
39
llailroads
.....................................................................................................
42 Railroad Construction
....................................................................
42
Track Gauges
..............................................................................
4S KUillling Direction
....................................................................
45 E1ectritk:atlon
............................................................................
46 Slgnals
........................................................................................
47 Operationel Status
.....................................................................
48
Terminals and Fac0itles
.................................................................
48 Commu•.er Unes/Trolleys
.............................................................. 56
l.ogglna llailroads
...........................................................................
,,
Pho!o lnlerpretalion Training Course
Photo Interpretation Principles vii
Brldges
........................................................................................................
59 Introduction ••... ,
..............................................................................
59
Bridge Structural mements
....................................................... 62 Bridge
SubstrUCtUre
...................................................................
63 Bridge Superstructure
............................................................... 61
Skew Bridges
..............................................................................
65
Bridge CJassiftcation
.......................................................................
65 Beam (Stringer) Bridges
............................................................ 68
Girder Bridges
...........................................................................
68 Truss Bridges
.............................................................................
70 Arch Bridges
..............................................................................
74 Suspension Bridges
...................................................................
77 cantilevered Bridges
.................................................................
79 Floating Bridges
.........................................................................
81
Movable Spans
................................................................................
82 Unusual Bridges
..............................................................................
86 Bridge Functlons
.............................................................................
86
Other Transportation Features
.................................................................
88 Cuts and FUis
...................................................................................
88 Causeways
.......................................................................................
90 Culverts
............................................................................................
91 Tunnels
............................................................................................
92 Galleries, Snowsheds and Rocksheds
........................................... 93 Ferries
..............................................................................................
95
Atrflelds
.......................................................................................................
97 Airfield Deftnition
..........................................................................
98 MJlitary and ClvWan Airfields
....................................................... 98 Airfield
Loc:atlon
...........................................................................
1 01 RunWli)'!J
........................................................................................
102
Landing Surface Types
............................................................ 102
Runway Length
.......................................................... ,.
•••••••••••• 111 Runway Safety Measures
......................................................... 112
Runway Marldngs
....................................................................
113
Taxiways
........................................................................................
127 Aircraft Parking Areas
..................................................................
131 Hangars
.........................................................................................
144 Maintenance Shops and Fac:Wties
............................................... 149 Cargo and
Passenger Handling Fac:Wties ...................................
152 HeUports
........................................................................................
155 Air Operations and FUght Control Fac:Wties
.............................. 156
Inland Waterways
.....................................................................................
158 canals
............................................................................................
158 Loc:ks
..............................................................................................
161 ShlpUfts
.........................................................................................
163
Photo InterpJctation Training Course
viii Photo Interpretation Principles
Gates
..............................................................................................
164 Terminals
......................................................................................
165
Ports and Harbors
....................................................................................
166 General
..........................................................................................
166 Harbor Works
................................................................................
169 Berthing Fadlities
.........................................................................
174 cargo Handling Equipment
......................................................... 186 Ship
Y:uds
...............................................................................
'"' ... 190 Vessel Storage and Repair FacUlties
............................................ 193 MUitary (Ports and
Harbors) .......................................................
198 Other Port and Harbor Features
................................................. 205
Pipelines
...................................................................................................
208 General
..........................................................................................
208 PJpeline Routes
.............................................................................
210 Relay Stations
................................................................................
214 Terminals
......................................................................................
217 Aqueducts
......................................................................................
220 Qanat (Karez)
................................................................................
222
Chapter 4 - Industries
................................................... 223
Introduction
.............................................................................................
223
Industrial Components
............................................................................
223 Storage
...........................................................................................
223
Open Storage
...........................................................................
223 Enclosed Storage
.....................................................................
225
v:arehouses
........................................................................
225 Sllos, Bins, Bunkers, and Hoppers
................................... 227 Tanks
...................................................................................
229
Materials Handling
..................................................................
234 Cranes
.................................................................................
235 Moblle Equipment
............................................................. 241
Conveyors
...........................................................................
242
Transportation
........................................................................
245 Pipelines
.............................................................................
245 Railroads, Ships, and Barges
............................................ 249
Processing Equipment
............................................................ 250
Support Equipment
.................................................................
252
Extraction
.................................................................................................
257 Exploration
...................................................................................
257 Mining
............................................................................................
26o
Open
.........................................................................................
261 Underground
...........................................................................
264 Ore Concentration
..................................................................
266
Wells
...............................................................................................
269 Drilling
.....................................................................................
270
Photo Interpretation Principles lx
Onshore
..............................................................................
272 Offshore
••....••...•••.•.••••..••••...••................••...•••..•.••.••••.•••••••..•
275
Production
.......•.........................................•••....••....••.........••...•
277 OU&Gas
.............................................................................
278 Water
...................................................................................
280 Other
...................................................................................
280
Disposal
....................................................................................................
280 SoUds
.............................................................................................
281 Uquids (Sewage Treatment)
........................................................ 286 Gases
(Fiares)
................................................................................
294
Power
........................................................................................................
295 Introduction
..................................................................................
295 Power Transmission
.....................................................................
297
Substations and Transformer Yards
...................................... 297 Transmission Unes and
Pylons ............................................. 301
Power Generation
.........................................................................
307 Internal CombUIItion
............................................................... 307
Thermal Power Plants and Turbines
..................................... 309 F01111U Fueis
...............................................................................
312 Nuclear
.....................................................................................
315 Geotherma1
..............................................................................
319 Other
........................................................................................
320 Hydroelectric
...........................................................................
321 Wind
.........................................................................................
327 Heat and Steam Plants
............................................................
327
Processins
.................................................................................................
328 Water
..............................................................................................
328 FerroUII Metals
..............................................................................
340
Coke
..........................................................................................
341 Ore
Processins-........................................................................
350 lron
...........................................................................................
358 Steel
..........................................................................................
363
Steel Production Processes
............................................... 365 Initial Steel
Forms .............................................................
371 Formins Finished Steel Products
..................................... 375
Non-Ferrous Metals ..................... ,
................................................ 378 Aluminum
................................................................................
378
Alumina
...............................................................................
378 Aluminum Metal
................................................................
383
Copper
......................................................................................
388 ~ld
..........................................................................................
397 Lead
..........................................................................................
397 Masnesium
...............................................................................
405 Mansanese
...............................................................................
414 Mercury
....................................................................................
415 Nickel.~ •. ,.
..................................................................................
415
Phrno Jnterpretallon Training Course
x Photo Interpretation Principles
Pladnum
...................................................................................
419 Silver
•.......••.....•.•••••.•.•.•••....•••••....••••••••....•••••......••••••...•••••••..•••••
419 Tin
.............................................................................................
420 Titanium and Associated IDec:trothermic Metals
••••.•.••••••••.•• 420 Zinc
...........................................................................................
422
Radioac:tive Materials
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.••••••••..••••••
434 Uranium Production
....................................................... 43S, S2*
Plutonium
..........................................................................
447, S4 Nuclear WeapoRII and Fabrication .........................
449, . Y, Sl79
Chemicals
••••..••••••••..•••••••...•••••••..••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.••••
452 Introduction
.............................................................................
452 Primary (Basic) Chemical Production
................................... 453
Air Separation
....................................................................
453 Alcohol
................................................................................
455 Anunonla
............................................................................
458 Calcium Carbide a: Acetylene Gall
.................................... 464 Chlorine a: Caustic Soda
................................................... 467 Lirne
....................................................................................
474 Nitric Acid
...........................................................................
475 Phosphoric Acid
................................................................
478 Soda Ash
.............................................................................
481 Sodium Chloride
................................................................
484 Sulfuric Acld
.......................................................................
485
Secondary Chemical Production
............................................ 492 Fert111zer
.............................................................................
493
Nitrogen Fert111zer
........................................................ 494
Phosphate Fertllb:er
..................................................... 498 Potassium
Fert111zer .....................................................
501
Explosives and PropeUants ........................................
~01, SB NltroceUulose
......................................................... 505, S8
Other Propellants
................................................... 508, S9
Nitroglycerine lind Dynamite ................................ 509,
S8 Other High Exploslves
................................................. 511 Detonators
....................................................................
512 MunidoRII Manufacture
............................................... 512 Blologlca1 and
Chemical Warfare ................... ............ SIO
Petro~ an4 Petrochemk:als
.............................................. 512 Petroleum on
Reftnlns .....................................................
514
Crude on Input
............................................................ 515
Separation Areas
..........................................................
518
Primary Distilladon Unit .......................................
518 Secondary Dlstlllation Unit.
................................... 522
Conversion Processes
................................................... 523 Cracklna
..................................................................
524 Ref01'JDing
................................................................
527 Gas Processlng
........................................................ 530
Treating Processes
....................................................... 532 "Pllges
prefixed by S are found in the Supplemental Handbook
Photo lnterprelation Training Course
Photo Interpretation Principles xl
La.:oht and Middle Hydrocarbons ........................... 532
Het.vy Middle and Residual ....................................
533
Finished Product Storage Areas ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
535 Distribution Centers and Storage
............................... 535
Synthetics
...........................................................................
536 OU From Shale
............................................................ 539
Oll From Tar Sands
...................................................... 540 OU From
Coal
...............................................................
541
Natural Gas Processfng
...................................................... 548
Pettochemic:als
...................................................................
558
Cement and Ceramics
............................................................. 561
Cement
................................................................................
S63 Ceramics ................. "
..........................................................
568
Brick
..............................................................................
568 Glaml
..............................................................................
570
Vegetative Products (Wood, Paper, and Grain) .....................
572 Lumber
................................................................................
572 Paper
...................................................................................
574 Grains
.................................................................................
578 Supr
...................................................................................
581
Manufacturins and Fabrication
.............................................................. 585
Bulldlnss and Structures
..............................................................
586
Building Methods and Materials
............................................ 586 Roofll
.........................................................................................
588 Common Facllities in Fabrication Industries
....................... 590
Heavy Fabrication lndustries
....................................................... 592
shipbulldina
............................................................................
593
Shipbuildina Production
................................................... 593 Ship Repair
and Maintenance Fa.:Wties .......................... 599
Shipbulldfna and Ship Repair
.......................................... 6ol
RaUc:ar Manufacturing and Repair
......................................... 6os Heavy Vehicle,
Machinery, and Structural Steel ................... 611
IJsht Fabrication Industries
........................................................ 612
Aircraft Manuiacture
..................................................... 613, Sl68
Aircraft EnaJne Manufacturing
.............................................. 620 Rocket and
Gulded Misslle Manufacture ....................... 621, Sll
Automotive Manufacturfn(l
..................................................... 623
Miscellaneons
Manufacturina-................................................
625
Explosives
..........................................................................
625 nres
....................................................................................
626 Meat Packing
......................................................................
627 Textiles
................................................................................
627
Chapter 5- Communications and Eleczronics ................. 628
lntrocluc:ti6n
.............................................................................................
628
PI1oto lntcrpreta[fon Training CfJUrsc
x/1 Photo Interpretation Principles
Communication Towers
......•••••••••.•.••..•••••••••.•••••••••••.•.•.••••••••.....•.•••••......
628
Landline Communicadons
......................................................................
630
Radio Communicadons
•••••.••••••••..••.•.••••••••••••••••.•••.•..•..•..••............••
632, S13 HF Radio
................................................................................
637, S13 VLF Radio
.......................................................................................
.S15 Tropospheric Scatter
............................................................ 643,
S17 SATCOM
..................................................................................
644, S18 Radio Astronomy
..........................................................................
646 ssa and sw
.....................................................................................
646 Commercial AM and FM
............................................................... 649
RDF FaciUties
........................................................................
651, S23 Radiotelephone
.............................................................................
655
Microwave Communications Systems
............................................ 656, S25
Televlslon
..................................................................................................
661
Radar
.................................................................................................
662, S:l7 Antennas
........................................................................................
664 RADOME
........................................................................................
666 Radar Reftectors
............................................................................
667 Radar Systems
...............................................................................
667
Aviation Related Radar ..........................................
668, S27, S185 Early Warning Radar Slte
........................................................ 671
Defensive Missile System Radar
............................................. 672 Weather Radar
.........................................................................
673
NAVAIDs
............................................................................................
674, S30 Aeronautical En Route NAVAIDs
.......................................... 674, S30 Aeronautical
Approach NAVAIDs ............................... 682, S31, S189
Marine NAVAIDs
....................................................................
691, S30
Chapter 6 - Cultural Areas
............................................. 697 Rural Areas .....
"""
.......................................................................................
697
Agriculture
....................................................................................
697 Rural Settlements and Villages
.................................................... 707
Urban Areas
..............................................................................................
709 Urban Street Patterns
...................................................................
709 BuJit..up Areas Defined by the Primary Authority
..................... 713 Geographic Variations
..................................................................
714 Features
.........................................................................................
717
Commercial.
.............................................................................
718 Embassies
.................................................................................
720 Government
.............................................................................
721 Hospital
....................................................................................
723 Schools
.....................................................................................
724 Laboratories and Research Centers
....................................... 725 Utllltles
.....................................................................................
'127
Photo Interpretation Training Coucse
Places ofWonhip
....................................................................
728 Miscellaneous Features
........................................................... 7~3
Open Afeas
..............................................................................
746
MWtary Areas and Support FacU!tles
..................................... """"""'""756 lntl'Oductlon
..................................................................................
756 Uniformity
.....................................................................................
757 Pauern
...........................................................................................
751 Houaekeeplng
...............................................................................
758 Security
..........................................................................................
758 Housing
........................................................................................
759 Equipment
.....................................................................................
760 Defenses and Fortifications
......................................................... 761
Types of FortlflcatloiUI
............................................................ 761
Identlfteedon of Fortifications and Defenses ............. 76l,
S168
Training and Recreation
.............................................................. 770
Service Branch
....................................................................
771, S167 Category of Installatlon
................................................................
785
.'P<•nonn.el
.................................................................................
785 Support
......................................................................................
790
Supply
..................................................................................
791 Ammunition
........................................................ 791, S171
Al'llenals and Gun Parks .................................... 792,
S172 Fuel ..................................................
"'""""" 792, S177, S182
Services ............................... ,..
............................................. 792 Missiles
..................................................................................
793, S34
Launch Pad
................................................................................
794 Surface-to-Surface Ballfstlc MissUes
............................... 7fJ6, S34
Fixed BaWstlc MiasUe Systems (ICBM) .................... 797, S34
Minuteman 1/D
............................................................. 797
SS·11
.............................................................................
S39 SS-13
.............................................................................
S41 SS-17
.............................................................................
S43 SS-18
.............................................................................
S4'7 SS-19
.............................................................................
S53 SS.24
.............................................................................
S58 CSS.3
.............................................................................
s62 css-4
.............................................................................
s64
Fixed BaWstic MlssUe S)'lltems (IRBM) ............................
S65 CS'-2
.............................................................................
S65 Other Non-CIS .. "
..........................................................
s66
MobUe Systems
.......................................................... 799, S67
ICBM
......................................................................
799,S67
SS-24
........................................................................
£67 SS.25
........................................................................
s68 css.s
.......................................................................
s74
IRBM (SS.20)
......................................................... 800, S75
MRBM
....................................................................
800, S79
Photo Interpretation Training Course
xhl Photo Interpretation Principles
SRBM
......................................................................
801; S80 FROG-3/4/S
............................................................. SBO
FROG-7
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
S81
I.a.nce.~··································································••••801
Pluton
......................................................................
802 Hades
.......................................................................
803 MLRS
........................................................................
804 SS·1C
................................................................
803, S82 SS·12
........................................................................
S83 SS-21
.................................................................
803, S84 SS-22
.........................................................................
803 SS-23
.........................................................................
804
Surf'ace-to-Alr Antl-Balllstlc·Misslle (ADM) ....................
804, S86 ABM-1
..........................................................................
804, S92 ABM·2
..........................................................................
804, S93
Surf'ace·to-Alr MlssUes (Antl-Aln:raft)
............................ 806, S96 AntlAlrcraft Artlllery (J\AA)
............................................. .807 Fixed Systems
.....................................................................
808
BLOODHOUND
............................................................. 809
NIKE·IIERCULES
........................................................... 809
SA·1
........................................................................
811, S96 SA·:.il (CSA·1)
........................................................ 811, SIOO
SA·3
.....................................................................
812, Sl07 SA·S
.....................................................................
.812,SII3
MobUe Systems
........................................................ 813, Sll9
CHAPARRA.L
..................................................................
814 CROfALE
.......................................................................
815 HAWK
............................................................................
816 PATRIOT
........................................................................
820 RAPIER
..........................................................................
820 ROLAND
........................................................................
823 SHAHINE
.......................................................................
823 SA-4
......................................................................
824, Sll9 SA-6
......................................................................
825, SI:J5 SA-8
......................................................................
825, Sl.30 SA-9
......................................................................
826, Sl35 SA-10
...................................................................
826, Sl37 SA-11
....................................................................
827, Sl4i SA-12
....................................................................
827, Sl51 SA-13
....................................................................
828, SI.'J7 SA·15
....................................................................
829,Sl59 SA·17
...........................................................................
SI60 SA-19
....................................................................
829, Sl63 Other SAM Systems
...................................................... 829 MANPADS
.................................................. 830, S164,
Sl65
Photo lnterpretallon Training Cour~~e
Photo Interpretation Principles JW
. . 0' 0
Chapter 1 - Introduction
................................................... 1
Chapter 2- Inland Hydrography
....................................... 2 Riven and Otreaou,
.....................................................................................
2
Natural Water Co111'11e8
.....................................................................
2 Flow Resfmes
...............................................................................
2 l>r'ainase Pattern Regime!l
.......................................................... 3
ChanneUzed Water Co111'11e8
............................................................. 6
Inland ShoreUnn
...........................................................................
29
Lakes and Ponds
..........................................................................................
34 Natural
.............................................................................................
34 Artiftdal
...........................................................................................
3o
Assoclated Features of Inland Hydrography,
.......................................... 47 Springs and
Waterholes
.................................................................
48 lllllands
.............................................................................................
48 Levees anC: Dlkn
............................................................................
49 Land SubJect to lnundadon
........................................................... 51
Locks
................................................................................................
S3 Sluice Gates
.....................................................................................
ss Baslns
...............................................................................................
s6 Safety G-tte
.......................................................................................
S7 Water Intake Tower
........................................................................
S7 shlpUft
.............................................................................................
s8
Chapter 3 - Coastal Hydrography
.................................... 60 Coastal SboteUne
.......................................................................................
6o
Coastal Classlftc:adon
.....................................................................
64 Oceanic llllland
................................................................................
90
Open Water
.................................................................................................
91
Navalds
........................................................................................................
92 Llgbts
...............................................................................................
92 Buoy's
..............................................................................................
97
DanFrl and Underwater Features
........................................................... 98
Construc:tecl Features
......................................................................
98 Natural Features
............................................................................
IOl Miscellaneous Features
................................................................
114
Ports and Harbors
....................................................................................
I14 Generai
..........................................................................................
I14 Harbor Works
...................................................
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ........... ll7 Berthing PadUde8
............................................................. ,
.•.••••••••• 122
Phoro Imerpretation Tl'llinlng Course
L_·-----------------~ Photo lnterpretiltion PrlnciDies IWII
ea..., HandUOJI Equipment
......................................................... 133 Ship
Yards
.....................................................................................
138 Vessel Storage and Repair FadUd~
............................................ 140 MWtary (Ports and
Harbors) .......................................................
145 Other Port and Uarbor Features
................................................. 151
Glossary ................... n
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 155
Chapter 1 - Introduction
.................................................... 1 Cllmate
..........................................................................................................
2
Air Circulation
..................................................................................
2 CUmatic: Cbuslftc:atlon
......................................................................
4 Natural Regions
...............................................................................
14
Chapter 2- Cropland ...................... ~~
................................. 23 Cultivated Cropland
...................................................................................
23
Dry Crops
........................................................................................
24 Irrlption
.........................................................................................
26 SoU Conservation
...........................................................................
28 Wet Crops
........................................................................................
29 Ternac:lng
.........................................................................................
30 Shifting Cultivation
........................................................................
31
Ol'c:hards and Plantations
.........................................................................
32
Other
...........................................................................................................
36 NUI'8eries
.........................................................................................
36 Vlneyards
.........................................................................................
38 Hops
.................................................................................................
38 Hedgerows
.......................................................................................
39
Chapter 3 - Rangeland
•.•..••.•.•.•..•••••........•...•..........•...•...• 41 Grasslanw
...................................................................................................
41
Troplod
...........................................................................................
41 Mid-Latitude/Temperate
.................................................................
42 Tundra
.............................................................................................
44
Sc:nlb/8r.lllh
................................................................................................
44
Dedduous
........................................................................................
50 Mbl:ed Vorests
..................................................................................
52 Everareen/Conlfer
.........................................................................
,52
Other
..........................................................................................................
,58 Fll'ebreak .......................................... ,
.............................................. 58 03818
.................................................................................................
58 Bamboo
...........................................................................................
6o
Photo lmerprecatlon Tr.~lnlng Course
Photo Interpretation Principles 11111
Coastal {Tidal)
.................................................................................
62 Inland {Non· Tidal)
..........................................................................
63
Swamp
.........................................................................................................
63 Coastal (Tidal)
.................................................................................
63 Inland (Non·1'idal)
..........................................................................
66
Bogs
.............................................................................................................
66
Hummocks
..................................................................................................
70
Chapter I - Introduction
..................................................... 1
Chapter 2 - Snow and Ice Regions
.................................... 2 Gla.:len
.........................................................................................................
2 Ice Peaks and Nunataks
.............................................................................
21
P!K:k Ice
.......................................................................................................
22 Polar Ice ........................................ ,.
............................................................
23
Tunclra
.........................................................................................................
24 Associated Features of Tundra l..andscapes
............................................. 27
Chapter 3 - Landforms
...................................................... 30 Bluffs,
CUffs and Est:arpments
..................................................................
36 Cava~ and Depresslons
..............................................................................
39
Crevices and Crevasses
..............................................................................
41
RklgeUnes and Valleys
...............................................................................
42
Faults
...........................................................................................................
44 lnselbergs
...................................................................................................
45
Landforms Associated with Unes of Communk:atlon
............................ 47
Rock Formations
........................................................................................
ss Katut Topography
......................................................................................
s7 Arid to Semi-Arid Desert Topography
...................................................... 67
VoJc:anlc: Topography
.................................................................................
81
Chapter 4 - Exposed Surface Material ..............................
90 Ground Surface Materlals
..........................................................................
9()
Asphalt lakes .................... ,
.......................................................................
100
Cleared Ways
............................................................................................
101
Geofoay
.....................................................................................................
121 Soll
.............................................................................................................
1S2
Pharo lnterpretalion Training Courne
101/1 Photo Interpretation Principles
Chapter 1 - Airfield Imagery Interpretation
........................ 1 Airfield Imagery Analysfs
............................................................................
1
Airfield Hlstory
.............................................................................................
1
Airfield Deftnitl.ln
........................................................................................
2
MWtary and CivWan Airflelds
.....................................................................
2 Military Airflelds
...............................................................................
z ueUports
............................................................................................
s CivWan Airflelds
...............................................................................
6 Seaplane Statioll!l
..............................................................................
9 ]oint Use Military and CivWan Airfleids
......................................... 9 Highway Aitstrips
.............................................................................
9
Chapter 2 - Airfield Location
........................................... 1 0 Runways
......................................................................................................
10
Landing Surface Types
...............................................................................
11
Natural Surl'a~:es
.........................................................................................
11 Sod, Grass and Turf Runway Surfaces
.......................................... 11 Prepared Natural
Surl'aces
............................................................. 12
Graded Earth
...................................................................................
12 Laterlte
.............................................................................................
13 Gravel Surfaces
...............................................................................
13 Coral surfaces
.................................................................................
14 Sand Surl'aces
..................................................................................
14 Icc and Snow
...................................................................................
14 Clay Surfaces
...................................................................................
14 Bedrock Surfaces
............................................................................
14
Semi Rigid Surl'aces
....................................................................................
14 Bitumen Surfaces
............................................................................
1S Asphalt Surfaces
.............................................................................
15 Bituminous Mixes
...........................................................................
1S SoU·Bitumen
....................................................................................
16 Sand-Bitumen
..................................................................................
16 Oiled Earth
......................................................................................
16 Macadam
..........................................................................................
16 Asphalt
.............................................................................................
16
Rigid Surfaces
.............................................................................................
17 Conc:rete Runway
...........................................................................
17 Cement Block Runway
...................................................................
18 Prefabricated Surfaces
....................................................................
18 Plen:ed Steel Planklng
....................................................................
18
Pholo Interpretation Training Course
Alum1num Mat
.................................................................................
18 Prefabricated Membrane
................................................................
l~l
Runway Surfaces Types (Table)
................................................................ 19
Runway Length
...........................................................................................
20
:ilunway Dimensions (Table)
......................................................... 20 Runway
Safety Measures
...........................................................................
21
Runway Overruns
...........................................................................
21 Runway Barrier Net
........................................................................
2l Arresting Gear
.................................................................................
21
Runway Marking
........................................................................................
22 Privately Owued Alrtlelds
.............................................................. 22
Basic VIsual Runway Marking.
....................................................... 22
Non-Precision Instrument Runway Mar!tl.ngs
.............................. 23 Precision Instrument Runway
Marldngs ...................................... 23 Non-Illuminated
RlUlway Markings .............................................. 23
Day Markers
....................................................................................
24 Runway Deslgnaton
.......................................................................
25 Center'dne Marking
........................................................................
26 Threshold Marking
.........................................................................
26 Displaced Threshold marldng
....................................................... 27
Touchdown Zone Marking
............................................................. 27
Edge Stripes
.....................................................................................
28 Fixed Distance Markers
..................................................................
28 Stopway Markings
..........................................................................
28 Closed Runway Marldngs
...............................................................
28
Dlumlnated Runwavs
.................................................................................
29 Approach Lighting Systems
...........................................................
29
Instrument FIJght Rules (IFR) light systems
........................... 31 SlmpUfted Approach Ugbt Systems
......................................... 32 VIsual FIJght Rules
Approach Ugbt Systems ........................... 33
Visual GUde Slope Indicator
......................................................................
33 VIsual Approach lighting systems
................................................ 33
VASI
.............................................................................................
34 PAPJ
............................................................................................
35 Tri-color System
.........................................................................
36 Pulsating Systems
......................................................................
36 Alignlnent of Elements
.............................................................
36
Runway End Identifier Ugbt!J (REIL)
........................................................ 37 Runway
Edge Light Systems
......................................................................
38 Threshold Lights
........................................................................................
38 In Runway Llgbtlng.
...................................................................................
39 Touch Down Zone Llgbtlng.
......................................................................
39 Runway CenterUne Ugbt System ......... .,
................................................... 39
Photo Jnterpretation Training Course
Chapter 3 - Aircraft Taxiways
.......................................... 40 Parallel Taxiways
.......................................................................................
40
Unk Taxlways
...•.••.....••...••.•••..••••.•.............•••••••••••••••••..•••.......•••••••.••........•.
40
Loop Taxiways
............................................................................................
41
Perimeter Taxiways
....................................................................................
41
Dispersal Taxiways
....................................................................................
42
Taxiway Marldng
........................................................................................
42
Hold Unes
..................................................................................................
.43
Taxiway Ughting
........................................................................................
43
Chapter 4- Aircraft Parking Areas
................................... 44 Apron ParkJng Areas
......................................................................
"" ......... 44
General Field Parldng
.....................................................................
44 Alert Aprons
....................................................................................
4S Operational Aprons
........................................................................
46 Hangar Apron
.................................................................................
46 Base Flight Apron
...........................................................................
47 Pad Apron
......................................................................................
.48 Transient Apron
.............................................................................
48 Depot Apron
...................................................................................
49 Stub Apron
......................................................................................
49
Hardstand Aircraft Parldng
.......................................................................
49 Dispersal Hardstands
.....................................................................
SO Alert Hardstands
.............................................................................
st Parking Hardstand
.........................................................................
S2 Operational Hardstands
.................................................................
S2 Engine Run-Up Hardstands
........................................................... S2
Firing-In Hardstands
......................................................................
S3 Compass Rose Hardstands
............................................................. s3
Maintenance Hardstands
............................................................... s4
Refueling Hardstands
.....................................................................
s4 Revetted Hardstands
.......................................................................
s4
Aircraft Bunkers and Hardened Aircraft Shelters
................................... ss Aircraft Bunkers
.............................................................................
s6 Aircraft Shelters
..............................................................................
S7 Aircraft tunnels and Underground Complexes
........................... S8
Chapter 5- Hangars
....................................................... 59 H.utgar
Types
..............................................................................................
s9 Design Variations
.......................................................................................
60
Photo lnrerpretation Training Course
Constnlction Materials
..............................................................................
60
Doors
...........................................................................................................
61 Hangar Variadons
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••..•••..•••••.••••••••••••••••••••••••••.•••••••
62
Muld-Bay Hangars
..................................................... ,
•.••••..•••••••••••• 63 Single Row Muld-Bay Hangars
...................................................... 64 Double
Row Muld-Bay Hangars
..................................................... 65 Single Bay
Hangars
.........................................................................
65 Double Bay Hangars
.......................................................................
66 N08e Hangars
..................................................................................
68 T-Shaped Hangars
...........................................................................
68 Open End Hangar
...........................................................................
69
Chapter 6 - Maintenance Shops and Facilities ................. 70
Small Airfield Maintenance FacWdes
....................................................... 70
Medium and Large Airfield Maintenance FacWdes
................................. 71
Jet Engine Test CeUs
...................................................................................
73
Chapter 7- Ordnance Storage
......................................... 75 long Term Storage
......................................................................................
7S Dispersal
.....................................................................................................
75 Enclosure and Protection
..........................................................................
75 Tr.ansportadon Networks
..........................................................................
75 Above Ground and Open Area Storage
.................................................... 76
Semi-Underground Storage
.......................................................................
76 Underground Storage
................................................................................
77 Short Term Storage
....................................................................................
77 1\uclear Storage
..........................................................................................
78
Chapter 8- Airfield Fuel Storage and Dispensing .............. 79
Fuel Storage Areas
......................................................................................
80
Above Ground Fuel Storage
........................................................... 81
Semi-Underground Fuel Storage
................................................... 83 Underground
Fuel Storage
.............................................................
84
Chapter 9 - Fire and Wreckage Removal Equipment
........................................................ 88 Fire
Equlpment
...........................................................................................
88
Training and Pracdce Areas
...........................................................
89
Phoro Incerprelarion Training Cnur!iC
1llflll Photo Interpretation ?rinciples I Fire Services at Small
and Medium Afrfteld!i ................................ 90
Wreckage Removal
.....................................................................................
91
Chapter 10- Spedal Purpose Vehicles .............................
92
Chapter 11 -Cargo and Passenger Facilities .................... 93
Cargo Handling FacWdes at Afrfteld!i
...................................................... 93 Passenger
Terminal!i and Ground Equipment
........................................ 95
Chapter 12- Housing, Billeting and Messlng ................... 98
Non·Combat Area Airfield Quanen
......................................................... 98
Combat Area Airfield Quanen
.................................................................
99
Medical FacWdes
......................................................................................
100
Security
.....................................................................................................
102
HeUpad Marklngs
.....................................................................................
105
Chapter 14- Wind Indicators and Meteorology Sites ..... i 06 Wind
Indlcaton
........................................................................................
106
Wind!iocks
.....................................................................................
107 Wind Tee
........................................................................................
108 Tetrahedron
..................................................................................
108
Meterologlcal Instuments
........................................................................
109 Weather Stations
...........................................................................
109 Runway Vl!iual Range Instruments
............................................. 109 Weather Radar
...............................................................................
111
Chapter 1 5 - Air Operations and Flight Control Facilities .
......................................................... 11 2 Air
Operations Bulldinp
.........................................................................
112
Control Towen
.........................................................................................
113
Rotating Beacons
......................................................................................
115
Photo Interpretation Principles xxvll
Chapter 16 - Electronic Aircraft Navigation Facilities
.......................................................... 1 16 Air
Nr .lption Development
...................................................................
116
Enroute and Terminal Navigation Alds
••••••••••••••..•••••••..••••••••.••••••...••••••• 117 Non
Directional Radfo Beacon (NDB)
......................................... 117 VHF Omnl·Direc:tional
Beacon (VOR) ......................................... 118 Terminal
VOR's
.............................................................................
118 Doppler VOR (DVOR)
...................................................................
118 Tactic:al Air Navigation (TACAN)"
................................................. 120 VORTAC
.........................................................................................
120
Approach NAVAlDS
..................................................................................
120 Instrument Landing System (U.S)
................................................ 120
Localizer Antenna
....................................................................
l21 GUde Slope Antenna
................................................................
122
Marker Beacons
............................................................................
123 Outer Marker
...........................................................................
124 Middle Marker
.........................................................................
124 Compass Locator
.....................................................................
124
SlmpUfted Dlrec:tion FaclUty (SDF)
............................................. 124 Microwave Landing
System .........................................................
12S Azimuth Transmitters (AT)
.......................................................... 126
Elevation Transmitter (ET)
.......................................................... 126
Prec:lslon Distance Measuring Equlpment.(DMF)
...................... 126
Air Trafftc Control Radar
.........................................................................
126 Prec:lslon Approach Radar (PAR)
................................................. 127 Airport
Surveillance Radar (ASR)
................................................ 128 Airport
Surface Detec:tion Equipment
........................................ 129
PlH>Io Intcrprel<tlicm Training C(JUtsc
CHAPTER 1 -- INTRODUCTION
Photo interpretation, or more properly image interpretation, is
something which we practice every day. We see images in books,
newspapers and maga zines, or on TV. Unconsciously, we interpret
the information conveyed by these images in order to identify and
gain information about the objects portrayed. The degree of success
depends on a number of factors, including the type, scale and
resolution of the i'l'lage, and our familiarity with the
subject.
As cartographers, we deal with that aspect of image interpretation
known as remote sensing. Remote sensing is defined as the gathering
of information about an object by means of a sensor at some
distance from that object. For our purposes, this refers to an
airborne or spaceborne sensor. This means that we are viewing
objects from a vertical or a near-vertical perspective. Since we
are used to looking at objec:ts from a ground level, or horizontal,
perspective, many familiar objects may become difficult to
recognize.
The term photo interpretation has been handed down from the days
when all remotely sensed imagery was in the form of black and white
photographs. Since then, other types of sensors, both photographic
and digital, have been developed to utilize the visible and
invisible portions of the dectromagnetic spectrum. The term image
interpa·etation was adopted to cover all aspects of remote sensing.
Since we will be dealing with black and white, panchromatic
(representing only the visible part of the spectrum) imagery, we
will label the process as photo interpretation, whether the source
material is photographic or digital. We will reserve the term image
interpretation for other sources, such as multi-spectral, infrared,
and radar imagery.
Aerial Photo Examples Aerial photo examples for many of these
features are contained within the teaching imagery set. A data base
(FileMaker Pro, for Macintosh) referencing the features to the
imagery is included with the teaching materials.
Changes and Additions The contents of this course are as complete
and as current as the best sources available. Any corrections or
information about new features, new configurations, or better image
examples should be forwarded to:
Defense Mapping Agency Process Improvement Office (ODGI) Attn:
Image Interpretation Training Team, Mail Stop L-54 3200 South
Second Street St. Lcuis MO 63118-3399 (314) 263-4547
Defense Mapping Agency \
CHAPTER 2 .... PHOTO INTERPRETATION PROCESS
The type, quantity and quality of information that can oe obtained
by analyzing aerial photography is dependent on the background,
knowledge, skill and inter est of the photo interpreter. Those
individuals with a broader range of experience find photo
interpretation to be less difficult. The purpose of this course is
to build on the individual cartographers' background by giving them
instruction and prac tice in applying photo interpretation skills.
A<; each individual becomes more skilled at photo
interpretation, it is natural that their interest level will
increase as their task becomes less frustrating.
There are several activities, or processes, that the photo
interpreter performs during examination of the aerial photograph.
These processes, in the order in which they are performeu, are:
detection, identification, and evaluation. In other words, photo
interpretation is:
1. The art of knowing what you are looking for;
2. Identifying it when you find it; and
3. Knowing the significance of it in that location.
Measurement i~ also a part of the interpretation process, but is
done at two differ ent times and for different purposes; first, as
an estimation of relative size to aid in identification, and
second, as detailed measurements during the evaluation
process.
Detection is the easiest part of ph')to-interpretation, in that it
only requires the realization that there is something on the photo
that is different from its sur roundings. Local changes in the
characteristics of the photo (tone, texture, ;:>attern, etc.)
distinguish objects from each other. The changes could be sharp and
distinctive, allowing rapid visual discrimination. Other features
are harder to detect because of their small size <'r because
they are not distinct from their surroundings. In these cases,
their presence must be inferred from more subtle visual clues, and
a knowledge of what features should be found in a particular area.
Other features may not be visible at all, but their presence is
inferred through the identification of related features. The use of
stereo models greatly enhances the photo interpreter's ability to
detect features.
Identification of the feature is the next step in the
interpretation process. Part of identification is a judgment of the
feature's size, relative to the surrounding features. Knowing the
relative size of an object determines what it may or may not be.
Identification requires not only the use of clues provided by the
imagery, but also a working knowledge of the types of features
likely to be found in the area, and how they would look from the
vertical pers~ctive.
Some features are distinctive and readily identitled. For other
features, identifica tion is an exercise in problem solving, using
the different elements of photo
Photo Interpretation Training Course
Photo Interpretation Processes L Photo Interpretation Principles
S
interpretation to identify features, or to identify
object-complexes from