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Social Psychology
Prof George Bishop
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Social Psychology
Social thinking
Social influence
Behaviour in groupsPrejudice
Aggression
Prosocial behaviour
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Social Thinking
Social Psychology: the study of:
Social Thinking: how we think about oursocial world
Social Influence: how other peopleinfluence our behaviour
Social Relations: how we relate toward
other peopleThree key aspects of social thinking:
Attributions, impressions, and attitudes
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Attribution
Attributions: judgments about thecauses of our own and other peoplesbehaviour and outcomes
Personal (Internal) Attributions: inferthat peoples characteristics cause theirbehaviour
Situational (External) Attributions: inferthat aspects of the situation cause abehaviour
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Attribution
Three types of information determine thetype of attribution we make: Consistency Distinctiveness
ConsensusWhen all three types of information arehigh, we tend to make a situationalattribution
When consistency is high and the othertwo are low, we tend to make a personalattribution
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Attribution
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Attribution
Fundamental Attribution Error: weunderestimate the impact of thesituation and overestimate the role
of personal factors when explainingother peoples behaviourFAE is reduced when people have time
to reflect on their judgments or are
highly motivated to be carefulFAE does not apply to our own
behaviour
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Attribution
Self-Serving Bias: the tendency tomake personal attributions forsuccesses and situational attributions
for failuresProtects or enhances our self-esteem
Not used by people who are depressed
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Attribution and Immunity in
Men with HIV
0
50
100
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300350
400
450
Interview 18 Mo. Later
Low NIC
High NIC
ConcentrationofHelperT
Cells
Note: Data from Segerstrom et al. (1996)
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Attribution
Culture and Attribution:
FAE may reflect a Westernized emphasison individualism
Members of other cultures are less likelyto display a self-serving bias
Culture influences how we go about
making attributions
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Impressions
Primacy Effect: our tendency toattach more importance to the initialinformation that we learn about a
personWe tend to be more alert to information
we receive first
Initial information may shape how we
perceive subsequent information Influences our desire to make further
contact with a person
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Impressions
Mental Set: a readiness to perceivethe world in a particular way
Schemas: mental frameworks that help
us organise and interpret information
Stereotype: a generalised beliefabout a group or category of people
Can bias the way we perceive otherpeoples behaviour
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Percentage who agree that: Nurses Doctors
People with AIDS/HIV have brought this 40.6 32.2problem on themselves.
Homosexuals and other persons at high 84.5 77.6risk of AIDS/HIV have endangered societythrough their high risk activities.
AIDS is a punishment for immoral behaviour. 35.7 27.2
Beliefs About Persons Living with AIDS(Singapore Health Care Providers)
From Bishop, Oh, & Swee (2000)
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Impressions
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: ourexpectations affect our behaviourtoward a person, which can cause
the person to behave in a way thatconfirms our expectations
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Impressions
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Attitudes
Attitude: a positive or negativeevaluative reaction toward astimulus, such as a person, action,
object, or concept
Attitudes influence behaviour morestrongly when situational factors that
contradict our attitudes are weak
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Attitudes
Theory of Planned Behaviour: ourintention to engage in a behaviour isstrongest when:
We have a positive attitude toward thatbehaviour
When subjective norms (our perceptionsof what other people think we should
do) support our attitudesWhen we believe that the behaviour is
under our control
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HIV Testing in Pregnancy
Correlations with intention to be test for HIV
Attitudes r p
Going for a blood test 0.27
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Attitudes
Attitudes have a greater influence onbehavior when we are aware of themand when they are strongly held
General attitudes best predictgeneral classes of behaviour, andspecific attitudes best predict specific
behaviours
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Attitudes
Behaviour influences our attitudes
Cognitive Dissonance (Festinger,1957): people strive for consistencyin their cognitions Cognitive dissonance is created when two or
more cognitions contradict one another
People are motivated to reduce dissonanceChanging one of their cognitionsAdding new cognitions
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Attitudes
Counterattitudinal Behaviour: behaviourthat is inconsistent with ones attitude
Produces dissonance only if we perceive that
our actions were freely chosen Especially likely to cause dissonance if:
Behaviours produce foreseeable negativeconsequences
Behaviours threaten our sense of self-worth
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Attitudes
Self-Perception Theory: we makeinferences about our own attitudesby observing how we behave
Attitude is not produced by cognitivedissonance
People experience heightened
physiological tension when engagingin counter attitudinal behaviour
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Attitudes
Both Dissonance Theory and Self-Perception theory seem to be correct
Dissonance theory explains attitude
change when counter attitudinalbehavior threatens self-worth or ishighly inconsistent
Self-perception theory explain attitudechange in situations that are less likelyto create significant arousal
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Norms
Social Norms: shared expectations abouthow people should think, feel, and behave Often implicit and unspoken
Regulate daily behaviour without our consciousawareness
Social Role: a set of norms thatcharacterises how people in a given social
position ought to behave Role conflict: occurs when the norms
accompanying different roles clash
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Conformity
Conformity: the adjustment ofindividual behaviours, attitudes, andbeliefs to a group standard
Informational Social Influence:following the opinions or behaviourof other people because we believe
that they have accurate knowledgeand that what they are doing is right
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Conformity
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Conformity
Normative Social Influence:conforming to obtain the rewardsthat come from being accepted byother people while at the same timeavoiding their rejectionSolomon Asch (1951): Students were asked to judge which of three
comparison lines was the same length as a
standard line 37% of participants conformed to the incorrect
group answer
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Conformity
Factors that affect conformity:Group size:
Conformity increases as group size
increasesNo increases over five group members
Presence of a dissenter:One person disagreeing with the others
greatly reduces group conformityCulture:Greater in collectivistic cultures
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Conformity
Minority Influence: to maximize itsinfluence, the minority must:
Be highly committed to its point of view
Remain independent in the face ofmajority pressure
Appear to keep an open mind
Maintain a consistent position over timeNot appear unreasonable, deviant, or
negative
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Compliance
Compliance Techniques: strategies thatmay manipulate you into saying yes whenyou really want to say no
Norm of Reciprocity: involves theexpectation that when others treat uswell, we should respond in kind
Door-In-The-Face: a persuader makes alarge request, expecting you to reject it,and then presents a smaller request
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Compliance
Foot-In-The-Door: a persuader gets youto comply with a small request first, andlater presents a larger request
Lowballing: a persuader gets you tocommit to some action and then - beforeyou actually perform the behaviour - he orshe increases the cost of that samebehaviour
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Behaviour In Groups
Social Loafing: the tendency forpeople to expend less individualeffort when working in a group than
when working aloneCollective Effort Model: on a collective
task, people will put forth only as much
effort as they expect is needed to reachtheir goal
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Behaviour In Groups
Social Loafing (continued):
More likely to occur when:The person believes that individual
performance is not being monitoredThe task (goal) or the group has less valueor meaning to the person
The person generally displays low
motivation to strive for successThe person expects that other groupmembers will display high effort
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Behaviour In Groups
Social Loafing (continued): Depends on gender and culture
Occurs more strongly in all-male groups
Occurs more often in individualistic cultures
Social loafing may disappear when:
Individual performance is monitored
Members highly value their group or thetask goal
Social Compensation: working harder in agroup than when alone to compensate forother members lower output
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Behaviour In Groups
Group Polarisation: when a group oflike-minded people discusses anissue, the average opinion of group
members tends to become moreextreme
Eff f G Di i
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Effects of Group Discussion onRacial Attitudes
From Myers and Bishop (1970)
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Behaviour In Groups
Groupthink: the tendency of groupmembers to suspend critical thinkingbecause they are striving to seek
agreementMost likely to occur when a group:
Is under high stress to reach a decision
Is insulated from outside inputHas a directive leader
Has high cohesiveness
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Behaviour In Groups
Groupthink (continued):
Symptoms of Groupthink:Direct pressure applied to people who
express doubtMind Guards: people who prevent negativeinformation from reaching the group
Members display self-censorship and
withhold their doubtsAn illusion of unanimityis created
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Behaviour In Groups
Deindividuation: a loss ofindividuality that leads to disinhibitedbehaviour
Anonymity to outsiders: conditions thatmake an individual less identifiable topeople outside the group reduce feelings
of accountabilityIncreases the risk of antisocial actions
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Prejudice
Prejudice: a negative attitude towardpeople based on their membership in agroup
Discrimination: overt behavior thatinvolves treating people unfairly based onthe group to which they belong
Explicit Prejudice: people express publicly
Implicit Prejudice: hidden from public view
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Prejudice
Cognitive Roots of Prejudice: Categorisation and us-them thinking leads to
the perception of in-groups and out-groups
In-group favoritism: tendency to attribute morepositive qualities to us than them
Out-group derogation: tendency to attribute morenegative qualities to them than to us
Out-group homogeneity bias: viewing members of
out-groups as being more similar to one another thanmembers of in-groups
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Prejudice
Cognitive Roots of Prejudice(continued):
When members of out-groups contradict
our stereotypes, we can:Change the stereotype
Explain away the discrepant behaviour
Explain the person as an exceptional case
Explain the behaviour using situationalcauses
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Prejudice
Reducing Prejudice: Teaching interventions designed to minimise
stereotype threat
Equal Status Contact: prejudice betweenpeople is most likely to be reduced when they:Engage in sustained close contact
Have equal status
Work to achieve a common goal that requirescooperation
Are supported by broader social norms
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Contact and Prejudice Reduction
From Hamilton & Bishop (1976)
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Contact and Prejudice Reduction
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Sy
mbolicRacism
Integrated Unintegrated
From Hamilton & Bishop (1976)
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Contact and Prejudice Reduction
From Hamilton & Bishop (1976)
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Aggression
What is aggression?
Behaviour intended to harm anotherperson
Types of aggression Instrumental aggression
Hostile aggression
Relational aggression
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Aggression
Environmental Factors:
Frustration: occurs when some eventinterferes with our progress toward a
goalExtreme heat
Provocation
Painful stimuliCrowding
Influenced by learning
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Aggression
Psychological Factors:Self-justification:
Blaming the victim
Dehumanising victimsAttribution of intentionality
Catharsis: performing an act ofaggression discharges aggressive
energy and temporarily reduces ourimpulse to aggress
Overcontrolled hostility
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Aggression
Media and Video Game Violence:Social learning: media violence is likely
to increase viewers aggressive behavior
by providing numerous aggressivemodels
Multiple avenues:Viewers learn new aggressive behavioursthrough modeling
Viewers come to believe that aggression isusually rewarded
Viewers become desensitised to violence
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Aggression
Biological Factors: Animals can be selectively bred to be more or
less aggressive
Aggression is influenced by heredityPossibly an evolutionary adaptation
No single brain center or chemical controlsaggression
Involves activity in hypothalamus, amygdala, andfrontal lobes
Low serotonin; high testosterone may play a role
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Levels of Analysis
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Prosocial Behaviour
Evolution and Prosocial Behaviour:Kin Selection: organisms are more likely
to help others with whom they share the
most genes, namely, their offspring andgenetic relativesIncreases the odds that genes will surviveacross successive generations
Reciprocal Altruism: helping othersincreases the odds that they will help usor our kin in return
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Prosocial Behaviour
Social Learning and CulturalInfluences:Norm of Reciprocity: we should
reciprocate when others treat us kindlyNorm of Social Responsibility: peopleshould help others and contribute to thewelfare of society
We internalise these norms and valuesas our own through socializationprocesses
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Prosocial Behaviour
Altruism: helping others for the ultimatepurpose of enhancing that personswelfare
Egoistic Goals: helping others to improveour own welfare
Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis: altruism isproduced by empathy Empathy: the ability to put oneself in the place
of another and to share what that person isexperiencing
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Prosocial Behaviour
When Do People Help?
Situational and personal factors:
Not being in a hurry
Recently observing a prosocial rolemodel
Being in a good mood
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Prosocial Behaviour
5-Step Bystander InterventionProcess (Latan & Darley, 1970):Notice the event
Decide if the event is really anemergencySocial comparison: look to see how othersare responding
Assuming responsibility to interveneDiffusion of Responsibility: believing thatsomeone else will help
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Prosocial Behaviour
5-Step Bystander Intervention Process(Latan & Darley, 1970) (continued): Self-efficacy in dealing with the situation
Decision to help (based on cost-benefitanalysis)
Bystander Effect: presence of multiplebystanders inhibits each persons
tendency to help Due to social comparison or diffusion of
responsibility
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Prosocial Behaviour
Increasing Prosocial Behaviour:Exposing people to prosocial models
Encouraging feelings of empathy and
connectedness to othersLearning about factors that hinder
bystander intervention
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