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The nomadic Mongol empire lasting for over a century was one of the largest continuous land empire
wielding power over an enormous stretch of inner Asian steppe and neighbouring sedentary lands.
Originally belonging to the steppe grassland of modern Mongolia their religious habits were those of
mysterious cults of shamanism and pagan worship. But eventually as they started expanding their power
over other parts of the world these ancient religious beliefs met with complex religious structures
leading to an amalgamation in certain cases where primordial shamanism became polluted by the
foreign elements or radical abandoning of the former in order to adopt these civilized religions. The
Mongols were a highly tolerant race and were not concerned in protecting their original religion and
openly embraced their conquered subjects beliefs without imposing their own faith. ThusPax
Mongolica was well maintained in Mongol World Empire consisting of diverse creeds as Islam became
firmly rooted in major parts like Ilkhanate in central Asia, Lands of the Golden Horde in north, Chagatai
khanate in the middle and Buddhism was ingrained in east under Yuan dynasty.
The Mongols initially followed ancient shamanism alongside practicing their folk worship. This archaic
shamanism was based on the lines of a systematized organization of beliefs in the form of a church
where both male (boge) and female (iduyen) shamans took part actively mediating between the spiritsand the temporal world to protect their community from evil. Mongols believed in the existence of
various spirits and thus shamans communicated with them in their trance-like state, exercised exorcism,
and recital of blessings over herds, hunters, food, fire, and prophecy. These Mongolians would also pray
for the abundance of children not only for continuation of the family but also for adequate labour
force.1
Thus it was a practical religion providing stability and protection to the factors upholding this
primitive society. The shamans would often perform as medicine men by safeguarding the people from
epidemics and illness.
Shamanism basically originated from ancestor-worship. The ancestors are believed to protect the small
pastoral community from the natural calamities on which their economy is based. Images of theancestors called ongghotwere kept in familys tents and were thought to provide protection if
propitiated. Totemic animals were attached to clans and kingroups even inherited the ongghots.
shamans would often be the chieftains of the tribe exercising considerable political power even feared
by the Khans. They were members if not leaders of the aristocracy of the steppes.2
In cases where
shamans practiced autonomy, clashes of interest would occur between the heads of the polity and that
of religion. Secret history of the Mongols provides us with evidence where conflict occurred between
Chingiz Khan and powerful shaman Kokochu to capture power over the throne and the Khan was
described as being nervous until the shaman was defeated. A supernatural story was even concocted to
explain the disappearance of his body as a divine judgment on him.3
Councils were held to discuss
important issues like news of the approach of Buddhist missionary.4
1Heissig, Walther, The religions of Mongolia, Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., 1980, p.9
2ibid, p.6
3Morgan, David, The Mongols Second edition, Blackwell Publishing, 2007, p.39
4Heissig, Walther, The religions of Mongolia, Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., 1980, ch.2
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Regarding their rituals shamanism was a faith without scripture and hymns and prayers were
transmitted orally across generations. Shamanist rituals included pole offerings (sacrifice of meat or
whole horses on poles), worship of high places and other landmarks meant for I l-Tengri, purification by
fire. Festivals like Day of the Red Disc (summer solstice on the 16th
day of the 1st
month of summer)
were celebrated and holy numbers were there such as 3, 6 and 9. Belief in afterlife meant companions,
servants and animals were killed to go with dead chiefs and nobles to serve them after their death.
Powerful protective spirits like Il-Tengriand Emelgeji Egiand others were both helpful and harmful to
the Mongolians and offering like libations of milk, water were given to satisfy them against natural
calamities (lightning, hail) or misfortune caused at displeasure of the spirit.
Besides shamanism, Mongols had their folk religion as worship was made to Eternal Blue Heaven, fire,
Chingiz Khan as ancestral lord of the families of princely origin, gods in the form of armoured men on
horseback, White Old Man, constellation of the Great Bear. The Mongolians even practiced idol worship
as statues of domestic gods made of felt in human shape were found. They however did not have any
temple and worshipped going to high places with their heads uncovered and belt around their neck. The
rituals concerning the folk religion were performed by laymen or members of family concerned or layspeaker and not interfered by shamans. Women were prioritized and exclusively performed certain
rituals such as fire offering on the 29th
day of the last month of the year in north Mongolia. Incense
offering especially juniper branches were widespread and many rituals concerned participation of
certain members of a kin. In east Mongolia the fire offering could be performed only by master of the
house or his sons. The benedictions recited on all occasions even curses, that is, magical power of the
spoken word was highly significant to their religious life (Heissig, 1980).Mountain and flowing water
held special significance and washing body, clothes, cooking utensils are forbidden. Taboos regarding
water pollution and washing created problems when they would interact with settled people in earlier
decades which were later relaxed by Ogedei.5
Burning especially of shoulder blades of sheep was used
as divinatory techniques.
Another important feature of Mongolian religion is their funerary practices of the royalty surrounding
which myths and legends are constructed. Rashid al-din records how Chingiz Khans death was kept a
secret and all living creatures killed in 1600 kilometer stretch of his funeral procession. Dead bodies
were buried generally in high places and protective spirits would reside in their burial places. There is
absence of netherworld which later developed with the incorporation of Lamaistic Buddhist elements in
Mongol shamanism around 16-17th
century.6
The political predecessors of the Mongols were semi-nomadic Qara-Khitais who professed a policy of
religious tolerance in 10th
century. Their empire was characterized by presence of diversified religious
community consisting of Buddhists, Manicheans, Christians and Musalmans. The Mongol state being a
successor state inherited their noble attitude to this religious pluralism (Morgan, 2007).
5Lane, George, Daily life in the Mongol Empire
, Greenwood Press, 2006, p.186.
7The religions of Mongolia, Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., 1980,ch.2
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With the death of Chingiz Khan, the empire was divided into various parts with Ogedei succeeding him
as the Great Khan. Chingizs grandson Batu received the western part later developed into the Golden
Horde, Chagatai took over the Central Asian territory, Qubilai included China in the east and began Yuan
dynasty and Toluids received Persia and added Asia Minor to form the Ilkhanate. This exploration and
expansion brought the Mongols to a different world of civilized religions and they began to come out
of their nomadic barbarism. We notice a period of rigorous competition both philosophically and
politically among several faiths who tried to win over their tolerant conqueror.
The immediate problem faced by the Yuan dynasty soon after its establishment by Qubilai in 1272 was
the question of official religion for its Chinese subjects. Both Shamanist Mongols and Chinese did not
regard religion as mutually exclusive and thus lurked a theoretical possibility of adoption of Islam which
was being followed in Russia and Persian or Nestorian Christianity adopted by influential Mongols at
that time. Confucianism was out of the equation as Qubilai blatantly rejected it though it was favoured
by later Yuan emperors. However Lamaistic, Tantric, Tibetan version of Buddhism attracted the Mongols
of Shamanist background and Buddhism emerged as the main religion in the east. (Morgan, 2007)
Though Tibet was never thoroughly conquered Mongols maintained close association with the Buddhist
sects in Tibet by 1240s as even Ilkhans were Buddhist till Ghazan converted it to Islam in 1295. A
particular Saskya sect was favoured by the Mongols as Phags-pa belonging to this group became the
head of the Buddhist church and a celebrated figure in Yuan China. Buddhism bestowed pseudo-
historical legitimation by incorporating the Mongols in the spiritual realm and produced a Buddhist
politico-religious theory of world rule. (Franke) Not only did they do this, but also produced a Mongolian
script subordinating the earlier Uighur script which was in practice.7
An attempt on the part of the
Mongols is seen in assimilating the two cultures and giving Buddhism importance to make a stronger
appeal and legitimizing their rule to the Chinese subjects.
Mongols and Christians exhibited similar political relationship of exploitation as that of Buddhism
earlier. Nestorian Christians had converted Turko-Mongol tribes from 11th
century and Mongol tribes of
Kerait and Naiman were predominantly Christian so was Merkits and Ongghut who had considerable
Christian followers (Lane, 2006). Prester John of Nestorian Christianity was actively involved in this
missionary work and was also the chief of the Keraits, a Christian Tartar tribe living to the south of Lake
Baikal during this period. This Christian- Mongol link was also forged through marriage alliances. Thus a
number of Christian wives are seen of the Mongol rulers. Chingiz married the daughter of one of the
chief of Keraits and even Ogedei. Hulegus major wife Dokuz Khatun was a Christian who got a Byzantine
wife for her son, Abaqa. Mongol courts were also adorned by some Christian nobility. Kuyuks chief
minister and secretary under his rule were all Christians.
Initially western Christendom viewed east as a mystical land of much tales and legends but soon they
became aware of the rising Mongol power in the east. This realization followed series of embassies to
seek political alliance with another superpower. The Mongol question was thus taken up in the Council
of Lyons in 1245 which resulted in dispatch of three embassies to Mongol lands and were given to the
7Ibid, pp.110-111
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mendicant orders to carry out the task. The Christians, both of West and East were motivated to ally
with the Mongols to carry a joint force against the Muslims in Crusades. Evidence suggests that in 1240s
Nestorian Christians tried to push this possible alliance by giving false information to Louis IX of France
of Mongols goodwill towards Christians and even to the extent that Mongol commander Eljigidei and
Guyuk have converted to Christianity. Despite the efforts these initial missions failed. But soon after the
breakup of the Mongol unity and teaming up of the Mamluks with Golden Horde, Ilkhans finally agreed
to side with Christians. Christians on the other hand hoped that victory of the Mamluks would lead to
recovery of Jerusalem and Mongols as Christian converts. From 1260s onwards attempts were seen on
the part of Hulegu and even Christians to maintain good terms with each other by sending embassies.
However the vital information that the Mongols had converted to Islam in 1295 was not conveyed to
Europe purposely and this conversion did not even change the formers attitude to Mamluks and only
after the Mamluk-Ilkhanid peace treaty of 1322 that Mongols lost their interest in keeping in touch with
their Christian allies.8
Though some hope still persisted, Oljeitus reign saw all attempts ceasing except
for continuation of commercial and missionary relations.
William of Rubruck and The Flower of histories of the East also mentions presence of Armenians inhuge number in the capital of the Mongol Empire so much so that Easter processions were carried on
and even Christian king of Armenia persuaded Mongke to send expedition against Baghdad under
Hulegu. Rubruck also is afraid that his conversations might be erroneously translated by Armenians to
the Mongol leaders who are capable of manipulation and exploitation. Armenians however served as
useful minor ally against the Egyptian Mamluks to the Mongols who in return provided security and
protection to this small community.9
As long as the internal theological squabbles remained between Latins, Greeks, Nestorians; Christianity
could not appeal to the Mongols. The haughty pretensions of the Roman pontiff, the degraded and
apathetic attitude of the Nestorians, the excesses committed by Christians in Damascus when theyenjoyed Mongol support all discredited their name in Western Asia.
10William of Rubruck mentions how
Nestorians were ignorant and unable to read their service books written in Syrian, indulged in
drunkenness, covetousness, polygamy and greedy and corrupted priesthood eventually resulted in their
failure.
8Ibid, pp.155-161
9Lane, George, Daily life of the Mongol Empire, Greenwood Press, 2006, pp.191-193
10Arnold, T.W, The preaching of Islam: A history of the propagation of the Muslim faith, Constable and Company
Ltd., 1913, pp.222,223
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