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The nomadic Mongol empire lasting for over a century was one of the largest continuous land empire

wielding power over an enormous stretch of inner Asian steppe and neighbouring sedentary lands.

Originally belonging to the steppe grassland of modern Mongolia their religious habits were those of

mysterious cults of shamanism and pagan worship. But eventually as they started expanding their power

over other parts of the world these ancient religious beliefs met with complex religious structures

leading to an amalgamation in certain cases where primordial shamanism became polluted by the

foreign elements or radical abandoning of the former in order to adopt these civilized religions. The

Mongols were a highly tolerant race and were not concerned in protecting their original religion and

openly embraced their conquered subjects beliefs without imposing their own faith. ThusPax

Mongolica was well maintained in Mongol World Empire consisting of diverse creeds as Islam became

firmly rooted in major parts like Ilkhanate in central Asia, Lands of the Golden Horde in north, Chagatai

khanate in the middle and Buddhism was ingrained in east under Yuan dynasty.

The Mongols initially followed ancient shamanism alongside practicing their folk worship. This archaic

shamanism was based on the lines of a systematized organization of beliefs in the form of a church

where both male (boge) and female (iduyen) shamans took part actively mediating between the spiritsand the temporal world to protect their community from evil. Mongols believed in the existence of

various spirits and thus shamans communicated with them in their trance-like state, exercised exorcism,

and recital of blessings over herds, hunters, food, fire, and prophecy. These Mongolians would also pray

for the abundance of children not only for continuation of the family but also for adequate labour

force.1

Thus it was a practical religion providing stability and protection to the factors upholding this

primitive society. The shamans would often perform as medicine men by safeguarding the people from

epidemics and illness.

Shamanism basically originated from ancestor-worship. The ancestors are believed to protect the small

pastoral community from the natural calamities on which their economy is based. Images of theancestors called ongghotwere kept in familys tents and were thought to provide protection if

propitiated. Totemic animals were attached to clans and kingroups even inherited the ongghots.

shamans would often be the chieftains of the tribe exercising considerable political power even feared

by the Khans. They were members if not leaders of the aristocracy of the steppes.2

In cases where

shamans practiced autonomy, clashes of interest would occur between the heads of the polity and that

of religion. Secret history of the Mongols provides us with evidence where conflict occurred between

Chingiz Khan and powerful shaman Kokochu to capture power over the throne and the Khan was

described as being nervous until the shaman was defeated. A supernatural story was even concocted to

explain the disappearance of his body as a divine judgment on him.3

Councils were held to discuss

important issues like news of the approach of Buddhist missionary.4

1Heissig, Walther, The religions of Mongolia, Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., 1980, p.9

2ibid, p.6

3Morgan, David, The Mongols Second edition, Blackwell Publishing, 2007, p.39

4Heissig, Walther, The religions of Mongolia, Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., 1980, ch.2

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Regarding their rituals shamanism was a faith without scripture and hymns and prayers were

transmitted orally across generations. Shamanist rituals included pole offerings (sacrifice of meat or

whole horses on poles), worship of high places and other landmarks meant for I l-Tengri, purification by

fire. Festivals like Day of the Red Disc (summer solstice on the 16th

day of the 1st

month of summer)

were celebrated and holy numbers were there such as 3, 6 and 9. Belief in afterlife meant companions,

servants and animals were killed to go with dead chiefs and nobles to serve them after their death.

Powerful protective spirits like Il-Tengriand Emelgeji Egiand others were both helpful and harmful to

the Mongolians and offering like libations of milk, water were given to satisfy them against natural

calamities (lightning, hail) or misfortune caused at displeasure of the spirit.

Besides shamanism, Mongols had their folk religion as worship was made to Eternal Blue Heaven, fire,

Chingiz Khan as ancestral lord of the families of princely origin, gods in the form of armoured men on

horseback, White Old Man, constellation of the Great Bear. The Mongolians even practiced idol worship

as statues of domestic gods made of felt in human shape were found. They however did not have any

temple and worshipped going to high places with their heads uncovered and belt around their neck. The

rituals concerning the folk religion were performed by laymen or members of family concerned or layspeaker and not interfered by shamans. Women were prioritized and exclusively performed certain

rituals such as fire offering on the 29th

day of the last month of the year in north Mongolia. Incense

offering especially juniper branches were widespread and many rituals concerned participation of

certain members of a kin. In east Mongolia the fire offering could be performed only by master of the

house or his sons. The benedictions recited on all occasions even curses, that is, magical power of the

spoken word was highly significant to their religious life (Heissig, 1980).Mountain and flowing water

held special significance and washing body, clothes, cooking utensils are forbidden. Taboos regarding

water pollution and washing created problems when they would interact with settled people in earlier

decades which were later relaxed by Ogedei.5

Burning especially of shoulder blades of sheep was used

as divinatory techniques.

Another important feature of Mongolian religion is their funerary practices of the royalty surrounding

which myths and legends are constructed. Rashid al-din records how Chingiz Khans death was kept a

secret and all living creatures killed in 1600 kilometer stretch of his funeral procession. Dead bodies

were buried generally in high places and protective spirits would reside in their burial places. There is

absence of netherworld which later developed with the incorporation of Lamaistic Buddhist elements in

Mongol shamanism around 16-17th

century.6

The political predecessors of the Mongols were semi-nomadic Qara-Khitais who professed a policy of

religious tolerance in 10th

century. Their empire was characterized by presence of diversified religious

community consisting of Buddhists, Manicheans, Christians and Musalmans. The Mongol state being a

successor state inherited their noble attitude to this religious pluralism (Morgan, 2007).

5Lane, George, Daily life in the Mongol Empire

, Greenwood Press, 2006, p.186.

7The religions of Mongolia, Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., 1980,ch.2

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With the death of Chingiz Khan, the empire was divided into various parts with Ogedei succeeding him

as the Great Khan. Chingizs grandson Batu received the western part later developed into the Golden

Horde, Chagatai took over the Central Asian territory, Qubilai included China in the east and began Yuan

dynasty and Toluids received Persia and added Asia Minor to form the Ilkhanate. This exploration and

expansion brought the Mongols to a different world of civilized religions and they began to come out

of their nomadic barbarism. We notice a period of rigorous competition both philosophically and

politically among several faiths who tried to win over their tolerant conqueror.

The immediate problem faced by the Yuan dynasty soon after its establishment by Qubilai in 1272 was

the question of official religion for its Chinese subjects. Both Shamanist Mongols and Chinese did not

regard religion as mutually exclusive and thus lurked a theoretical possibility of adoption of Islam which

was being followed in Russia and Persian or Nestorian Christianity adopted by influential Mongols at

that time. Confucianism was out of the equation as Qubilai blatantly rejected it though it was favoured

by later Yuan emperors. However Lamaistic, Tantric, Tibetan version of Buddhism attracted the Mongols

of Shamanist background and Buddhism emerged as the main religion in the east. (Morgan, 2007)

Though Tibet was never thoroughly conquered Mongols maintained close association with the Buddhist

sects in Tibet by 1240s as even Ilkhans were Buddhist till Ghazan converted it to Islam in 1295. A

particular Saskya sect was favoured by the Mongols as Phags-pa belonging to this group became the

head of the Buddhist church and a celebrated figure in Yuan China. Buddhism bestowed pseudo-

historical legitimation by incorporating the Mongols in the spiritual realm and produced a Buddhist

politico-religious theory of world rule. (Franke) Not only did they do this, but also produced a Mongolian

script subordinating the earlier Uighur script which was in practice.7

An attempt on the part of the

Mongols is seen in assimilating the two cultures and giving Buddhism importance to make a stronger

appeal and legitimizing their rule to the Chinese subjects.

Mongols and Christians exhibited similar political relationship of exploitation as that of Buddhism

earlier. Nestorian Christians had converted Turko-Mongol tribes from 11th

century and Mongol tribes of

Kerait and Naiman were predominantly Christian so was Merkits and Ongghut who had considerable

Christian followers (Lane, 2006). Prester John of Nestorian Christianity was actively involved in this

missionary work and was also the chief of the Keraits, a Christian Tartar tribe living to the south of Lake

Baikal during this period. This Christian- Mongol link was also forged through marriage alliances. Thus a

number of Christian wives are seen of the Mongol rulers. Chingiz married the daughter of one of the

chief of Keraits and even Ogedei. Hulegus major wife Dokuz Khatun was a Christian who got a Byzantine

wife for her son, Abaqa. Mongol courts were also adorned by some Christian nobility. Kuyuks chief

minister and secretary under his rule were all Christians.

Initially western Christendom viewed east as a mystical land of much tales and legends but soon they

became aware of the rising Mongol power in the east. This realization followed series of embassies to

seek political alliance with another superpower. The Mongol question was thus taken up in the Council

of Lyons in 1245 which resulted in dispatch of three embassies to Mongol lands and were given to the

7Ibid, pp.110-111

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mendicant orders to carry out the task. The Christians, both of West and East were motivated to ally

with the Mongols to carry a joint force against the Muslims in Crusades. Evidence suggests that in 1240s

Nestorian Christians tried to push this possible alliance by giving false information to Louis IX of France

of Mongols goodwill towards Christians and even to the extent that Mongol commander Eljigidei and

Guyuk have converted to Christianity. Despite the efforts these initial missions failed. But soon after the

breakup of the Mongol unity and teaming up of the Mamluks with Golden Horde, Ilkhans finally agreed

to side with Christians. Christians on the other hand hoped that victory of the Mamluks would lead to

recovery of Jerusalem and Mongols as Christian converts. From 1260s onwards attempts were seen on

the part of Hulegu and even Christians to maintain good terms with each other by sending embassies.

However the vital information that the Mongols had converted to Islam in 1295 was not conveyed to

Europe purposely and this conversion did not even change the formers attitude to Mamluks and only

after the Mamluk-Ilkhanid peace treaty of 1322 that Mongols lost their interest in keeping in touch with

their Christian allies.8

Though some hope still persisted, Oljeitus reign saw all attempts ceasing except

for continuation of commercial and missionary relations.

William of Rubruck and The Flower of histories of the East also mentions presence of Armenians inhuge number in the capital of the Mongol Empire so much so that Easter processions were carried on

and even Christian king of Armenia persuaded Mongke to send expedition against Baghdad under

Hulegu. Rubruck also is afraid that his conversations might be erroneously translated by Armenians to

the Mongol leaders who are capable of manipulation and exploitation. Armenians however served as

useful minor ally against the Egyptian Mamluks to the Mongols who in return provided security and

protection to this small community.9

As long as the internal theological squabbles remained between Latins, Greeks, Nestorians; Christianity

could not appeal to the Mongols. The haughty pretensions of the Roman pontiff, the degraded and

apathetic attitude of the Nestorians, the excesses committed by Christians in Damascus when theyenjoyed Mongol support all discredited their name in Western Asia.

10William of Rubruck mentions how

Nestorians were ignorant and unable to read their service books written in Syrian, indulged in

drunkenness, covetousness, polygamy and greedy and corrupted priesthood eventually resulted in their

failure.

8Ibid, pp.155-161

9Lane, George, Daily life of the Mongol Empire, Greenwood Press, 2006, pp.191-193

10Arnold, T.W, The preaching of Islam: A history of the propagation of the Muslim faith, Constable and Company

Ltd., 1913, pp.222,223