UNCLASSIFIE
UNClASSIFIED
UNCLASSIFIED MARCH 1996
0 Copyright I 995 by the United States Government. No coP';right claimed under Title I 7 U.S.C. Prepared and published by the Defense Mapping Agency. Printed through Government Printing Offlce.
fOREWORD
The history of 'artography comprises many technological breakthroughs that stand as milestones of our profession. The use of aerial imagery as a source for mapping represented a tremendous breakthrough for cartography. The use and introduction of airborne sensors tor photogrammetric exploitation and feature identification continues to affect the production of geo-spatiai information.
More recently, the introduction of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) has enabled cartographers to selectively portray various aspects of the earth and its surface by querying a data base populated with spatial and feature information. The fidelity of the resulting product is directly related to the quality of the infor­ mation resident in the data base from which the query was drawn.
The Image Interpretation Course was produced under the auspices of the Integrated TrainiPg Working Group (ITWG) and approved by the Activation Control Team (ACTI. The Photo Interpretation Training Working Group (P!TWG) performed extensive research in the planning and development stages of the course. The PITWG was composed of representatives from Defense Mapping Agency-Aerospace Center, Hydrographic/Topographic Center, and Reston Center. The PITWG determined both course format and content.
The information contained in the Imagery Interpretation Course and the Student Handbooks will assist the trained image analyst in the accurate identification of physical and cultural features viewed on aerial imagery. TI1e Imagery Interpretation Course Student Handbooks are pall of a training course that was developed by the Defense Mapping Agency in recugnition of the need to maintain a highly skilled and profi<:ient cartographic work force.
The course developer staff at the Defense Mapping Agency includes:
George SzigetJ, Cartographer. Mr. Szigeti produced Module 1, 2, and edited Module 3, 4, and 5. His expertise is based on a MS in Geological Engineering, 4 years experience as a topographic and terrain intelli­ gence officer in the US Army Corps of Engineers, and at DMA on the AS-11 and FE systems for 11 years. His knowledge of physical and cultural geography and his knowledge of application software helped make the document a valued training resource.
Gregory J. Bushur, Cartographer. Mr. Bushur produced the majority of Module 2 and the Supplemental Handbook. His expertise is based on a B.S. in Geophysics, 3 years cryptographic and electronic engineering experience with the U.S. Marine Corps, 8 years engineering experi­ ence in private industry, and 6 years of experience on the Feature Extraction sy5tem. Without his knowledge of industrial processes, electronics, and surface transportation the cultural handbook would not have been possible.
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II Photo Interpretation Principles
Stephen L Wheat, Cartographer. Mr. Wheat produced the Airfield module. His expenise is based on a BS in Geography, 18 years experience as an Intelligence Officer, 2 years as an Imagery Intel. instructor for the USAF, and 12 years experience at DMA. His knowledge of airfields and experience as an Imagery Interpretation instructor has enabled him to produce the Airfield Module and assist in designing the overall structure of the courS<!.
Chris Riopelle, Cartographer. Mr. Riopelle produced the Coastal Hydro­ graphy Module and the Climate Section of the Vegetation Module. His expenise is based on a BS in Meteorology and Earth Science, 2 years with the National Weather Service and 7 years experience at DMA. He has worked in Manual DTED compilation, Terrain Analysis, DE cartog­ raphy and is now a DE Segment Production Engineer.
Debra L Hinrkhll, cartographer. Ms. Hinrichs produced the Physiography and Inland Waterway Modules. Her expenise is based on a BS in Geology , and 8 years experience at DMA in Terrain Analysis and the Automatic Graphic Digitization System. Her contribution to the course made a significant difference.
Sandra Fleming, Computer Operator. Ms. Fl~ming assisted in the editing and formatting of the final documents. Her expenise is based on 15 years experience in DMA and she is nearing completion of undergradu­ ate work in Geography. Her contributions helped make the document usable and understandable.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The compilation and preparation of materials for the DMA Photo Interpretation Course involved much more than just the authoring of this student handbook. The other cnmponents of the photo interpretation library include the Photo Interpretation Jllu~trated Glossary, the teaching images, instructor image view­ graphs and templates, lesson plans and other instruction~) materials. The timely completion of this project would not have been possible without the assistance of our co-workers. We thank the following individuals for their assistance with the development of the Photo Interpretation Course:
A large number of images were required to cover the many cul!ural features discussed in Module 2. Mr. Paul Burrows used his experience as an image Inter­ preter in the US Marine Corps and as an analyst on the FE and DE systems to locate and identify features on source imagery for inclusion In the teaching imagery >el. He also as,.isted with the compilation of the instructor templates and maintenance of the feature/image database.
A substantial pan of the image scanning for the teaching images and Instructor viewgraphs was done via the Point Graphics Production System at St. Louis. Kerry Antoniewicz, Robyn Burris, Luther Claus, Laurence Englehard, David Nelson and Garth Sutton performed the scanning and formatting, volunteering to work second shift.
Technical expertise, proofreading and editorial support were provided by Sam Adamcyzk, Cliff Hardin, Debbie Knox, Patti May, Tom Obelenus, Victoria Sanders, james Sarcinello, Todd Stovall, and Glen Tewkesbury. Brian Fleming and Tamara Warden assisted with text development and illustrations were prepared by Tobi Bordihn and Ellen Krafcisin. Terrance Moore played a significant part in the development of lesson plans.
Many more of our co-workers provided significant support to this effort, but it would be impractical to name them all. Nevertheless, their assistance is appreciat­ ed.
Finally, we wish to thank Steve Handwerk, Phyllis Farris, Rose Pangborn and Pat Han for their roles in the administration of the project. They provided guidance and direction through the sometimes tumultuous history of this team.
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Forward ............................................................................. ;
Tables of Contents ............................................................. v Module 1-Pbolo lrtterprvnlllion Prlttclplea ............................................ v Module 2-Cullurm Pelllurea ................................................................... vi
Module 3 -Hydrography ....................................................................... xvt Module 4 - Veget.rallofr ........................................................................... xvUi
Module S - Pbyaldgrapby ........................................................................ xx Modue 6 -A.dvaJU:ed A.lr.Jf61tla ............................................................. xxU
Module 1 - Photo Interpretation Principles ........................ 1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 1
Photo Interpretation PJv -::ess ...................................................................... 2
Elements of Photo Interpretatlon ............................................................... 4
Problem Solving ......................................................................................... 10
UmJtations of Panchromatic Imagery ..................................................... 14
Indices ............................................................................. 15 Module 1 ..................................................................................................... 1S Module 2 ..................................................................................................... 16 Module 3 ..................................................................................................... 40 Module4 ..................................................................................................... 43 ModuleS ..................................................................................................... 4S
Bibliographies .................................................................. 4 7 Module2 ..................................................................................................... 47 Module 3 ..................................................................................................... 68 Module4 ..................................................................................................... 71
ModuleS ..................................................................................................... 7S
Chapter 1 - Introduction ................................................... 1
Chapter 2- Buildings ..•..•••....•...........••....•...•...••.....•...•...•.. 2 General .......................................................................................................... :ll
Building Structures ...................................................................................... 2 Structural Supports •••••••••••••••••.••.••..•••••••••.••••••..•............••.....•••••••••••• 2 Structure Types ................................................................................. 4 RoofTypes ....................................................................................... 13 Roof-top Struaures .........•.•••.••••••..•.••...•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••...••• t6
Geographic Variations ............................................................................... 19
Unefl of Communlcat!on ................................................................ 21 Transportation Systems ................................................................. 22
Roads ........................................................................................................... 24 Road Construc:tion ••••••.•••••••••••••.• " ••••..••••.•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••. 2S Drainage .......................................................................................... 26 Aligsunent ........................................................................................ 26
Road Classitk:atfon ••.••.••••••••.••••••...•.............•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 27 TraUs and Footpaths •••••••••.•••..••••••••••••••••..•........•.••••••••••••.•••••••• 27 Tracks ......................................................................................... 28 Loose Surface Roads .................................................................. 29 Hard surta.:e Roads ................................................................... 30 Pavement Types ......................................................................... 34 Mlsc:ellaneous Roads ................................................................. 35
Fords ................................................................................................ 36 Prepared Float Bridge Sltes ............................................................ 38 Drop Gates ...................................................................................... 38 Terminal Faclllties .......................................................................... 39
llailroads ..................................................................................................... 42 Railroad Construction .................................................................... 42
Track Gauges .............................................................................. 4S KUillling Direction .................................................................... 45 E1ectritk:atlon ............................................................................ 46 Slgnals ........................................................................................ 47 Operationel Status ..................................................................... 48
Terminals and Fac0itles ................................................................. 48 Commu•.er Unes/Trolleys .............................................................. 56 l.ogglna llailroads ........................................................................... ,,
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Brldges ........................................................................................................ 59 Introduction ••... , .............................................................................. 59
Bridge Structural mements ....................................................... 62 Bridge SubstrUCtUre ................................................................... 63 Bridge Superstructure ............................................................... 61 Skew Bridges .............................................................................. 65
Bridge CJassiftcation ....................................................................... 65 Beam (Stringer) Bridges ............................................................ 68 Girder Bridges ........................................................................... 68 Truss Bridges ............................................................................. 70 Arch Bridges .............................................................................. 74 Suspension Bridges ................................................................... 77 cantilevered Bridges ................................................................. 79 Floating Bridges ......................................................................... 81
Movable Spans ................................................................................ 82 Unusual Bridges .............................................................................. 86 Bridge Functlons ............................................................................. 86
Other Transportation Features ................................................................. 88 Cuts and FUis ................................................................................... 88 Causeways ....................................................................................... 90 Culverts ............................................................................................ 91 Tunnels ............................................................................................ 92 Galleries, Snowsheds and Rocksheds ........................................... 93 Ferries .............................................................................................. 95
Atrflelds ....................................................................................................... 97 Airfield Deftnition .......................................................................... 98 MJlitary and ClvWan Airfields ....................................................... 98 Airfield Loc:atlon ........................................................................... 1 01 RunWli)'!J ........................................................................................ 102
Landing Surface Types ............................................................ 102 Runway Length .......................................................... ,. •••••••••••• 111 Runway Safety Measures ......................................................... 112 Runway Marldngs .................................................................... 113
Taxiways ........................................................................................ 127 Aircraft Parking Areas .................................................................. 131 Hangars ......................................................................................... 144 Maintenance Shops and Fac:Wties ............................................... 149 Cargo and Passenger Handling Fac:Wties ................................... 152 HeUports ........................................................................................ 155 Air Operations and FUght Control Fac:Wties .............................. 156
Inland Waterways ..................................................................................... 158 canals ............................................................................................ 158 Loc:ks .............................................................................................. 161 ShlpUfts ......................................................................................... 163
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Gates .............................................................................................. 164 Terminals ...................................................................................... 165
Ports and Harbors .................................................................................... 166 General .......................................................................................... 166 Harbor Works ................................................................................ 169 Berthing Fadlities ......................................................................... 174 cargo Handling Equipment ......................................................... 186 Ship Y:uds ............................................................................... '"' ... 190 Vessel Storage and Repair FacUlties ............................................ 193 MUitary (Ports and Harbors) ....................................................... 198 Other Port and Harbor Features ................................................. 205
Pipelines ................................................................................................... 208 General .......................................................................................... 208 PJpeline Routes ............................................................................. 210 Relay Stations ................................................................................ 214 Terminals ...................................................................................... 217 Aqueducts ...................................................................................... 220 Qanat (Karez) ................................................................................ 222
Chapter 4 - Industries ................................................... 223 Introduction ............................................................................................. 223
Industrial Components ............................................................................ 223 Storage ........................................................................................... 223
Open Storage ........................................................................... 223 Enclosed Storage ..................................................................... 225
v:arehouses ........................................................................ 225 Sllos, Bins, Bunkers, and Hoppers ................................... 227 Tanks ................................................................................... 229
Materials Handling .................................................................. 234 Cranes ................................................................................. 235 Moblle Equipment ............................................................. 241 Conveyors ........................................................................... 242
Transportation ........................................................................ 245 Pipelines ............................................................................. 245 Railroads, Ships, and Barges ............................................ 249
Processing Equipment ............................................................ 250 Support Equipment ................................................................. 252
Extraction ................................................................................................. 257 Exploration ................................................................................... 257 Mining ............................................................................................ 26o
Open ......................................................................................... 261 Underground ........................................................................... 264 Ore Concentration .................................................................. 266
Wells ............................................................................................... 269 Drilling ..................................................................................... 270
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Onshore .............................................................................. 272 Offshore ••....••...•••.•.••••..••••...••................••...•••..•.••.••••.•••••••..• 275
Production .......•.........................................•••....••....••.........••...• 277 OU&Gas ............................................................................. 278 Water ................................................................................... 280 Other ................................................................................... 280
Disposal .................................................................................................... 280 SoUds ............................................................................................. 281 Uquids (Sewage Treatment) ........................................................ 286 Gases (Fiares) ................................................................................ 294
Power ........................................................................................................ 295 Introduction .................................................................................. 295 Power Transmission ..................................................................... 297
Substations and Transformer Yards ...................................... 297 Transmission Unes and Pylons ............................................. 301
Power Generation ......................................................................... 307 Internal CombUIItion ............................................................... 307 Thermal Power Plants and Turbines ..................................... 309 F01111U Fueis ............................................................................... 312 Nuclear ..................................................................................... 315 Geotherma1 .............................................................................. 319 Other ........................................................................................ 320 Hydroelectric ........................................................................... 321 Wind ......................................................................................... 327 Heat and Steam Plants ............................................................ 327
Processins ................................................................................................. 328 Water .............................................................................................. 328 FerroUII Metals .............................................................................. 340
Coke .......................................................................................... 341 Ore Processins-........................................................................ 350 lron ........................................................................................... 358 Steel .......................................................................................... 363
Steel Production Processes ............................................... 365 Initial Steel Forms ............................................................. 371 Formins Finished Steel Products ..................................... 375
Non-Ferrous Metals ..................... , ................................................ 378 Aluminum ................................................................................ 378
Alumina ............................................................................... 378 Aluminum Metal ................................................................ 383
Copper ...................................................................................... 388 ~ld .......................................................................................... 397 Lead .......................................................................................... 397 Masnesium ............................................................................... 405 Mansanese ............................................................................... 414 Mercury .................................................................................... 415 Nickel.~ •. ,. .................................................................................. 415
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Pladnum ................................................................................... 419 Silver •.......••.....•.•••••.•.•.•••....•••••....••••••••....•••••......••••••...•••••••..••••• 419 Tin ............................................................................................. 420 Titanium and Associated IDec:trothermic Metals ••••.•.••••••••.•• 420 Zinc ........................................................................................... 422
Radioac:tive Materials •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.••••••••..•••••• 434 Uranium Production ....................................................... 43S, S2* Plutonium .......................................................................... 447, S4 Nuclear WeapoRII and Fabrication ......................... 449, . Y, Sl79
Chemicals ••••..••••••••..•••••••...•••••••..••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.•••• 452 Introduction ............................................................................. 452 Primary (Basic) Chemical Production ................................... 453
Air Separation .................................................................... 453 Alcohol ................................................................................ 455 Anunonla ............................................................................ 458 Calcium Carbide a: Acetylene Gall .................................... 464 Chlorine a: Caustic Soda ................................................... 467 Lirne .................................................................................... 474 Nitric Acid ........................................................................... 475 Phosphoric Acid ................................................................ 478 Soda Ash ............................................................................. 481 Sodium Chloride ................................................................ 484 Sulfuric Acld ....................................................................... 485
Secondary Chemical Production ............................................ 492 Fert111zer ............................................................................. 493
Nitrogen Fert111zer ........................................................ 494 Phosphate Fertllb:er ..................................................... 498 Potassium Fert111zer ..................................................... 501
Explosives and PropeUants ........................................ ~01, SB NltroceUulose ......................................................... 505, S8 Other Propellants ................................................... 508, S9 Nitroglycerine lind Dynamite ................................ 509, S8 Other High Exploslves ................................................. 511 Detonators .................................................................... 512 MunidoRII Manufacture ............................................... 512 Blologlca1 and Chemical Warfare ................... ............ SIO
Petro~ an4 Petrochemk:als .............................................. 512 Petroleum on Reftnlns ..................................................... 514
Crude on Input ............................................................ 515 Separation Areas .......................................................... 518
Primary Distilladon Unit ....................................... 518 Secondary Dlstlllation Unit. ................................... 522
Conversion Processes ................................................... 523 Cracklna .................................................................. 524 Ref01'JDing ................................................................ 527 Gas Processlng ........................................................ 530
Treating Processes ....................................................... 532 "Pllges prefixed by S are found in the Supplemental Handbook
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La.:oht and Middle Hydrocarbons ........................... 532 Het.vy Middle and Residual .................................... 533
Finished Product Storage Areas •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 535 Distribution Centers and Storage ............................... 535
Synthetics ........................................................................... 536 OU From Shale ............................................................ 539 Oll From Tar Sands ...................................................... 540 OU From Coal ............................................................... 541
Natural Gas Processfng ...................................................... 548 Pettochemic:als ................................................................... 558
Cement and Ceramics ............................................................. 561 Cement ................................................................................ S63 Ceramics ................. " .......................................................... 568
Brick .............................................................................. 568 Glaml .............................................................................. 570
Vegetative Products (Wood, Paper, and Grain) ..................... 572 Lumber ................................................................................ 572 Paper ................................................................................... 574 Grains ................................................................................. 578 Supr ................................................................................... 581
Manufacturins and Fabrication .............................................................. 585 Bulldlnss and Structures .............................................................. 586
Building Methods and Materials ............................................ 586 Roofll ......................................................................................... 588 Common Facllities in Fabrication Industries ....................... 590
Heavy Fabrication lndustries ....................................................... 592 shipbulldina ............................................................................ 593
Shipbuildina Production ................................................... 593 Ship Repair and Maintenance Fa.:Wties .......................... 599 Shipbulldfna and Ship Repair .......................................... 6ol
RaUc:ar Manufacturing and Repair ......................................... 6os Heavy Vehicle, Machinery, and Structural Steel ................... 611
IJsht Fabrication Industries ........................................................ 612 Aircraft Manuiacture ..................................................... 613, Sl68 Aircraft EnaJne Manufacturing .............................................. 620 Rocket and Gulded Misslle Manufacture ....................... 621, Sll Automotive Manufacturfn(l ..................................................... 623 Miscellaneons Manufacturina-................................................ 625
Explosives .......................................................................... 625 nres .................................................................................... 626 Meat Packing ...................................................................... 627 Textiles ................................................................................ 627
Chapter 5- Communications and Eleczronics ................. 628 lntrocluc:ti6n ............................................................................................. 628
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Communication Towers ......•••••••••.•.••..•••••••••.•••••••••••.•.•.••••••••.....•.•••••...... 628
Landline Communicadons ...................................................................... 630
Radio Communicadons •••••.••••••••..••.•.••••••••••••••••.•••.•..•..•..••............•• 632, S13 HF Radio ................................................................................ 637, S13 VLF Radio ....................................................................................... .S15 Tropospheric Scatter ............................................................ 643, S17 SATCOM .................................................................................. 644, S18 Radio Astronomy .......................................................................... 646 ssa and sw ..................................................................................... 646 Commercial AM and FM ............................................................... 649 RDF FaciUties ........................................................................ 651, S23 Radiotelephone ............................................................................. 655
Microwave Communications Systems ............................................ 656, S25
Televlslon .................................................................................................. 661
Radar ................................................................................................. 662, S:l7 Antennas ........................................................................................ 664 RADOME ........................................................................................ 666 Radar Reftectors ............................................................................ 667 Radar Systems ............................................................................... 667
Aviation Related Radar .......................................... 668, S27, S185 Early Warning Radar Slte ........................................................ 671 Defensive Missile System Radar ............................................. 672 Weather Radar ......................................................................... 673
NAVAIDs ............................................................................................ 674, S30 Aeronautical En Route NAVAIDs .......................................... 674, S30 Aeronautical Approach NAVAIDs ............................... 682, S31, S189 Marine NAVAIDs .................................................................... 691, S30
Chapter 6 - Cultural Areas ............................................. 697 Rural Areas ..... """ ....................................................................................... 697
Agriculture .................................................................................... 697 Rural Settlements and Villages .................................................... 707
Urban Areas .............................................................................................. 709 Urban Street Patterns ................................................................... 709 BuJit..up Areas Defined by the Primary Authority ..................... 713 Geographic Variations .................................................................. 714 Features ......................................................................................... 717
Commercial. ............................................................................. 718 Embassies ................................................................................. 720 Government ............................................................................. 721 Hospital .................................................................................... 723 Schools ..................................................................................... 724 Laboratories and Research Centers ....................................... 725 Utllltles ..................................................................................... '127
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Places ofWonhip .................................................................... 728 Miscellaneous Features ........................................................... 7~3 Open Afeas .............................................................................. 746
MWtary Areas and Support FacU!tles ..................................... """"""'""756 lntl'Oductlon .................................................................................. 756 Uniformity ..................................................................................... 757 Pauern ........................................................................................... 751 Houaekeeplng ............................................................................... 758 Security .......................................................................................... 758 Housing ........................................................................................ 759 Equipment ..................................................................................... 760 Defenses and Fortifications ......................................................... 761
Types of FortlflcatloiUI ............................................................ 761 Identlfteedon of Fortifications and Defenses ............. 76l, S168
Training and Recreation .............................................................. 770 Service Branch .................................................................... 771, S167 Category of Installatlon ................................................................ 785
.'P<•nonn.el ................................................................................. 785 Support ...................................................................................... 790
Supply .................................................................................. 791 Ammunition ........................................................ 791, S171 Al'llenals and Gun Parks .................................... 792, S172 Fuel .................................................. "'""""" 792, S177, S182
Services ............................... ,.. ............................................. 792 Missiles .................................................................................. 793, S34
Launch Pad ................................................................................ 794 Surface-to-Surface Ballfstlc MissUes ............................... 7fJ6, S34
Fixed BaWstlc MiasUe Systems (ICBM) .................... 797, S34 Minuteman 1/D ............................................................. 797 SS·11 ............................................................................. S39 SS-13 ............................................................................. S41 SS-17 ............................................................................. S43 SS-18 ............................................................................. S4'7 SS-19 ............................................................................. S53 SS.24 ............................................................................. S58 CSS.3 ............................................................................. s62 css-4 ............................................................................. s64
Fixed BaWstic MlssUe S)'lltems (IRBM) ............................ S65 CS'-2 ............................................................................. S65 Other Non-CIS .. " .......................................................... s66
MobUe Systems .......................................................... 799, S67 ICBM ...................................................................... 799,S67
SS-24 ........................................................................ £67 SS.25 ........................................................................ s68 css.s ....................................................................... s74
IRBM (SS.20) ......................................................... 800, S75 MRBM .................................................................... 800, S79
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SRBM ...................................................................... 801; S80 FROG-3/4/S ............................................................. SBO FROG-7 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• S81 I.a.nce.~··································································••••801 Pluton ...................................................................... 802 Hades ....................................................................... 803 MLRS ........................................................................ 804 SS·1C ................................................................ 803, S82 SS·12 ........................................................................ S83 SS-21 ................................................................. 803, S84 SS-22 ......................................................................... 803 SS-23 ......................................................................... 804
Surf'ace-to-Alr Antl-Balllstlc·Misslle (ADM) .................... 804, S86 ABM-1 .......................................................................... 804, S92 ABM·2 .......................................................................... 804, S93
Surf'ace·to-Alr MlssUes (Antl-Aln:raft) ............................ 806, S96 AntlAlrcraft Artlllery (J\AA) ............................................. .807 Fixed Systems ..................................................................... 808
BLOODHOUND ............................................................. 809 NIKE·IIERCULES ........................................................... 809 SA·1 ........................................................................ 811, S96 SA·:.il (CSA·1) ........................................................ 811, SIOO SA·3 ..................................................................... 812, Sl07 SA·S ..................................................................... .812,SII3
MobUe Systems ........................................................ 813, Sll9 CHAPARRA.L .................................................................. 814 CROfALE ....................................................................... 815 HAWK ............................................................................ 816 PATRIOT ........................................................................ 820 RAPIER .......................................................................... 820 ROLAND ........................................................................ 823 SHAHINE ....................................................................... 823 SA-4 ...................................................................... 824, Sll9 SA-6 ...................................................................... 825, SI:J5 SA-8 ...................................................................... 825, Sl.30 SA-9 ...................................................................... 826, Sl35 SA-10 ................................................................... 826, Sl37 SA-11 .................................................................... 827, Sl4i SA-12 .................................................................... 827, Sl51 SA-13 .................................................................... 828, SI.'J7 SA·15 .................................................................... 829,Sl59 SA·17 ........................................................................... SI60 SA-19 .................................................................... 829, Sl63 Other SAM Systems ...................................................... 829 MANPADS .................................................. 830, S164, Sl65
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. . 0' 0
Chapter 1 - Introduction ................................................... 1
Chapter 2- Inland Hydrography ....................................... 2 Riven and Otreaou, ..................................................................................... 2
Natural Water Co111'11e8 ..................................................................... 2 Flow Resfmes ............................................................................... 2 l>r'ainase Pattern Regime!l .......................................................... 3
ChanneUzed Water Co111'11e8 ............................................................. 6 Inland ShoreUnn ........................................................................... 29
Lakes and Ponds .......................................................................................... 34 Natural ............................................................................................. 34 Artiftdal ........................................................................................... 3o
Assoclated Features of Inland Hydrography, .......................................... 47 Springs and Waterholes ................................................................. 48 lllllands ............................................................................................. 48 Levees anC: Dlkn ............................................................................ 49 Land SubJect to lnundadon ........................................................... 51 Locks ................................................................................................ S3 Sluice Gates ..................................................................................... ss Baslns ............................................................................................... s6 Safety G-tte ....................................................................................... S7 Water Intake Tower ........................................................................ S7 shlpUft ............................................................................................. s8
Chapter 3 - Coastal Hydrography .................................... 60 Coastal SboteUne ....................................................................................... 6o
Coastal Classlftc:adon ..................................................................... 64 Oceanic llllland ................................................................................ 90
Open Water ................................................................................................. 91
Navalds ........................................................................................................ 92 Llgbts ............................................................................................... 92 Buoy's .............................................................................................. 97
DanFrl and Underwater Features ........................................................... 98 Construc:tecl Features ...................................................................... 98 Natural Features ............................................................................ IOl Miscellaneous Features ................................................................ 114
Ports and Harbors .................................................................................... I14 Generai .......................................................................................... I14 Harbor Works ................................................... ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ........... ll7 Berthing PadUde8 ............................................................. , .•.••••••••• 122
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ea..., HandUOJI Equipment ......................................................... 133 Ship Yards ..................................................................................... 138 Vessel Storage and Repair FadUd~ ............................................ 140 MWtary (Ports and Harbors) ....................................................... 145 Other Port and Uarbor Features ................................................. 151
Glossary ................... n •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 155
Chapter 1 - Introduction .................................................... 1 Cllmate .......................................................................................................... 2
Air Circulation .................................................................................. 2 CUmatic: Cbuslftc:atlon ...................................................................... 4 Natural Regions ............................................................................... 14
Chapter 2- Cropland ...................... ~~ ................................. 23 Cultivated Cropland ................................................................................... 23
Dry Crops ........................................................................................ 24 Irrlption ......................................................................................... 26 SoU Conservation ........................................................................... 28 Wet Crops ........................................................................................ 29 Ternac:lng ......................................................................................... 30 Shifting Cultivation ........................................................................ 31
Ol'c:hards and Plantations ......................................................................... 32
Other ........................................................................................................... 36 NUI'8eries ......................................................................................... 36 Vlneyards ......................................................................................... 38 Hops ................................................................................................. 38 Hedgerows ....................................................................................... 39
Chapter 3 - Rangeland •.•..••.•.•.•..•••••........•...•..........•...•...• 41 Grasslanw ................................................................................................... 41
Troplod ........................................................................................... 41 Mid-Latitude/Temperate ................................................................. 42 Tundra ............................................................................................. 44
Sc:nlb/8r.lllh ................................................................................................ 44
Dedduous ........................................................................................ 50 Mbl:ed Vorests .................................................................................. 52 Everareen/Conlfer ......................................................................... ,52
Other .......................................................................................................... ,58 Fll'ebreak .......................................... , .............................................. 58 03818 ................................................................................................. 58 Bamboo ........................................................................................... 6o
Photo lmerprecatlon Tr.~lnlng Course
Photo Interpretation Principles 11111
Coastal {Tidal) ................................................................................. 62 Inland {Non· Tidal) .......................................................................... 63
Swamp ......................................................................................................... 63 Coastal (Tidal) ................................................................................. 63 Inland (Non·1'idal) .......................................................................... 66
Bogs ............................................................................................................. 66
Hummocks .................................................................................................. 70
Chapter I - Introduction ..................................................... 1
Chapter 2 - Snow and Ice Regions .................................... 2 Gla.:len ......................................................................................................... 2 Ice Peaks and Nunataks ............................................................................. 21
P!K:k Ice ....................................................................................................... 22 Polar Ice ........................................ ,. ............................................................ 23
Tunclra ......................................................................................................... 24 Associated Features of Tundra l..andscapes ............................................. 27
Chapter 3 - Landforms ...................................................... 30 Bluffs, CUffs and Est:arpments .................................................................. 36 Cava~ and Depresslons .............................................................................. 39
Crevices and Crevasses .............................................................................. 41
RklgeUnes and Valleys ............................................................................... 42
Faults ........................................................................................................... 44 lnselbergs ................................................................................................... 45
Landforms Associated with Unes of Communk:atlon ............................ 47
Rock Formations ........................................................................................ ss Katut Topography ...................................................................................... s7 Arid to Semi-Arid Desert Topography ...................................................... 67
VoJc:anlc: Topography ................................................................................. 81
Chapter 4 - Exposed Surface Material .............................. 90 Ground Surface Materlals .......................................................................... 9()
Asphalt lakes .................... , ....................................................................... 100
Cleared Ways ............................................................................................ 101
Geofoay ..................................................................................................... 121 Soll ............................................................................................................. 1S2
Pharo lnterpretalion Training Courne
101/1 Photo Interpretation Principles
Chapter 1 - Airfield Imagery Interpretation ........................ 1 Airfield Imagery Analysfs ............................................................................ 1
Airfield Hlstory ............................................................................................. 1
Airfield Deftnitl.ln ........................................................................................ 2
MWtary and CivWan Airflelds ..................................................................... 2 Military Airflelds ............................................................................... z ueUports ............................................................................................ s CivWan Airflelds ............................................................................... 6 Seaplane Statioll!l .............................................................................. 9 ]oint Use Military and CivWan Airfleids ......................................... 9 Highway Aitstrips ............................................................................. 9
Chapter 2 - Airfield Location ........................................... 1 0 Runways ...................................................................................................... 10
Landing Surface Types ............................................................................... 11
Natural Surl'a~:es ......................................................................................... 11 Sod, Grass and Turf Runway Surfaces .......................................... 11 Prepared Natural Surl'aces ............................................................. 12 Graded Earth ................................................................................... 12 Laterlte ............................................................................................. 13 Gravel Surfaces ............................................................................... 13 Coral surfaces ................................................................................. 14 Sand Surl'aces .................................................................................. 14 Icc and Snow ................................................................................... 14 Clay Surfaces ................................................................................... 14 Bedrock Surfaces ............................................................................ 14
Semi Rigid Surl'aces .................................................................................... 14 Bitumen Surfaces ............................................................................ 1S Asphalt Surfaces ............................................................................. 15 Bituminous Mixes ........................................................................... 1S SoU·Bitumen .................................................................................... 16 Sand-Bitumen .................................................................................. 16 Oiled Earth ...................................................................................... 16 Macadam .......................................................................................... 16 Asphalt ............................................................................................. 16
Rigid Surfaces ............................................................................................. 17 Conc:rete Runway ........................................................................... 17 Cement Block Runway ................................................................... 18 Prefabricated Surfaces .................................................................... 18 Plen:ed Steel Planklng .................................................................... 18
Pholo Interpretation Training Course
Alum1num Mat ................................................................................. 18 Prefabricated Membrane ................................................................ l~l
Runway Surfaces Types (Table) ................................................................ 19 Runway Length ........................................................................................... 20
:ilunway Dimensions (Table) ......................................................... 20 Runway Safety Measures ........................................................................... 21
Runway Overruns ........................................................................... 21 Runway Barrier Net ........................................................................ 2l Arresting Gear ................................................................................. 21
Runway Marking ........................................................................................ 22 Privately Owued Alrtlelds .............................................................. 22 Basic VIsual Runway Marking. ....................................................... 22 Non-Precision Instrument Runway Mar!tl.ngs .............................. 23 Precision Instrument Runway Marldngs ...................................... 23 Non-Illuminated RlUlway Markings .............................................. 23 Day Markers .................................................................................... 24 Runway Deslgnaton ....................................................................... 25 Center'dne Marking ........................................................................ 26 Threshold Marking ......................................................................... 26 Displaced Threshold marldng ....................................................... 27 Touchdown Zone Marking ............................................................. 27 Edge Stripes ..................................................................................... 28 Fixed Distance Markers .................................................................. 28 Stopway Markings .......................................................................... 28 Closed Runway Marldngs ............................................................... 28
Dlumlnated Runwavs ................................................................................. 29 Approach Lighting Systems ........................................................... 29
Instrument FIJght Rules (IFR) light systems ........................... 31 SlmpUfted Approach Ugbt Systems ......................................... 32 VIsual FIJght Rules Approach Ugbt Systems ........................... 33
Visual GUde Slope Indicator ...................................................................... 33 VIsual Approach lighting systems ................................................ 33
VASI ............................................................................................. 34 PAPJ ............................................................................................ 35 Tri-color System ......................................................................... 36 Pulsating Systems ...................................................................... 36 Alignlnent of Elements ............................................................. 36
Runway End Identifier Ugbt!J (REIL) ........................................................ 37 Runway Edge Light Systems ...................................................................... 38 Threshold Lights ........................................................................................ 38 In Runway Llgbtlng. ................................................................................... 39 Touch Down Zone Llgbtlng. ...................................................................... 39 Runway CenterUne Ugbt System ......... ., ................................................... 39
Photo Jnterpretation Training Course
Chapter 3 - Aircraft Taxiways .......................................... 40 Parallel Taxiways ....................................................................................... 40
Unk Taxlways ...•.••.....••...••.•••..••••.•.............•••••••••••••••••..•••.......•••••••.••........•. 40
Loop Taxiways ............................................................................................ 41
Perimeter Taxiways .................................................................................... 41
Dispersal Taxiways .................................................................................... 42
Taxiway Marldng ........................................................................................ 42
Hold Unes .................................................................................................. .43
Taxiway Ughting ........................................................................................ 43
Chapter 4- Aircraft Parking Areas ................................... 44 Apron ParkJng Areas ...................................................................... "" ......... 44
General Field Parldng ..................................................................... 44 Alert Aprons .................................................................................... 4S Operational Aprons ........................................................................ 46 Hangar Apron ................................................................................. 46 Base Flight Apron ........................................................................... 47 Pad Apron ...................................................................................... .48 Transient Apron ............................................................................. 48 Depot Apron ................................................................................... 49 Stub Apron ...................................................................................... 49
Hardstand Aircraft Parldng ....................................................................... 49 Dispersal Hardstands ..................................................................... SO Alert Hardstands ............................................................................. st Parking Hardstand ......................................................................... S2 Operational Hardstands ................................................................. S2 Engine Run-Up Hardstands ........................................................... S2 Firing-In Hardstands ...................................................................... S3 Compass Rose Hardstands ............................................................. s3 Maintenance Hardstands ............................................................... s4 Refueling Hardstands ..................................................................... s4 Revetted Hardstands ....................................................................... s4
Aircraft Bunkers and Hardened Aircraft Shelters ................................... ss Aircraft Bunkers ............................................................................. s6 Aircraft Shelters .............................................................................. S7 Aircraft tunnels and Underground Complexes ........................... S8
Chapter 5- Hangars ....................................................... 59 H.utgar Types .............................................................................................. s9 Design Variations ....................................................................................... 60
Photo lnrerpretation Training Course
Constnlction Materials .............................................................................. 60
Doors ........................................................................................................... 61 Hangar Variadons •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••..•••..•••••.••••••••••••••••••••••••••.••••••• 62
Muld-Bay Hangars ..................................................... , •.••••..•••••••••••• 63 Single Row Muld-Bay Hangars ...................................................... 64 Double Row Muld-Bay Hangars ..................................................... 65 Single Bay Hangars ......................................................................... 65 Double Bay Hangars ....................................................................... 66 N08e Hangars .................................................................................. 68 T-Shaped Hangars ........................................................................... 68 Open End Hangar ........................................................................... 69
Chapter 6 - Maintenance Shops and Facilities ................. 70 Small Airfield Maintenance FacWdes ....................................................... 70
Medium and Large Airfield Maintenance FacWdes ................................. 71
Jet Engine Test CeUs ................................................................................... 73
Chapter 7- Ordnance Storage ......................................... 75 long Term Storage ...................................................................................... 7S Dispersal ..................................................................................................... 75 Enclosure and Protection .......................................................................... 75 Tr.ansportadon Networks .......................................................................... 75 Above Ground and Open Area Storage .................................................... 76 Semi-Underground Storage ....................................................................... 76 Underground Storage ................................................................................ 77 Short Term Storage .................................................................................... 77 1\uclear Storage .......................................................................................... 78
Chapter 8- Airfield Fuel Storage and Dispensing .............. 79 Fuel Storage Areas ...................................................................................... 80
Above Ground Fuel Storage ........................................................... 81 Semi-Underground Fuel Storage ................................................... 83 Underground Fuel Storage ............................................................. 84
Chapter 9 - Fire and Wreckage Removal Equipment ........................................................ 88 Fire Equlpment ........................................................................................... 88
Training and Pracdce Areas ........................................................... 89
Phoro Incerprelarion Training Cnur!iC
1llflll Photo Interpretation ?rinciples I Fire Services at Small and Medium Afrfteld!i ................................ 90
Wreckage Removal ..................................................................................... 91
Chapter 10- Spedal Purpose Vehicles ............................. 92
Chapter 11 -Cargo and Passenger Facilities .................... 93 Cargo Handling FacWdes at Afrfteld!i ...................................................... 93 Passenger Terminal!i and Ground Equipment ........................................ 95
Chapter 12- Housing, Billeting and Messlng ................... 98 Non·Combat Area Airfield Quanen ......................................................... 98
Combat Area Airfield Quanen ................................................................. 99
Medical FacWdes ...................................................................................... 100
Security ..................................................................................................... 102
HeUpad Marklngs ..................................................................................... 105
Chapter 14- Wind Indicators and Meteorology Sites ..... i 06 Wind Indlcaton ........................................................................................ 106
Wind!iocks ..................................................................................... 107 Wind Tee ........................................................................................ 108 Tetrahedron .................................................................................. 108
Meterologlcal Instuments ........................................................................ 109 Weather Stations ........................................................................... 109 Runway Vl!iual Range Instruments ............................................. 109 Weather Radar ............................................................................... 111
Chapter 1 5 - Air Operations and Flight Control Facilities . ......................................................... 11 2 Air Operations Bulldinp ......................................................................... 112
Control Towen ......................................................................................... 113
Rotating Beacons ...................................................................................... 115
Photo Interpretation Principles xxvll
Chapter 16 - Electronic Aircraft Navigation Facilities .......................................................... 1 16 Air Nr .lption Development ................................................................... 116
Enroute and Terminal Navigation Alds ••••••••••••••..•••••••..••••••••.••••••...••••••• 117 Non Directional Radfo Beacon (NDB) ......................................... 117 VHF Omnl·Direc:tional Beacon (VOR) ......................................... 118 Terminal VOR's ............................................................................. 118 Doppler VOR (DVOR) ................................................................... 118 Tactic:al Air Navigation (TACAN)" ................................................. 120 VORTAC ......................................................................................... 120
Approach NAVAlDS .................................................................................. 120 Instrument Landing System (U.S) ................................................ 120
Localizer Antenna .................................................................... l21 GUde Slope Antenna ................................................................ 122
Marker Beacons ............................................................................ 123 Outer Marker ........................................................................... 124 Middle Marker ......................................................................... 124 Compass Locator ..................................................................... 124
SlmpUfted Dlrec:tion FaclUty (SDF) ............................................. 124 Microwave Landing System ......................................................... 12S Azimuth Transmitters (AT) .......................................................... 126 Elevation Transmitter (ET) .......................................................... 126 Prec:lslon Distance Measuring Equlpment.(DMF) ...................... 126
Air Trafftc Control Radar ......................................................................... 126 Prec:lslon Approach Radar (PAR) ................................................. 127 Airport Surveillance Radar (ASR) ................................................ 128 Airport Surface Detec:tion Equipment ........................................ 129
PlH>Io Intcrprel<tlicm Training C(JUtsc
CHAPTER 1 -- INTRODUCTION
Photo interpretation, or more properly image interpretation, is something which we practice every day. We see images in books, newspapers and maga­ zines, or on TV. Unconsciously, we interpret the information conveyed by these images in order to identify and gain information about the objects portrayed. The degree of success depends on a number of factors, including the type, scale and resolution of the i'l'lage, and our familiarity with the subject.
As cartographers, we deal with that aspect of image interpretation known as remote sensing. Remote sensing is defined as the gathering of information about an object by means of a sensor at some distance from that object. For our purposes, this refers to an airborne or spaceborne sensor. This means that we are viewing objects from a vertical or a near-vertical perspective. Since we are used to looking at objec:ts from a ground level, or horizontal, perspective, many familiar objects may become difficult to recognize.
The term photo interpretation has been handed down from the days when all remotely sensed imagery was in the form of black and white photographs. Since then, other types of sensors, both photographic and digital, have been developed to utilize the visible and invisible portions of the dectromagnetic spectrum. The term image interpa·etation was adopted to cover all aspects of remote sensing. Since we will be dealing with black and white, panchromatic (representing only the visible part of the spectrum) imagery, we will label the process as photo interpretation, whether the source material is photographic or digital. We will reserve the term image interpretation for other sources, such as multi-spectral, infrared, and radar imagery.
Aerial Photo Examples Aerial photo examples for many of these features are contained within the teaching imagery set. A data base (FileMaker Pro, for Macintosh) referencing the features to the imagery is included with the teaching materials.
Changes and Additions The contents of this course are as complete and as current as the best sources available. Any corrections or information about new features, new configurations, or better image examples should be forwarded to:
Defense Mapping Agency Process Improvement Office (ODGI) Attn: Image Interpretation Training Team, Mail Stop L-54 3200 South Second Street St. Lcuis MO 63118-3399 (314) 263-4547
Defense Mapping Agency \
CHAPTER 2 .... PHOTO INTERPRETATION PROCESS
The type, quantity and quality of information that can oe obtained by analyzing aerial photography is dependent on the background, knowledge, skill and inter­ est of the photo interpreter. Those individuals with a broader range of experience find photo interpretation to be less difficult. The purpose of this course is to build on the individual cartographers' background by giving them instruction and prac­ tice in applying photo interpretation skills. A<; each individual becomes more skilled at photo interpretation, it is natural that their interest level will increase as their task becomes less frustrating.
There are several activities, or processes, that the photo interpreter performs during examination of the aerial photograph. These processes, in the order in which they are performeu, are: detection, identification, and evaluation. In other words, photo interpretation is:
1. The art of knowing what you are looking for;
2. Identifying it when you find it; and
3. Knowing the significance of it in that location.
Measurement i~ also a part of the interpretation process, but is done at two differ­ ent times and for different purposes; first, as an estimation of relative size to aid in identification, and second, as detailed measurements during the evaluation process.
Detection is the easiest part of ph')to-interpretation, in that it only requires the realization that there is something on the photo that is different from its sur­ roundings. Local changes in the characteristics of the photo (tone, texture, ;:>attern, etc.) distinguish objects from each other. The changes could be sharp and distinctive, allowing rapid visual discrimination. Other features are harder to detect because of their small size <'r because they are not distinct from their surroundings. In these cases, their presence must be inferred from more subtle visual clues, and a knowledge of what features should be found in a particular area. Other features may not be visible at all, but their presence is inferred through the identification of related features. The use of stereo models greatly enhances the photo interpreter's ability to detect features.
Identification of the feature is the next step in the interpretation process. Part of identification is a judgment of the feature's size, relative to the surrounding features. Knowing the relative size of an object determines what it may or may not be. Identification requires not only the use of clues provided by the imagery, but also a working knowledge of the types of features likely to be found in the area, and how they would look from the vertical pers~ctive.
Some features are distinctive and readily identitled. For other features, identifica­ tion is an exercise in problem solving, using the different elements of photo
Photo Interpretation Training Course
Photo Interpretation Processes L Photo Interpretation Principles S
interpretation to identify features, or to identify object-complexes from