Final Report submitted to the National Science Foundation

Community Workshop: “Scientific Drivers and Future of Mount Erebus Volcano Observatory (MEVO)”

Hosted at UNAVCO, Inc. in Boulder, CO on February 22­24, 2016

Award: 1623926 PI: Glen S. Mattioli

Co­PI: Peter C. LaFemina

Submitted: April 25, 2016

Executive Summary The Antarctic Research Facilities and Special Projects, and Antarctic Earth Sciences Programs within the Division of Polar Programs at the National Science Foundation (NSF) provided $30K to support a Community Workshop entitled “Scientific Drivers and Future of Mount Erebus Volcano Observatory (MEVO).” The workshop was hosted at UNAVCO, Inc. headquarters in Boulder, CO on February 22­24, 2016. The goals of the workshop included critical evaluation and examination of scientific drivers for multi­disciplinary research on Mount Erebus (ME), review of past accomplishments that derive from NSF funding to date, and to help chart a path forward for the future of the Mount Erebus Volcano Observatory (MEVO) and ME research more generally. A total of 36 individuals registered for the workshop; 30 participated in person at UNAVCO headquarters in Boulder with six additional individuals participating remotely via WebEx. Four invited talks by six community members summarized our current understanding of the ME magmatic and biogeochemical systems. In addition, IRIS, PASSCAL, and UNAVCO staff presented three summaries of current and past support efforts along with key technical, safety, and logistical considerations related to geophysical research on ME and more generally Ross Island. The workshop was convened by PI G. Mattioli on location in Boulder, CO and Co­PI P. LaFemina, who participated remotely via WebEx from Penn State in State College, PA. Based on the invited presentations and the breakout sessions, all workshop participants were asked to submit a written summary at the close of Day 2, which prioritized what they believed were the three most­important science drivers for research on ME as well as the five most important continuing or new observations or other investments, which were essential to address those science questions. These were collated, reviewed, and edited by the PIs, and workshop participants were asked to draft supporting text, provide figures, and summarize key recommendations for primary as well as subsidiary scientific questions related to ME. Primary scientific questions related to ME as identified at the community workshop: 1) What is the location and geometry of the magmatic plumbing system from the lower crust to the vent? 2) What is the relationship between magma generation, storage, gas flux, and the biosphere? 3) What are the changes in magmatic and volcanic activity over short­ (hrs to yrs) versus long­term (decadal to millennial) time scales and what drives these variations? Specific recommendations and future actions were attached to each of the primary and subsidiary scientific questions. Some of these were technical and others offered a vision for future research directions at ME and the necessary investments on the part of NSF and the US Antarctic Program (USAP) to support these activities.

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Selected key recommendations for future research activities and investment on ME:

Improve telemetry links between ME and McMurdo Station to allow reliable high­bandwidth data flow for all geophysical and biological sensors, including those proximal to the vent and across Ross Island to assure that instruments can deliver data for Safety of Life (SOL) and science applications reliably.

Incorporate GPS/GNSS data streams into established community processing systems, similar to what is done currently for PBO, COCONet, and TLALOCNet as part of the GAGE Facility at UNAVCO.

Development of community models for ME, similar to those of SCEC for crustal seismic and surface velocity fields, against which more targeted research models can be compared directly. These models, along with the software and initial parameters used in the models, should be published in an open and interoperable format for ease of use by all interested community members. Community models are also useful in that they can inform new research.

Rehabilitate the ME passive seismic and continuous geodetic networks; upgrade seismic stations with modern instruments (possibly shallow borehole) and A/D systems such that the noise floor is decreased; upgrade GPS to GNSS instruments and improve monuments where appropriate based on robust data analysis and modeling; improve power infrastructure such that stations will operate more robustly throughout the austral winter.

Collocate additional sensor systems, in particular, infrasound and gas composition and flux, as well as geothermal gradient measurements proximal to the vent and other point sources of heat and mass transfer.

Complete campaign­style, wide­aperture geophysical surveys (e.g., seismic, gravity, MT, as well as geodetic observations) across Ross Island, and make all data and metadata interoperable and freely and openly available for modeling.

Quantify spatial variation of heat and mass transfer of the abiotic geochemical system; and characterize the temporal variation microbial communities in response to physical­chemical changes in the geothermal and volcanic system. Conduct a comprehensive survey of surface and subsurface biosphere to ascertain the extent, diversity and drivers of the unique ME microbiological communities.

Initiate phase equilibrium studies on ME lavas focusing on the role of volatile elements such as H, C, S, and F for the origin and petrochemical evolution of ME and proximal Ross Island volcanic systems.

Undertake a systematic geochronological evaluation of the whole of Ross Island volcanism to better constrain its entire volcanological history.

Undertake a comprehensive review and characterization of ME deposits from the proto­Erebus shield and proto­Erebus cone building phases to better constrain the full dynamic range of ME volcanic behavior.

Evaluate critically the hypothesis that more explosive periods in ME evolution are directly linked to caldera collapse events.

Develop regional­scale models for the origin and evolution of the ME within the broader context of rifting and possible interaction with a deep mantle plume.

Revise current MEVO governance model to encourage participation in ME­related investigations by a community with diverse scientific expertise and early career scientists.

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Overview and motivation for MEVO Community Workshop The Antarctic Research Facilities and Special Projects, and Antarctic Earth Sciences Programs within the Division of Polar Programs at the National Science Foundation (NSF) provided $30K to support a Community Workshop entitled “Scientific Drivers and Future of Mount Erebus Volcano Observatory (MEVO).” The workshop was hosted at UNAVCO, Inc. headquarters in Boulder, CO on February 22­24, 2016. The goals of the workshop included critical evaluation and examination of scientific drivers for multi­disciplinary research on Mount Erebus (ME), review of past accomplishments that derive from NSF funding to date, and to help chart a path forward for the future of the Mount Erebus Volcano Observatory (MEVO) and ME research more generally. The workshop was convened at 9:00 AM Monday, February 22, 2016 by PI G. Mattioli on location in Boulder, CO and Co­PI P. LaFemina, who participated remotely via WebEx from Penn State in State College, PA. A total of 45 individuals were invited to participate in the MEVO workshop, including 32 international academic science community members, 8 staff members from IRIS and UNAVCO, 3 NSF­PLR program directors, and a representative from the Antarctic Support Contractor for the US Antarctic Program (USAP). Only 7 of the 45 individuals invited to the workshop declined to participate, including PI and Co­PI of the NSF award that currently supports MEVO. A total of 36 individuals registered for the workshop; 30 participated in person at UNAVCO headquarters in Boulder with six additional individuals participating remotely via WebEx. Four invited talks by six community members summarized our current understanding of the ME magmatic and biogeochemical systems. In addition, IRIS, PASSCAL, and UNAVCO staff presented three summaries of current and past support efforts along with key technical, safety, and logistical considerations related to geophysical research on ME and more generally Ross Island. The seven invited presentations are available here as PDF files: https://www.dropbox.com/sh/jeklu7neqlo0h59/AACxQta4JdZUq3ZF2­VwxjkBa?dl=0 PI Mattioli (UNAVCO, Inc.) and Co­PI LaFemina (Penn State) acted as the workshop coordinators. Both have extensive experience using geophysical tools, including GPS geodesy, borehole strain, seismic, and tilt instruments to study active volcanic systems. PI Mattioli is the Director of Geodetic Infrastructure at UNAVCO, Inc. and staff that are under his direction support NSF­funded researchers who require UNAVCO services as part of the Antarctic Sciences NSF­PLR program. Co­PI LaFemina is the former Chair and current member of the Board of UNAVCO, Inc. Mattioli and LaFemina developed the workshop proposal in close consultation, including discussions on the workshop format, venue, possible dates, and a preliminary list of invited speakers and workshop participants, with the Dr. M. Jackson, the PLR Antarctic Research Facilities and Special Projects Program Director. This report includes contributions modified from the original workshop proposal, excerpts from the invited presentations, summaries from workshop participants who worked together in writing teams to address specific science questions, along with additional material contributed by PI Mattioli and Co­PI LaFemina. The final report was compiled and edited by Mattioli and LaFemina.

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Introduction and Background Mount Erebus (ME), located on Ross Island, Antarctica, is a large volume (~1670 km3), persistently active, open­system volcano, with a summit crater ~500 m in diameter, rising to 3794 m above sea level. Conditions at the summit and the upper part of the volcano are among the harshest environments on Earth. The volcanic edifice of ME is geographically central and forms the backbone of Ross Island and the summit is located ~38 km from McMurdo Station and Scott Base, the principal US and New Zealand research and logistical bases in Antarctica. The NSF has invested significantly in research related to ME. A simple search of the NSF Active and Expired awards with the keyword “Erebus” (http://www.nsf.gov/awardsearch/simpleSearchResult?queryText=Erebus&ActiveAwards=true&ExpiredAwards=true) yields 49 awards since 1977 for a total of $14.1M. After correcting for non­Earth Science related awards, this number is reduced to 43 awards for a total of $10.3M. The vast majority of these awards were from the Antarctic Earth Sciences program. Fourteen awards totaling $4.2M to four PIs at five different academic institutions were provided by NSF (OPP/PLR and EAR) to either directly support MEVO or do other targeted, but temporary deployments of geophysical sensors, primarily seismometers, but also gas flux and gas composition sensors on ME. The first award in 1977 was made to Dr. Phillip Kyle, formerly of Ohio State University, now at New Mexico Tech (NMT), and the latest award was made in 2015 to Dr. Philip Wannamaker of the University of Utah. The MEVO website, currently maintained at NMT, lists 21 recent journal publications for the period between 2008 and 2010, 8 independent studies (undergraduate research) over the period from 1994 to 2006, 13 MS theses over the period from 1985 to 2007, and two PhD dissertations (Zreda­Gostynska, 1995; Wardell, 2002). The recent MEVO journal publications along with references cited herein are listed in the References section of this report. In addition to the publications listed on the MEVO website related to Earth Science research on ME, in preparation for the submission of the workshop proposal, the PIs also completed a “Web of Science” search using the keywords “Mount Erebus.” This search returned 144 published articles. After review of the list, it was culled to 128 articles, of which 13 were also listed on the MEVO website, decreasing the number of unique publications related to ME from both sources to 136. All of these articles are listed in the References section of this report. Workshop participants were provided PDFs of key papers (n=23) prior to the start of the workshop. These were written by the invited speakers, current MEVO PIs, and others that had been supported in whole or part by NSF through the US Antarctic Program (USAP). Another 22 PDFs of “deep background” papers were also made available to the workshop participants. The goal was to provide as much information as possible prior to the workshop to assure informed discussions related to the key science drivers. Citations for these articles are included in the References section of this report and may also be found here: https://www.dropbox.com/sh/nil7cseqxhpj9th/AADU6J0jAdxp4ha0YWgnhuyfa?dl=0

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UNAVCO Support for Erebus GPS and TLS projects UNAVCO, a non­profit, university­governed consortium, facilitates geoscience research and education using geodesy. The consortium includes 111 US academic Members, nearly all of which are degree­granting institutions, that participate in its governance and science community. Another 101 Associate Members include organizations that share UNAVCO’s purpose at home and abroad, giving UNAVCO global reach in advancing geodesy. Since 1984, the UNAVCO university consortium has operated facilities to support geodesy research with core sponsorship from NSF and NASA, and additional support from NOAA, USGS, and others under various organizational structures. In 2001, the consortium established UNAVCO, Inc., which undertook the construction and operation of Plate Boundary Observatory (PBO ­ the geodetic component of EarthScope) and transitioned support of investigator science by the UNAVCO Facility to the new management structure in 2003. Under this structure, UNAVCO has supported the scientific community for over a decade with the development, installation, and maintenance of geodetic networks, hardware, software, a free and open data archive, data products, cyberinfrastructure, geodesy education and training, and the necessary technical expertise to further cutting edge scientific research through geodesy. UNAVCO currently operates the Geodesy Advancing Geosciences and EarthScope (GAGE) Facility under a Cooperative Agreement with NSF through September 30, 2018. Research on ME has been an ongoing scientific endeavor, beginning in earnest in the 1970’s. UNAVCO began providing regular support in the mid 1990’s and there are ME GPS data sets in the UNAVCO archive dating back to 1995. UNAVCO support and list annual activities are delineated in Appendix 3. IRIS/PASSCAL Support for Erebus seismic projects The Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS) has supported active and passive seismic experiments in Antarctica for 25 years. IRIS, like UNAVCO, Inc. is a non­profit university consortium, which facilitates seismological observations for the US and global seismological communities. IRIS has been in existence for over 30 years, and has ~125 university members, plus governmental, foreign and educational affiliates. The IRIS mission is to: 1) facilitate investigations of seismic sources and Earth properties using seismic and other geophysical methods; 2) promote exchange of seismic and other geophysical data and knowledge through the use of standards for network operations and data formats, and through pursuing policies of free and unrestricted data access; and 3) foster cooperation among IRIS members, affiliates, and other organizations in order to advance seismological research and education, expand the diversity of the geoscience workforce, and improve Earth science literacy in the general public.

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Figure 1. Satellite image of Ross Island modified from Google Maps. Mount Erebus is in the center of the island and rises to 3794 m ASL and Mt. Terror is to the east. Initial campaign GPS sites (green circles) were established far from the summit along the coast. Purple squares are continuous GPS stations within ~10 km of the summit. All GPS data and associated metadata are in the UNAVCO archive. IRIS operates the Portable Array Seismic Studies of the Continental Lithosphere (PASSCAL) Instrument Center and EarthScope USArray Array Operations Facility (AOF) at New Mexico Tech in Socorro, NM to support cutting­edge seismological research into Earth’s fundamental geological structure and processes. The facility provides instrumentation for NSF, Department of Energy, and otherwise funded seismological experiments around the world. PASSCAL experiment support includes seismic instrumentation, equipment maintenance, software, data archiving, training, logistics, and field installation. IRIS currently operates the Seismology Advancing Geosciences and EarthScope (SAGE) Facility under a Cooperative Agreement with NSF. SAGE supports certain core activities related to PASSCAL and polar activities, but IRIS/PASSCAL also receives independent support for some other seismological experiments in the polar regions. For example, basic IRIS/PASSCAL infrastructure in Socorro is provided through the SAGE

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Facility Cooperative Agreement. Additional details related to IRIS/PASSCAL support are delineated in Appendix 4.

Figure 2. Satellite image of Ross Island modified from Google Maps. Mount Erebus is in the center of the island and rises to 3794 m ASL and Mt. Terror is to the east. Each individual PASSCAL experiment deployment is shown as a different colored diamond symbol, each of which depicts a deployed seismic station. A total of 600 seismic stations have been deployed over the past 20 years on ME. All data and associated metadata are archived at the IRIS DMC. As discussed below, the MEVO community workshop addressed whether this support is appropriate for the emerging science drivers, whether it should continue and at what level, and how efforts to maintain geophysical sensors on ME may be improved and with an eye toward systems becoming more autonomous and able to operate through the austral winter with fewer interruptions. UNAVCO and IRIS collaboration and coordination for Polar Support IRIS and UNAVCO coordinate and collaborate on polar activities primarily through the Polar Networks Science Committee (PNSC), which has members appointed by both the IRIS and UNAVCO Boards of Directors and also includes appropriate staff from both organizations who participate in an ex officio capacity. The chair of the PNSC alternates between an IRIS­ and UNAVCO­appointed member and the associate chair is normally from the other organization. The PNSC arose through a joint IRIS/UNAVCO Collaborative MRI proposal that led to the development of autonomous power and communications systems for deep polar deployments of geophysical sensors. The PNSC facilitated the Autonomous Polar Observing Systems (APOS) workshop and final report to NSF and continued development of a joint seismo­geodetic community vision

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and facility plan. IRIS and UNAVCO polar services staff routinely and continuously exchange technical information through emails, periodic PNSC meetings, and during the annual Polar Technology Conference. MEVO Workshop Structure and Invited Participants The funding provided by NSF to convene the MEVO community workshop was designed to support a small group of invited community members, including former ME PIs, who had previous experience working on active or ancient volcanic systems as well as those that have coordinated with or developed volcano observatories at locations other than ME to participate in a three day workshop. The planned agenda for the workshop included presentations by the current Director of MEVO, Dr. Phillip Kyle, and the Co­PI on the MEVO award, Dr. Clive Oppenheimer. Both declined to participate in the workshop directly for different reasons. In addition, six other scientists who were previously funded for research on ME and thus have played important roles in the development of our understanding of the ME magmatic and geobiological systems as well as the development of some aspects of MEVO over the past two decades were also asked to present summaries of their research. The goal was to present to the workshop participants a broad overview of science that had been completed to date on ME in order to inform the discussion about emerging science targets and new directions during the workshop breakout sessions and general discussions. The final list of workshop participants, including the invited speakers, may be found in Appendix 1. The list includes each participant’s institution, email, and brief, self­written biographical sketch. The invited speaker list as well as the topics of the presentations were developed by Mattioli and LaFemina after reviewing the ME­related literature and the funding history for MEVO. The list was finalized in consultation with NSF PLR­ANT program officers. Simultaneously with the development of the formal topics and invited speakers list, invitations were sent by email to 25 community members based on their published work, an expressed interest in ME or MEVO, or their experience working at other active or restless volcanic systems. The goal was to have broad scientific representation, which would include experts in geological, geochemical and petrological, geophysical, biological, and modeling of volcanic and magmatic systems. In order to extend participation in the workshop, invited participants that could not participate in person were accommodated remotely using WebEx technology. This was the first workshop hosted by UNAVCO where WebEx was used extensively to support remote participation and we are pleased to report that this worked extremely well. Figure 3 is a group photo of the invited speakers and workshop participants who were at UNAVCO headquarters in Boulder, CO from February 22­24, 2016. The structure for the workshop was based on rotating participation in parallel Breakout Sessions addressing the questions outlined in the preliminary agenda during Day 1 and the morning of Day 2. The plan for the afternoon of Day 2 was to build on the initial findings, reports, and discussion from Day 1. The Day 3 morning session was dedicated to reviewing the discussions from the breakout sessions of the previous days and developing input for a draft report to NSF. PI Mattioli and Co­PI LaFemina made some adjustments to the final workshop agenda based on the presentations, breakout

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sessions, and feedback from individual workshop participants. During the workshop, participants were divided into two groups of ~15 individuals to facilitate discussion and review, and each group was assigned a facilitator (either Mattioli or LaFemina), who was tasked to provide written and oral feedback to all of the workshop participants when they reconvened in general session.

Figure 3. Group photo of the participants at the Community Workshop entitled “Scientific Drivers and Future of Mount Erebus Volcano Observatory (MEVO).” Photo taken by S. Olds in the UNAVCO, Inc. headquarters lobby on February 22, 2016. Final Workshop Agenda ­ Key Science Questions for Erebus Research On Day 1, Prof. Rick Aster from Colorado State gave the first invited talk entitled “Mount Erebus as seismological and volcanological observatory.” Next, Prof. Phil Wannamaker from the University of Utah along with his research partner from New Zealand, Dr. Graham Hill, gave a talk entitled “What we have learned from magnetotellurics at Erebus and elsewhere.” Next up was Prof. Ken Sims from the University of Wyoming who presented a talk entitled “What we have learned about the magmatic and volcanic systems of Erebus from geochemistry.” Last, Prof. Craig Cary of the University of Delaware and Waikato University, New Zealand teamed up with Prof. Laurie Connell of the University of Maine to present a talk entitled “What we have learned from microbiology and bioscience research at Erebus and the surrounding region.” Breakout sessions followed in the afternoon on Day 1 and then a group dinner in downtown Boulder, CO concluded the workshop activities for the day. Day 2 started with technical reviews from UNAVCO and IRIS/PASSCAL Polar Services staff. Mr. Joe Pettit and Mr. Thomas Nylen presented a talk entitled “UNAVCO support summary and field operations” followed by a presentation by IRIS/PASSCAL staff entitled “IRIS support summary and field operations.” Both talks highlighted the significant support provided by staff from the NSF GAGE and SAGE Facilities, existing data holdings from permanent Final Report to NSF: Community Workshop: “Scientific Drivers and Future of MEVO”

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geophysical sensor infrastructure, and the technical, safety, and logistical difficulties of working in Antarctica, in general and on ME in particular. After formal presentations by the invited speakers, several breakout sessions over the next day and a half allowed the workshop participants to discuss and review the following topics: 1) What have we learned to date from both geophysical and other observations at Mount Erebus?; 2) What specific and unique scientific questions can be addressed by additional observations at Mount Erebus?; 3) What are the special considerations for any future research efforts, permanent geophysical infrastructure, or temporary (i.e., austral summer) field deployments on Mount Erebus?; 4) What are the volcanic hazards related to Mount Erebus and what are the risks these pose for McMurdo Station?; 5) What are the measurement requirements to address new or ongoing research objectives related to the Mount Erebus magmatic system?; and 6) Can analysis and measurement techniques along with any autonomous sensor, power, and telemetry systems developed for deployment on Mount Erebus be used to study other remote volcanoes? In addition, the morning of Day 3 included a general discussion related to possible models for the future operation of MEVO and how it can be used as a model to support scientific research on ME more generally. The workshop proceedings, including the invited presentations, breakout sessions, and general discussions were recorded (audio only) via WebEx to allow for post­workshop review as well as for long­term archival. The remainder of Day 2 was comprised of four distinct breakout sessions dealing with specific questions. PI Mattioli and Co­PI LaFemina presided over different breakout sessions and switched groups as facilitators for sessions 3 and 4. The afternoon sessions on Day 2 remixed the original groups to encourage additional and varied scientific exchanges among the workshop participants. The final workshop agenda may be found in Appendix 1 of this report and also on the workshop homepage here: https://www.unavco.org/community/meetings­events/2016/mevo/mevo.html Review and Revision of Key Science Questions ­ a path forward for ME Based on the invited presentations and the initial breakout sessions defined above and in the final workshop agenda, all workshop participants were asked to submit a written summary at the close of Day 2, which prioritized what they believed were the three most­important science drivers for research on ME as well as the five most important continuing or new observations that were essential to address those science questions. The responses were reviewed and summarized by Co­PI LaFemina and this prioritized list was presented to all the workshop participants during the morning session of Day 3. The initial list was modified based on the discussion and PI Mattioli then formulated and assigned group writing teams to provide deeper scientific justification to support each question. Below we summarize the major scientific themes developed during the MEVO workshop and associated sub­questions, along with the science case for continued or additional research for each. At the end of each section, we have developed a short list of specific

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recommendations for continued, additional, and novel observations for ME. It was clear from the workshop, that there is a clear need to motivate additional work specifically at ME. That is, what makes ME special enough to justify the cost of working there? The workshop participants have provided some guidance, but this is an important concern moving forward in an environment of highly constrained resources from NSF and other sources. 1) What is the location and geometry of the magmatic plumbing system from the lower crust to the vent? a) What is the geometry of the shallow (<1 km) conduit and its relationship to the lava lake? What are the key physical processes in the upper part of the ME system? The highly accessible terrain of the upper edifice of ME offers unique opportunities for geophysical study of an evolving shallow volcanic plumbing system, and its linkages to hydrothermal alteration, conduit evolution, and microbiological studies. The upper cone is contained in a caldera with a diameter of approximately 5 km and an estimated age of 37 ka (Harpel et al., 2004). The surface morphology and geology of the summit cone and crater walls immediately suggest high internal spatiotemporal heterogeneity in the upper volcanic edifice. Evidence includes an uneven distribution of fumaroles and lava flows, a significantly off­center crater and vent system, and interleaved lava flow, pyroclastic, and ice deposits. Temporary dense array seismic observations of high­frequency scattered waves (~1 to 15 Hz) from icequakes, ice borehole shots, and eruptions show that this heterogeneity is consistently reflected by the seismic wave field (Chaput et al., 2014). Observations of the post­eruptive eviscerated lava lake also show a sharp narrowing (perhaps to 5­8 m) of the conduit tens of meters beneath the typically 15 to 40­m diameter lava lake. This varying near­summit conduit diameter is also reflected in physical studies of gas slug disruption during lava lake eruptions (Gerst et al., 2013). Assimilated P­wave tomography and coda­derived autocorrelation scattering imaging (Figure 4) confirm the absence of a large centralized vertical conduit below the lava lake. Instead, imaged areas with low P­wave velocities and high scattering suggest that the principal near­summit magmatic storage zone resides several hundred meters to the NW of the lava lake at a depth of several hundred meters below the Tramways warm ground and other hydrothermal features of that sector of the summit plateau. Deeper scattering imaging further suggests that the magmatic system may become increasingly sub­vertical at depths greater than ~1.5 km below the lava lake. Moment­tensor inversions and spectral analyses of very­long­period seismic signals associated with lava lake eruptions demonstrate the existence of significant horizontal force components during magmatic and gas transport through the shallow conduit system (Aster et al., 2003; Aster et al., 2008).

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Figure 4. Top: highly heterogeneous Erebus near­summit structure inferred from seismic P­wave tomography and scattering imaging. Bottom: Region of the upper volcano characterized by both high scattering and low P­wave velocity, interpreted as a near­summit magma body. Note that the Tramways geothermal area is above the magma body. (Modified from Zandomeneghi et al., 2010, 2013; Chaput et al., 2012). The persistence of the multiphase convective system, and linear scaling of short­ and very­long period seismic signals with lava lake gas slug eruptions of different sizes, suggest that the large gas slug lava lake explosions at ME, impressive as they may be, actually constitute only a small­scale, near­surface (within couple of km depth), gravitational perturbation to a much larger thermal and physical, gas­fluxed, near­summit magmatic system. Together, these observations suggest that the shallowest (upper few hundred meters to 1.5 km) elements of the conduit system have significantly non­vertical, non­planar

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geometries. It has been proposed by a number of investigators that evolving geometric, including inclination and/or cross­sectional area changes within the shallow magma/gas pathways of the volcano may play a controlling role in the growth, storage, and eruption of the large gas slugs driving the current style of eruptive activity. Recent CO2/H2O gas content modeling of lava lake bubbles has demonstrated that the bubbles are separable into several classes that form at a range of depths within the system where gas slugs may grow or evolve (Ilanko et al., 2015, Fig. 6 below), consistent with geometric complexity in the uppermost conduit system as inferred from seismic and infrasonic studies. The magmatic compositions and physical property variations of a CO2­dominated, rift­controlled magmatic system such as ME will differ greatly from those of the better­studied H2O­dominated subduction volcanoes, so working models based upon the latter may have limited applicability. Specific Recommendations:

Improve telemetry links between ME and McMurdo Station to allow reliable high­bandwidth data flow for all geophysical and biological sensors, including those proximal to the vent in order to assure that instruments can deliver data for Safety of Life (SOL) and science applications reliably and robustly.

Rehabilitate the ME passive seismic and continuous geodetic networks; upgrade seismic stations with modern instruments (possibly shallow borehole) and A/D systems such that the noise floor is decreased; upgrade GPS to GNSS instruments and improve monuments where appropriate; improve power infrastructure such that stations will operate more robustly throughout the austral winter.

Collocate additional sensor systems, in particular, infrasound and gas composition and flux, as well as geothermal gradient measurements proximal to the vent and other point sources of heat and mass transfer.

Consider deployment of FLIR or other imaging technologies that can be used to examine dynamic heat and mass transfer processes of the ME lava lake and upper conduit.

Implement USGS best practices and protocols related to seismo­geodetic­gas monitoring for SOL for USAP staff and all others deployed on ME.

b) What is the geometry and possible location of pre­eruptive storage zones within the deeper (>5 km) magmatic system? The geometry and physical state of the mid­ to upper crustal magmatic plumbing system are essential to understand how ME and other open­vent systems remain near their liquidus for decades to millennia while erupting nearly uniform composition magmas over the same timescales. ME magma compositions have been phonolitic with crystals limited primarily to anorthoclase megacrysts for decades. In this context, ME represents an exceptional end­member that could inform similar systems with active lava lakes (e.g., Erta Ale, Nyiragongo, and Villarica) as well systems of similar geochemical and petrologic characteristics (alkali­rich systems such as those found in the East African Rift). Final Report to NSF: Community Workshop: “Scientific Drivers and Future of MEVO”

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Geophysical investigations on ME have focused primarily on imaging the uppermost magma plumbing system (<1 km depth), in particular the conduit, but the continuation of the conduit system to greater depth is poorly constrained by existing geophysical and geochemical/petrologic datasets. The overall driving mechanisms and long term changes in volcanic activity (e.g., strombolian versus plinian or caldera forming), however, may largely be determined by the geometry and processes with the deeper magmatic plumbing system. Two end member models for the ME magmatic system are: 1) full connectivity of the shallow system to the mantle source region; and 2) episodic buoyant rise of discrete bodies of mantle melt, which establish a transient pre­eruptive crustal reservoir. Imaging and characterizing the mid to upper crustal magma plumbing system, is necessary to provide insight on first order scientific questions such as: 1) How much magma is driving the active lava lake at the surface?; 2) How is magma stored (for example, in sills and dikes versus a more voluminous pre­eruption storage region)?; 3) Is heat (and mass) input from depth (i.e., the mantle) episodic or continuous and is heat input required to maintain an active convecting conduit system?; 4) What drives/controls the uniform nature of ME magmas and where is the uniform character set (at shallow depth, >5 km or even deeper)?; 5) Where (i.e., at what depth) does differentiation from primitive basanite to evolved phonolite occur? Poor knowledge of the deeper magmatic system at ME is due partly to the lack of observed mid­ to lower­crustal volcanic seismicity, which means both that magma/fluid movement is difficult to trace through tremor and further that deep tomographic imaging has been relatively ineffective to date. The lack of deep seismicity may also be a direct result of high heat flux in this young rift setting, or perhaps high rate of deep magma generation and upward advection. Mount Terror, located east of ME on Ross Island (Figure 1) is a massive volcanic edifice in its own right, but shows no activity today and is dominated by compositions that are relatively unevolved and thus closer to the basanite parent to ME lavas. This begs the question as to what role regional structures and deformation might play in the contrasting style and evolution of these proximal volcanic systems, which is addressed in sub­question d below. To understand the magmatic system for ME and more broadly for Ross Island, wide aperture geophysical imaging techniques are required. Highly useful and leveraging observations can and are being made using other techniques such as diffusive­wavefield magnetotellurics (MT) and microgravity surveys. Large contrasts in the physical properties of electrical conductivity and density come about through the high heat flow and the melting/alteration processes of volcanism. CO2, being a non­polar molecule, responds very differently from H2O, so the subsurface conductivity distribution through the crust at ME may be quite distinct and perhaps more attuned to zones of concentrated conductive melt at various source and staging areas. A high resolution, large aperture 3D MT survey covering ME and the Ross Island region is currently underway supported jointly by the NSF and the NZ Royal Society Marsden Fund (Hill et al., 2016). This study will provide a 3D tomographic model of electrical resistivity of the magmatic system through the volcano and into the uppermost mantle to illuminate the physico­chemical processes of a phonolitic magmatic system. It also will establish a baseline structure for possible future conductivity monitoring experiments. Shallower Final Report to NSF: Community Workshop: “Scientific Drivers and Future of MEVO”

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conductivity methods could image the summit hydrothermal network and its controls on biological communities. Continuous and campaign surface deformation observations can constrain areas that drive changes in surface deformation, which may be tied to changes in seismic, conductivity or density volume changes at depth. Comparison of seismic and conductivity structure may help separate fluid and magma domains and clarify where longer­range fluid/melt pathways lie. Geophysical imaging of ME internal structure provides a test of petrological models of magma formation and staging based primarily upon samples collected at the surface of ME. A qualitative and quantitative combination of all these techniques can robustly determine characteristics of the deep system, and explain its past and possible future evolution. Specific Recommendations:

Improve telemetry links on Ross Island to McMurdo to allow reliable high­bandwidth data flow for all geophysical and biological sensors, including those distal to the ME vent. The goal is to allow more sensors to operate for longer without intervention by field teams. This lowers risk for personnel as well as long­term cost for operations and maintenance.

Incorporate GPS/GNSS data streams into established community processing systems, similar to what is done currently for PBO, COCONet, TLALOCNet as part of the GAGE Facility at UNAVCO.

Modestly expand the current passive seismic and continuous geodetic network farther away from the central vent of ME to provide observations that may image the deeper ME magmatic system. Seismic systems should be low­noise, broadband and geodetic systems should be geodetic quality monuments with multi­constellation GNSS receivers and antenna. Signals (seismicity and surface deformation) that can inform the deeper parts of the ME system have yet to be detected and this could be either because they are truly absent or because the sensor systems have not been sensitive enough or installed appropriately to minimize surface noise.

Complete campaign­style wide­aperture geophysical surveys (e.g., seismic, gravity, MT, as well as geodetic observations) across Ross Island and make all data and metadata interoperable and freely and openly available for modeling.

Use emerging geochemical tools to constrain the location and depth of magma sources and storage zones and compare with geophysical imaging of the ME system. For example, undertake more detailed crystal growth stratigraphy and time scale analyses (e.g., using elemental diffusion modeling, melt­inclusion, volatile studies).

Initiate phase equilibrium studies on ME lavas focusing on the role of volatile elements such as H, C, S, and F for the origin and petrochemical evolution of ME and proximal Ross Island volcanic systems.

c) How can physico­chemical models of the ME magmatic system be improved? Geophysical, geological, and geochemical data may be used to constrain mathematical models of volcanic processes. To date, these have not been fully developed for ME. For example, inversions of ground deformation data may yield constraints on reservoir Final Report to NSF: Community Workshop: “Scientific Drivers and Future of MEVO”

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and conduit location and geometries; gas emissions data yield insight into magma composition; and gravity data yield constraint on magma and rock density and density change. Additionally, joint analysis or inversion of these multidisciplinary data sets may offer important new insights into the volcanic system not easily obtained by considering individual data sets in isolation. Multiphysical (physics‐based) volcano models directly relate the physics of magma ascent and eruption with diverse observations, and serve as a framework for these joint inversions (Anderson and Segall, 2011). The diversity of observations at ME and the presence of a dynamic lava lake suggest a valuable opportunity to apply such an approach in Antarctica. A steady‐state energy and mass balance model may be related to, and constrained by, gas emissions, thermal emissions, ground deformation, and gravity data (possibly together with petrological and geochemical observations), and yield constraint on the rate of magma supply to the volcano and its composition; a similar approach has proven successful at Kīlauea Volcano (Anderson and Poland, in review). The active lava lake at ME, in particular, offers rare and valuable insight into a volcanic system. When coupled with simultaneous observations of ground deformation, such data has proven valuable for estimating the volume of magma stored beneath a volcano (Segall et al., 2001) – one of the key questions in volcano science and for ME (see above). Furthermore, when coupled with observations of gravity change, observations of lava lake surface height make it possible to estimate the density of lava in the lake, offering direct constraint on bubble density in the upper conduit (Carbone et al., 2013). Processes of bubble ascent and eruption are also amenable to quantitative interdisciplinary modeling and analysis. Given an appropriate bubble ascent model, borehole tilt and photogrammetric lava lake observations may, in principle, be used to place constraint on properties of the conduit, magma, and bubbles within the system. Specific Recommendations:

Combine different imaging techniques (e.g., seismic, gravity, MT, as well as geodetic observations) in joint inversions to resolve the geometry and structure of the ME magmatic system from the near surface to the Moho. This will require use of wide­aperture geophysical surveys and additional continuously operating geophysical stations across all of Ross Island.

Development of community models for ME, similar to those of SCEC for crustal seismic and surface velocity fields, against which more targeted research models can be compared directly. These models, along with the software and initial parameters used in the models, should be published in an open and interoperable format for ease of use by all interested community members. Community models are also useful in that they can point to new research directions.

d) What are the magma­tectonic interactions for the region surrounding ME and Ross Island, and how might these control magma generation and transport? The mantle source and triggering mechanisms for melting beneath ME, as well as for volcanism throughout the West Antarctic rift system remain controversial. ME and Ross Island volcanism are associated with the youngest stage of extension in the Terror Rift system. Determination of the composition of the source region (i.e., origin of CO2­rich magmas) and cause of melting, whether passive or active (‘plume’), are both essential to Final Report to NSF: Community Workshop: “Scientific Drivers and Future of MEVO”

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better understand the deeper ME magmatic system. While extensive geochemical data are already available (Sims et al., 2008; 2013), which constrain the isotopic character of the mantle source, coupling these geochemical data with deep seismic imaging from Vp/Vs tomography, crustal fabric related to rifting and other processes, and geodynamics of the West Antarctic rift system is still in its infancy. Ponding, pooling and differentiation levels (e.g., Moho and possibly mid­crust), could be controlled by lithospheric structures and overall stress regime of the lithosphere in this portion of the rift. The focusing of ascending magma into the trigonal morphology of the Ross Island complex, which is mirrored to the south by the Discovery­centered volcanic complex, must be a result of a composite interplay of lithospheric stresses and possibly sub­lithospheric upwelling. These conditions appear to control the spatial and temporal evolution of these volcanic systems. Resolution of these questions will require an interdisciplinary approach involving aspects of geophysics, geochemistry and volcanology and a broader view of the relationship of ME to other Ross Island volcanic centers (e.g., Mt. Terror), the Terror Rift, and the entire West Antarctic rift system. Specific Recommendations:

Develop regional­scale models for the origin and evolution of the ME system within the broader context of rifting and possible interaction with a deep mantle plume. These should be constrained by crustal to upper mantle geophysical imaging (e.g., seismic tomography and MT), present­day regional plate kinematic data from GPS, and plate reconstructions of recent geological past.

Investigate crustal structure and its role in the location of surface magmatic systems. Evaluate and characterize any large structural lineations that may serve as pathways for fluid and magma advection and transport.

Examine and constrain the role of ice removal and surface unloading on the development of regional rifting and more specifically volcanism on Ross Island and within the Terror Rift.

2) What is the relationship between magma generation, storage, gas flux, and the biosphere? a) Where is magma being accumulated at ME and how is this reconciled with the surface gas flux at the vent and through diffuse hydrothermal systems? The questions of pre­eruptive magma storage depths, magma plumbing system geometry, and magma accumulation rates, are central to understanding the eruptive styles and frequency of any active volcano, regardless of melt composition and tectonic setting. ME is renowned for its persistent and long­lived lava lake, which suggests a bidirectional flow of vesicular and degassed magma through a narrow feeder conduit (Oppenheimer et al., 2009). It has been proposed that this narrow upper conduit connects to a deeper, larger magmatic system, including a reservoir at 3 kbar (9 km depth), and another magma body at the base of the crust (~8 kbar, or 25 km depth), where basanite differentiates to phonolite (Figure 5) (Oppenheimer et al., 2011). Recent, detailed work using high­time­resolution Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) to measure gas compositions during passive degassing and eruptive episodes, provides compelling evidence for gas slugs accumulated in and then moving from a shallow magma reservoir to the surface through a tilted narrow conduit (Figure 6) (Ilanko Final Report to NSF: Community Workshop: “Scientific Drivers and Future of MEVO”

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et al., 2015), confirming earlier observations and modeling based on geophysics (Aster et al., 2008). FTIR observations at ME show that new magma pulses rise to refill the lava lake within about 10 minutes after an explosive eruption, suggesting that there is a shallow magma body with which the lake is in magmastatic equilibrium.

Figure 5. Conceptual model of the Erebus magmatic system (Modified from Oppenheimer et al., 2011). Burgisser et al. (2012) modeled observed gas compositional data measured by FTIR during passive degassing and intermittent explosive eruptions (Figure 7) using a thermodynamic code (D­Compress) that uses volatile (primarily CO2 and H2O) solubilities to estimate the depths at which these gases exsolved. Their findings suggest that the gases rise from pressures from 20 bars to at most 100 bars (60 m to 300 m depth) to the surface to cause the eruptions. Given this scenario, the gas slugs are thought to accumulate in a shallow chamber or in a structural feature of the conduit due to gradual exsolution of volatiles from the magma. The gas slug migrates through the narrow conduit to the surface where it causes the explosions. Adiabatic expansion, and differences in rates of ascent compared to rates of volatile diffusion between melt and gas, result in a range of H2O/CO2 and CO/CO2 ratios (Figure 7).

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High­time­resolution monitoring of gas emissions from the lava lake, combined with additional melt inclusion volatile data, which include H2O, CO2 and sulfur species, can enable a comprehensive geochemical and fluid dynamics approach to the ME upper conduit system as described by Burton et al. (2007). They calculate the depths of transition from closed­ to open­system degassing at Stromboli (i.e., the transition from formation of small isolated bubbles to an interconnected stream of gas moving through the magma column). At ME we cannot assume bulk degassing of a single magma composition, and so similar calculations would require incorporating petrological information about the basanitic magma as well as the evolved phonolite, since degassing of CO2 most likely begins at much higher pressures than those under which the phonolite is stored (i.e., perhaps at the base of the crust). This work would be greatly informed by new volatile data, especially sulfur solubility experiments for phonolitic and basanitic compositions. Equally important for such calculations is the realization that ME melts are very reduced at 0.5 log units below the QFM buffer (Burgisser et al., 2012) and that at these oxygen fugacity values H2S is the dominant degassing sulfur species (Jugo et al., 2005). However, H2S has not been detected at ME. This could be due to oxidation (i.e., reaction with air­derived O2 at the hot magma­air interface); on the other hand, it is possible that H2S degasses at greater depth and higher pressures in the magmatic system and converts to SO2 during transport to the surface. This process has been documented at the reduced lava lake of Erta Ale volcano, Ethiopia (de Moor et al., 2013). A similar study at ME using chemical traps proximal to the lava lake to separate H2S (if present) and SO2, followed by isotopic analyses of gas samples and erupted materials, would allow precise determination of the depth and extent of sulfur degassing.

Figure 6. Shallow magma system with gas slug accumulating on top of shallow magma chamber ( left), then moving through narrow conduit (middle) and finally causing the explosive eruptions (right) (Modified from Ilanko et al., 2015). A combination of campaign­style gas sampling using traps and longer­term (months­ to years­long) measurements of gas compositions and flux using FTIR, multiGAS, miniDOAS and UV cameras (Oppenheimer et al., 2014) would provide key information on the degassing depths, styles (open vs. closed) and extents from the various magma bodies and conduits present under ME. Such long­term year­round monitoring would provide unprecedented information on the magma dynamics of open vent volcanoes. Once we know from which part of the magma system the gases originate and how these change over time, we can use measured gas fluxes combined with constraints on magma volatile contents (from melt inclusions and solubility experiments) to calculate

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the volumes of magma that are accumulating and degassing in different parts of the system through time. Although magma degassing is most visible in the crater plume, degassing also occurs through the flanks of ME as documented by the occurrence of ice caves and warm ground areas that emit CO2 (Wardell et al., 2003). In the ice caves and warm ground, gases with magmatic/mantle­derived CO2 and helium mix with air close to the surface (Fischer et al., 2013). The recent work by Iacovino (2015) utilizes melt inclusion volatile concentrations to interpret the gas emissions from the lava lake using a thermodynamic and mixing model. Her results show that the surface gas emissions are dominated by degassing from the deep basanite with significant contributions from the lake. The presence of magmatic components is strong evidence for degassing of volatiles from the deeper basanitic magma system. Gases emitted from ice caves and warm ground closer to the crater area (Side Crater and Septum) will provide information on the very shallow part of the system, and variations in CO2 flux and gas compositions in these locations may even correspond to lava lake level changes.

Figure 7. CO and CO2 measurements from Erebus on 13 December 2005 using FTIR positioned on the crater rim. CO2/CO ratios change by 2 to 3x when the lava lake goes from passive degassing to explosive eruptions (Modified from Burgisser et al., 2012). Determination of the CO2 flux from the ice caves and warm ground areas, combined with gas chemistry (CO2/CH4), and stable and noble gas isotopes, should provide constraints on volatile degassing from ME magma system. Near the top of the ME magmatic system, H2O­rich fluids are exsolved, setting up hydrothermal systems that support extremophile life forms at the summit plateau of ME. The depth extent, interconnectedness of such systems, and their relation to microbial distribution is currently poorly known. It is very likely, however, that the heat and mass Final Report to NSF: Community Workshop: “Scientific Drivers and Future of MEVO”

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transfer through a hydrothermal system and shallow gas flux are strongly coupled to the development and evolution of the local ME microbial communities. Gas geothermometers can provide estimates of the sub­surface temperatures and potentially CO2 pressures in the hydrothermal system to better constrain how these physical parameters of the ME system impact microbial communities (Fischer and Chiodini, 2015). See additional discussion below. Specific Recommendations:

Perform new sulfur solubility experiments for phonolitic and basanitic compositions at reduced oxygen fugacity values (e.g., 0.5 log units below the QFM buffer) where H2S is the dominant sulfur species.

Undertake measurement of CO2 flux from ME ice caves and warm ground areas, combined with gas chemistry (CO2/CH4), and stable and noble gas isotopes, to constrain volatile degassing from ME magma system.

Apply gas geothermometers to estimate the subsurface temperatures and potentially CO2 pressures in the ME hydrothermal system.

b) What magma transport processes within the conduit control the eruptive frequency, and pre­, syn­, and post­eruptive dynamic responses of the volcano and how do these factors evolve with time?

ME has exhibited a wide variety of eruption styles in the geologic past, from lava flows to explosive pyroclastic eruptions. Within approximately the last 100 years, however, ME has developed a persistent, convecting lava lake that produces several Strombolian eruptions per day. The magnitude and frequency of the Strombolian eruptions varies through time. Over the past 100 year time period, 1 meter diameter bombs often have been ejected up to a few hundred meters away from the vent; in 1984, however, bombs up to 10 meters in diameter were ejected as far as 1 km from the vent. In other years, very few energetic Strombolian eruptions have occurred. Despite this variation in eruption behavior, the major and trace element compositions of whole rock and matrix glass within the bombs have been remarkably stable for at least the past ~17 ka (Kelly et al., 2008). Thus, the variation in intensity of the Strombolian activity appears to be decoupled from magma composition and crystallinity. The SO2 flux from the ME system also does not appear to vary in proportion to eruption intensity (Kyle et al., 1994). In contrast, the CO2/CO and CO2/H2O ratios in the gas phase do indeed differ with eruptive style, with higher CO2 content during Strombolian events when compared with passive ME outgassing (See Fig. 7; Oppenheimer et al., 2011). The variations in intensity of ME Strombolian activity could be the result of a unique geometry or roughness of the vent/conduit system that allows periodic trapping of larger gas slugs. Alternatively, shallow magma crystallization and/or degassing processes may influence convection and release of gas to a greater degree, although petrological evidence to date does not support this suggestion. Another possibility is that eruption style is dominated by changes in gas/magma supply to the deep system (e.g., through the size and flux of CO2 slugs from depth), with conduit processes playing a subordinate role in controlling the timing and intensity of each explosive event. Longer term changes in eruption style, including the much more energetic explosive eruptions that produced tephra fallout preserved at distances of several hundred km Final Report to NSF: Community Workshop: “Scientific Drivers and Future of MEVO”

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from vent are best explained by significant changes to the underlying magma reservoir or conduit system. The persistent activity at ME presents a remarkable opportunity to correlate volcanic processes (degassing and outgassing, variations in ascent rate and eruption style) with magmatic processes such as phenocryst growth and groundmass crystallization. The low crystallinity of the erupted magmas suggests that its physical properties should be sufficiently distinct in the subsurface when compared to the surrounding country rock and thus may be detected using geophysical imaging methods. Specific Recommendations:

Continue high­resolution geophysical imaging coupled with gas flux and composition measurements. Data encompassing the range of current eruption intensity should help track changes in magma supply into the system.

Determine the solubility of S in ME­relevant melt compositions (via laboratory experiments), which will allow the long­term observations of S flux to be placed into appropriate context. See discussion and recommendations above.

Complete comprehensive textural studies of bombs and tephra contextualized by geophysical and gas analyses. Experimental work may be required to better interpret the specific textural patterns observed in ME pyroclastic material.

The geophysical, gas emission, and textural data sets should be integrated through dynamical modeling to improve understanding of how crystallization and bubble coalescence influence eruption style, with implications for interpreting prehistoric eruptions at ME and beyond. See discussion and recommendations above.

Undertake analysis of crystal­hosted melt inclusions in tephra from the major ME eruptions >17,000 yr. Carefully performed inclusion analysis should provide a record of magma reservoir pressure­temperature­gas content preceding past major changes in eruption dynamics and thus help define reservoir/conduit conditions promoting higher­intensity eruptions.

c) What is the relationship between the hydrothermal system and the biosphere and how does the biosphere change is response to changes in the hydrothermal system? and d) Can changes in microbes be used to sense changes in magmatic and/or volcanic activity (for example changes in gasses vented)? The discussion surrounding the possible relationship among microbial activity, evolution, ME’s hydrothermal system and deeper volcanic processes was compelling during the workshop and thus this topic received significant and animated discussion. In order to determine the near­surface (to depths of 10’s of meters) structure of the ME hydrothermal system in terms of heat, mass, and chemical transfer, high­resolution geophysical (e.g., GPR, magnetic, electromagnetic) surveys and drilling of a series of shallow (~5 m deep) boreholes to monitor temperature, heat flow, relative humidity and flux of specific gas species (SO2, CO2) is required. Workshop participants anticipated that changes in volcanic activity (i.e., either in eruptive style or intensity) would result in changes in the hydrothermal system on a variety of timescales, from minutes (associated with abrupt pore pressure changes) to months (associated with long term changes in volcanic activity). The response of microbial communities to these relatively short­term changes is currently unknown, but can be evaluated in terms of the evolution of these communities and their usefulness as biosensors for monitoring the changing Final Report to NSF: Community Workshop: “Scientific Drivers and Future of MEVO”

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status of active volcanoes. Such assessments are only possible through interdisciplinary research on the biology and geophysics of shallow hydrothermal systems on ME. Such experiments would position the scientific community to build hypotheses about the links between the near­surface microbial communities and the deeper hydrothermal system, which may be accessible through deeper drilling, as discussed below. The subsurface hydrothermal habitat of ME represents the intersection between the biotic and abiotic realms. Recent studies near the ME soil surface (Herbold et al., 2014) have shown that unique microbes inhabit these areas, but these studies have not attempted to characterize these communities fully nor have they determined the extent of these organisms in the subsurface domain. In addition, these studies have suggested that the microbial communities at the soil surface are stratified with the upper layer dominated by globally ubiquitous hydrothermal microbial communities overlying a very unique community. With increasing depth, the microbial community becomes progressively more unique and appears to be an endemic, perhaps an Erebus­specific community. Nevertheless, unanswered questions remain. Specifically, workshop participants would like to address the following: What is the relationship between the hydrothermal system and the microbial community and how does the microbial community change in response to changes in the ME hydrothermal system, both temporally and spatially? Can the response of the microbial community be tapped as a predictive tool to monitor minor changes in the ME hydrothermal system that would otherwise go undetected using conventional approaches? How does the physical­ chemical environment at ME drive the structure, composition and function of the near surface and subsurface microbial community? Microbial communities are incredibly adapted to sense and respond to their local environment. The response would normally be elicited through a rapid and predictable change in function. The degree of response and the time scales of response should reflect changes in the hydrothermal system. Since gas geochemistry changes before eruptions, microbial functions may be used as “biosensors” or “bio­indicators” because microbes are more sensitive to ME system changes than our current generation of abiotic sensors. Characterizing and monitoring these changes can give clues about the time and spatial scales of variations in ME and other hydrothermal systems and possibly also serve as a predictive early warning capability of impending volcanic activity. Specific Recommendations:

Initiate two types of new surveys on ME with an emphasis on microbiology: 1) quantify spatial variation of heat and mass transfer of the abiotic geochemical system; and 2) characterize the temporal variation microbial communities in response to physical­chemical changes in the geothermal and volcanic system, thus placing the biological observations in the broader context of the ME hydrothermal system.

Conduct a surface soil gas and shallow (up to ~10 m) core hole survey. Holes would include microbiology, stratigraphy, heat flow, and emplacement of geophysical instruments. Scout prospective conduit drilling camp and sites – may include some shallow geophysics such as ground penetrating radar.

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3) What are the changes in magmatic and volcanic activity over short­ (hrs to yrs) versus long­term (decadal to millennial) time scales and what drives these variations? a) Is ME in steady­state today and what would drive any change in the system? and b) How does the ME magma reservoir change in time? From the foregoing discussion above, the upper part of the ME magmatic system has been relatively stable for decades. While there have been periods (generally only observed and documented during the austral summer field seasons) with increased levels of explosive behavior, with volcanic bombs being ejected several km away from the central vent of ME, the lava composition, persistent lava lake, CO2 gas bubble explosions, and CO2 gas chimneys around the upper part of the ME edifice have been commonly observed by numerous investigators. Except for episodic punctuations by Strombolian activity, the behavior of magma in the upper ME conduit has been in steady state on a time scale of at least 100 years (e.g., observations by Ross in 1841 and many recent studies) and in terms of magma composition for >17,000 years (Kelly et al., 2008). Summary of some key observations related to the ME system:

a) Persistence (~10 yr) of shallow magmatic system (i.e., upper reservoir/conduit/lava lake) and gas emission with no significant change. This observation requires convective flux of hot, gas­rich magma to provide heat and magmatic volatiles, that is supplied from a deeper magma reservoir (Peters et al., 2014). b) 226Ra/210Pb and 210Pb/210Po systematics in newly erupted lava bombs require that the Erebus magma represented in the erupted lava bombs degassed up to 80 days prior to eruption but could not have started two or more years before eruption (Sims et al., 2013a).

c) Temporal variation between passive degassing ­ encompassing cycles between sustained CO2­rich gas emission and H2O­rich gas from magma pulses that periodically enter the lava lake ­ and relatively “benign” Strombolian explosions. d) Time­averaged eruption rate is estimated at ~4 km3/ky over the past 250 ka, while the rate for the entire ME edifice is significantly lower and estimated at 1.7 km3/ky (Esser et al., 2004). e) On 1,000­10,000 year timescales, episodes of increased eruptive activity in the form of lava flows and tephra­producing explosive eruptions are observed (Kelly et al., 2008; Iverson et al., 2014). f) No significant magma compositional or isotopic change over past ~17 ka (Kelly et al., 2008; Sims et al., 2008c), with the one exception being 1984, which shows a significant shift in Pb and Sr isotopes. This isotopic

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shift is consistent with incorporation of trachyte with conduit changes during this year of particularly high strombolian activity.

g) The Erebus lavas are the result of a differentiation process dubbed the “Erebus lineage” in which the primary mantle melt is basanitic and differentiates to a phonolitic composition within the crust (Kyle, 1977: Iacovino, 2015). These basanites and other compositions within this lineage are observed throughout Ross Island and show considerable radiogenic isotopic variability that mixes out during differentiation (Sims et al., 2008c). h) Although shallow­level magmatic processes at Erebus have obfuscated much of the information on the initial melting processes, the significant and uniform 230Th excesses measured in the Erebus phonolites indicate that their parental basanites had residual garnet in their source (Sims and Hart, 2006). i) Based on U and Th decay series disequilibria measured in both anorthoclase megacrysts and phonolites suggest that the duration of reservoir growth is ~2000 years, which coincides, within error, with the ages of the two youngest lavas from the flanks of Erebus (the Northwest and Upper Ice Tower Ridge flows; Harpel et al., 2004). j) Zoning of megacrysts suggests physical cycling between a deeper reservoir at ~2 km and summit lava lake with vertical magma velocities of ~1 mm/s (Moussallam et al., 2015), consistent with constraints from U­series disequilibria (Sims et al., 2013a).

Based on the observations listed above, the geometry, thermal state, gas emissions and eruptive activity, suggest that the ME shallow magmatic system may be in steady state, and that this has persisted for decades or perhaps longer (Oppenheimer et al., 2009). The absence of major fluctuations in surface eruptive processes implies that some of the parameters that can be measured in the near field and at the surface can be taken as proxies for what is happening in the conduit, uninfluenced by previous states at ME. Given that the current state has not likely persisted for the entire history of ME, however, what conditions could induce a change at ME from the current state? Most investigators have proposed that current variations in gas emission rates, composition, eruptive activity of the shallow system are a consequence of processes within either a deeper reservoir or the shallow conduit. Presumably the ME shallow reservoir is supplied by less evolved magma from below. More specifically, are changes in any deep magma supply buffered by an upper­crustal reservoir, such that magma pressure, magma level, or magma composition are constant? If so, is this simply a consequence of low magma supply rates to the shallow system relative to the deeper reservoir volume? If that is the case, why then is ME an “open magmatic system” to the surface? Given the likely existence of a magma reservoir at several kilometers depth, it is essential to investigate

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the possible coupling between this deeper reservoir and overlying conduit and surface lava lake. Thought Experiment: How much magma is required to produce observed emissions? It is well supported that the magnitude of gas and heat discharge from an open vent like that of ME requires convection in the magma column (e.g., Carrigan, 1983). A simple calculation assuming CO2 emissions of 1000 T/day, an initial CO2 content of 0.6 wt%, a thermal emission from the lava lake of 35 MW, and thermal output from cooling of magma of ~1MW/L/s, requires the following volumes of magma: Degassing from magma: 105 m3/day 1 km3 in 30 years* Thermal power from magma: 40 m3/day 1 km3 in 1000 years+

* Implausible for sustained magma production, except maybe Kilauea + For example, very large edifice or “super” ignimbrite eruption in 1 million years Possible ways to explain the difference highlighted in the calculations above are: (1) that the degassed magma is only partly cooled, such that more magma is required for the thermal emission (very likely); (2) that significant heat is lost through the conduit walls (very likely); or (3) that a lot of the CO2 gas is coming from deep magma, which does not participate in shallow conduit convection (very likely). Specific Recommendations:

Examine to what extent changes in magma supply or composition are modulated as they migrate through the ME plumbing system, that is from the upper mantle through the crust, shallow conduit, and into the lava lake.

Apply various geochemical, mineralogical, and petrological tools to all phases in ME magmas to develop time scales for any possible changes in magma supply or composition.

Examine in detail a suite of large, zoned anorthoclase phenocrysts and megacrysts to reconstruct a record of convection (i.e., P,T,X = f(t)) in the conduit and upper ME magmatic system.

Couple geochemical constraints with seismic, MT, and geodetic imaging of the magmatic plumbing system to develop a more complete model for ME.

Develop quantitative models to assess whether an increase in mantle­melt production, due to local and regional deglaciation, would induce significant changes in ME eruptive behavior from the current state. For example, unloading may result in enhanced melt production from the deep source (mantle) as demonstrated in Iceland or may result in bubble expansion and eruption triggering as demonstrated in Montserrat.

Characterize gas composition and discharge rates at all fumaroles plus measurement of soil gas flux and heat flow, with the latter requiring core holes to ~10 m using a hand movable drill rig. These holes should be instrumented at

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selected sites (probably requiring more robust drilling equipment and therefore more likely in a subsequent phase/year). See additional discussion below.

c) What is the range in volcanic behavior at ME over the entire history of the volcanic edifice; for example, are there significant variations in eruption mechanism, style or magnitude (VEI)?

The overall history of ME has been subdivided into 3 phases: 1) proto­Erebus shield building phase (1.3­1.0 Ma), which represents a transition from subaqueous to subaerial activity. Subaqueous activity is characterized by hyaloclastite deposits, subaerial deposits by lava flows with occasional tephra; 2) proto­Erebus cone building phase, which built the upper slopes of the volcano, and appears to be dominantly characterized by effusive eruptions although evidence of explosive activity is present as tephra layers. This phase was terminated by a caldera collapse around 750 ka; 3) Erebus cone building phase, which built the present edifice, again dominantly composed of effusive eruptions with some explosive activity. This phase is characterized by two caldera collapses, an older one between 80 and 25 ka and a younger, smaller collapse, between 25 and 11 ka. Recent activity appears to be confined almost exclusively within the older caldera structure and is dominantly characterized by effusive activity generating lava flows, which are radially distributed around the crater, although individual eruptive episodes appear to be confined to specific sectors of the volcano with the youngest episode being directed towards the northwest. Current activity at ME during the historic time period has been characterized by the presence of an active lava lake, which shows significant variations in height of the lake surface over time. Rising gas bubbles/gas slugs disrupt the lake, producing Strombolian explosions and the generation of bombs, some of which have reached up to 10 m. The majority of the bombs fall within 500­1000 m of the crater; however, past activity has been more explosive with bombs reaching 1.5 to 2 km from the crater. This last occurred in 1984. Throughout its history the dominant activity of ME appears to have been effusive, producing relatively fluid lava flows, with infrequent explosive episodes producing tephra. A number of these tephra horizons were identified in drill cores approximately 35 km distant from the summit where some reached a thickness of ~5 m, suggesting significant sustained explosive activity. The described tephra layers fall into three main types: 1) those interpreted to have formed by phreatomagmatic explosions, indicating that water, either surface or groundwater, entered the magmatic system and was present throughout the eruptive episode; 2) those interpreted to have been formed by magmatic eruptions; and finally 3) those that appear to have been formed initially by a phreatomagmatic eruption that changed over time into a magmatic eruption, suggesting as the explosive activity evolved the source of external water dried up leaving only a magmatic component. ME tephras have been described from the other side of the Transantarctic Mountains at distances of 200­300 km, suggesting they were formed by an eruption that produced a relatively high eruption column, such as that produced by a sub­Plinian to Plinian eruption. The fact that described tephras appear to be the same composition as the current lava lake indicates that the phases of explosive activity must have been produced by changes in the conduit dynamics (e.g., blocking of the conduit with the resultant volatile build­up, rather than changes in magma composition). There is no indication in the available data whether any of these eruptions could be classified as Final Report to NSF: Community Workshop: “Scientific Drivers and Future of MEVO”

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Vulcanian since no component analyses (that is, determination of relative amounts of juvenile clasts, lithic clasts and crystals) of the tephra are presented. Some suggestions have been made that the more explosive eruptions were associated with the periods of caldera collapse, but this is disputed by other workers who believe that caldera formation was due to non­explosive down dropping of the summit of the volcano. In terms of Volcano Explosivity Index (VEI) the majority of current activity at ME appears to fall between VEI 0 to VEI 2. Past activity, based on current data, suggests that the dominant activity would also fall into the VEI 0 to 1 categories with the infrequent more explosive eruptions being classified as possibly VEI 2 to a maximum of VEI 5 magnitude. Current data are not really adequate for any more specific conclusions on style or magnitude of activity at ME. d) What are the short and long­term volcanic hazards at Mt. Erebus and Antarctica? A number of volcanoes on the Antarctic continent have erupted during the past several hundred thousand years. This includes the currently active ME, and thermally active Mt. Melbourne (Worner and Viereck, 1989), Mt. Rittman (Armienti and Tripodo, 1991), Mt. Berlin (Dunbar et al., 2008; Wilch et al., 1999), and Deception Island, which, in addition to being thermally active, also erupted in 1970 (Baker et al., 1975). Other Antarctic volcanoes include Mt. Takahe and Mt. Waesche, the Pleaides volcanic center, and a number of centers around Ross Island and the Dry Valleys. Seismic evidence of crustal magma migration has also been recently recognized in West Antarctica (Lough et al., 2013). Volcanism over the past several hundred thousand years has produced pyroclastic deposits (Figure 8a), lava flows (Figure 8b), and hyaloclastites (Figure 8f, Mt. Takahe) recognized on the volcanic flanks, crater areas, and, in the case of tephra, as englacial tephra deposits in blue ice areas (Figures 8c and 8d, Moulton and Ross Island) and in ice cores (Figure 8e, Fabulous black). The eruptive history, however, of many of these volcanoes, including Mt. Berlin (Figure 9) is incomplete, either due to lack of study or due to the relative paucity of exposed outcrops due to extensive glacial cover. Volcanism on Ross Island is of particular interest because of the presence of the currently active centerpiece, Mt. Erebus. Extensive research efforts have been focused on current and recent activity of ME (see discussions and recommendations above); however, relatively less effort has been devoted to the older eruptive activity of ME, as well as to the volcanic and geological history and stratigraphy of adjacent volcanoes, Mts. Terror, Bird, and Terra Nova, as well as the coalescence of small volcanic centers that forms Hut Point Peninsula.

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Figure 8. Photos a­f starting in upper left and moving from top to bottom: a) Freshly erupted bomb on ME; b) Pahoehoe lava flows on summit plateau of ME; c) Englacial tephra layers erupted from ME; d) Englacial tephra layer on Mt. Moulton, erupted from nearby Mt. Berlin (Fig. 9); e) Tephra layer in WAIS Divide ice core; and f) Hyaloclastite breccia near Ross Island (Individual photo credits N. Dunbar, composite by G. Mattioli). Although deep sampling of any of the Ross Island volcanoes is challenging because of glaciation and lack of dissection, there are nevertheless abundant outcrops available on the volcano surfaces, and as sea cliffs along the coastline. Several unglaciated volcanic islands are also present just offshore of Ross Island (e.g., Tent, Inaccessible, Razorbacks, and Turtle Rock). Englacial tephra layers have been recognized at a number of locations around Ross Island (Harpel et al., 2008; Harpel et al., 2004; Iverson et al., 2014). Geochemical investigation of these tephra reveals that most are compositionally indistinguishable from

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the modern ME phonolite, suggesting that all are derived from past explosive activity of ME.

Figure 9. Photo of Mt. Berlin, a thermally active, but extensively glaciated, stratovolcano in West Antarctica (Credit N. Dunbar). Tephra layers geochemically correlated to ME are found several hundred kilometers away from Ross Island, at blue ice areas in the Transantarctic Mountains (Harpel et al., 2004) indicating that ME is capable of producing much more powerful eruptions than the current Strombolian activity that has been observed in the historical period. The englacial tephra on Ross Island have the potential to reveal detailed information about the chronology of past explosive activity at ME, in the same way that the englacial tephra record in the West Antarctic blue ice field at Mt. Moulton provides a record of explosive activity at Mt. Berlin (Wilch et al, 1999, Dunbar et al., 2008). Limited 40Ar/39Ar analysis of the Ross Island tephra layers has already been completed, but this type of analysis has proven to be challenging because of the fine grain size of the feldspar in the tephra layers. Recent improvements in mass spectrometry techniques, however, should now allow a more detailed chronological record of these distal tephra deposits to be generated. Specific Recommendations:

Undertake a systematic geochronological evaluation of the whole of Ross Island volcanism to better constrain its entire volcanological history.

Undertake a comprehensive review and characterization of ME deposits from the proto­Erebus shield and proto­Erebus cone building phases to better constrain the full dynamic range of ME volcanic behavior.

Evaluate critically the hypothesis that more explosive periods in ME evolution are directly linked to caldera collapse events. This will require additional high­precision geochronology coupled with stratigraphical, petrological,

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petrographical, and granulometric analyses of ME edifice rocks and distal tephra deposits.

Consider additional deep boreholes (up to several km) to obtain core to support existing surface geological maps and geophysical imaging methods. All core samples should be made available for geochemical, petrological, and petrophysical analyses through a competitive review mechanism similar to what is used for SAFOD core samples. It may be feasible to drill into the lower part of the conduit (at ~1­2 km depth) to obtain direct heat and mass transfer observations (see Appendix 5).

If financial resources are available and it is deemed logistically possible, consider installation of deep borehole (~200 m depth) geophysical instrument packages (e.g., including strainmeter, seismic, pore pressure and tiltmeters) similar to what were deployed at the volcanic targets for EarthScope.

Governance models for a future MEVO and support for PIs After defining and reviewing the key science questions, MEVO workshop participants then reviewed and discussed possible alternative models for the management and governance of MEVO going forward and research related to ME more generally. The current model for support of MEVO operations is a single award to New Mexico Tech under the direction of PI P. Kyle and Co­PI C. Oppenheimer. Participation in MEVO­related research and access to MEVO resources is currently by invitation from the PIs. The MEVO workshop participants supported the idea of NSF­funded Antarctic Volcano Facility (AVF) to promote international research in magmatic and volcanic processes through open­access data and training; this new facility would extend beyond the current scope of the ME­focused MEVO. Workshop participants suggested that a key first step would be to develop a charter for a AVF, which could be based on a consortium model similar to that used by the Alaska Volcano Observatory. Independent institutions that wish to participant in a future AVF could then develop bilateral or multilateral Memoranda of Understanding (MOU) to delineate specific roles and responsibilities. Special focus on Early Career Investigators Working in Antarctica is a challenging endeavor, particularly for early career scientists who haven't worked on the continent before. The current MEVO model is one in which only specific individuals are invited to participate in MEVO research and fieldwork. Those individuals that have been being invited in the past to participate at MEVO and in ME science get introduced to research in Antarctica by a seasoned PI. Workshop participants concurred that this approach can be of great value to an early career scientist, many of which have an eye on progressing along the tenure­track. Participation in the future MEVO or AVF would help new scientists understand the complexities of participation in the USAP, including the process of physical qualification (PQing), what specialized gear and clothes are issued to participants, how to get to McMurdo Station, what resources are available for scientists at McMurdo and how to use

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them effectively, what current facility support is available at McMurdo (e.g. UNAVCO, PASSCAL, etc), required additional training and acclimatization required for fieldwork in ANT and on ME, in particular. Learning to navigate this complex landscape while doing science on an established project is of great value, as the time invested is not lost (as it might be if a new proposal submitted by an early career investigator was not funded). Currently, no formal program is in place that efficiently introduces new or early career PIs to research in Antarctica. The MEVO workshop participants thought that more early career PIs would apply for funding, if working in Antarctica appeared more accessible, and thus the investment in time required to sort out logistics was less demanding. Workshop participants further concurred that it would be a great benefit to NSF­ANT if a formal mechanism was in place for existing PIs to invite promising early career scientists to participate in established research programs or at least offer workshops to minimize the apparent threshold to undertaking science in Antarctica. Specific Recommendations:

Management of the community­based AVF should rotate to different institutions on 5­year time scales (e.g., EarthScope National Office, GeoPrisms). The goal should be to facilitate open­access to data and models, community collaboration and cooperation, and broad dissemination of ME research results.

Develop an AVF or MEVO Advisory Committee, similar to the EarthScope Science Committee (ESSC), which oversees and reviews progress related to MEVO goals and provides peer­review of “mini” exploratory science proposals (Note there is already a Polar Networks Science Committee with members of from UNAVCO and IRIS communities). This concept of “mini” proposals is similar to one used by the National Center for Airborne LiDAR Mapping (NCALM), a NSF­EAR supported facility.

Any future MEVO or AVF should should encompass foundational or backbone geophysical, geochemical and biological networks currently focused on ME, and also include additional resources to support a broader aperture AVF. The new MEVO or AVF should seek to leverage international collaborations and investment; for example, non­US funds that could be used to contribute to NSF MRI proposals.

The new AVF or MEVO should seek to enhance graduate student and early career scientist opportunities from diverse scientific backgrounds and research interests. The new facility could be a training center for future USAP participants more generally.

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Bibliography From MEVO website (Journal Publications; n=21): Boichu, M., Oppenheimer, C., Tsanev, V., Kyle, P.R. (2010). High temporal resolution SO2 flux measurements at Erebus volcano, Antarctica. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 190, 325­336. Calkins, J., Oppenheimer, C., Kyle, P.R. (2008). Ground­based thermal imaging of the lava lakes at Erebus volcano, Antarctica. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 177, 695­704. Csatho, B., Schenk, T., Kyle, P., Wilson, T., Krabill, W.B. (2008). Airborne laser swath mapping of the summit of Erebus volcano, Antarctica: Applications to geological mapping of a volcano. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 177, 531­548. Davies, A.G., Calkins, J., Scharenbroich, L., Vaughan, R.G., Wright, R., Kyle, P., Casta o, R., Chien, S., Tran, D. (2008). Multi­instrument remote and in situ observations of the Erebus Volcano (Antarctica) lava lake in 2005: A comparison with the Pele lava lake on the jovian moon Io. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 177, 705­724. Dibble, R.R., Kyle, P.R., Rowe, C. (2008). Video and seismic observations of Strombolian eruptions at Erebus volcano, Antarctica. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 177, 619­634. Gerst, A., Hort, M., Kyle, P.R., Voge, M. (2008). 4D velocity of Strombolian eruptions and man­made explosions derived from multiple Doppler radar instruments. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 177, 648­660. Gerst, A., Hort, M., Kyle, P.R., Voge, M. (2009). Understanding the mechanisms of Strombolian eruptions. Proc. 69th General Assembly German Geophys. Soc. (DGG), Kiel March 2009. Harpel, C.J., Kyle, P.R., Dunbar, N.W. (2008). Englacial tephrostratigraphy of Erebus volcano, Antarctica. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 177, 549­568. Ilyinskaya, E., Oppenheimer, C., Mather, T.A., Martin, R.S., Kyle, P.R. (2010). Size resolved chemical composition of aerosol emitted by Erebus volcano, Antarctica. Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems 11 (3), Q03017, doi:10.1029/2009GC002855. Johnson, J., Aster, R., Jones, K., Kyle, P.R., McIntosh, W.C. (2008). Acoustic source characterization of impulsive Strombolian eruptions from the Mount Erebus lava lake. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 177, 673­686. Jones, K.R., Johnson, J.B., Aster, R.C., Kyle, P.R., McIntosh, W.C. (2008). Infrasonic tracking of large bubble bursts and ash venting at Erebus volcano, Antarctica. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 177, 661­672.

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Kelly, P.J., Dunbar, N.W., Kyle, P.R., McIntosh, W.C. (2008). Refinement of the late Quaternary geologic history of Erebus volcano, Antarctica using 40Ar/39Ar and 36Cl age determinations. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 177, 569­577. Kelly, P.J., Kyle, P.R., Dunbar, N.W., Sims, K.W.W. (2008). Geochemistry and mineralogy of the phonolite lava lake, Erebus volcano, Antarctica: 1972 – 2004 and comparison with older lavas. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 177, 589­605. Oppenheimer, C., Kyle, P.R. (2008). Probing the magma plumbing of Erebus volcano, Antarctica, by open­path FTIR spectroscopy of gas emissions. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 177, 743­754. Oppenheimer, C., Kyle, P. (2008). Preface: Volcanology of Erebus volcano, Antarctica. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 177, v­vii. Oppenheimer, C., Kyle, P., Eisele, F., Crawford, J., Huey, G., Tanner, D., Kim, S., Mauldin, L., Blake, D., Beyer, A., Buhr,M., Davis, D. (2010). Plume chemistry and atmospheric impact of emissions from Erebus volcano, Antarctica. J. Geophys. Res. (Atmospheres), 115, D04303, doi:10.1029/2009JD011910. Oppenheimer, C., Lomakina, A.S., Kyle, P.R., Kingsbury, N., Boichu, M. (2009). Pulsatory magma supply to a phonolite lava lake. Earth Planetary Science Letters 284, 392­398. Sims, K.W.W., Blichert­Toft, J., Kyle, P.R., Pichat, S., Bluzstajn, J., Kelly, P., Ball, L., Layne, G. (2008). A Sr, Nd, Hf, and Pb isotope perspective on the genesis and long­term evolution of alkaline magmas from Erebus volcano, Antarctica. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 177, 606­618. Sweeney, D., Kyle, P.R., Oppenheimer, C. (2008). Sulfur dioxide emissions and degassing behavior of Erebus volcano, Antarctica. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 177, 725­733. Wardell, L.J., Kyle, P.R., Counce, D. (2008). Volcanic emissions of metals and halogens from White Island (New Zealand) and Erebus volcano (Antarctica) determined using chemical traps. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 177, 734­742. Zandomeneghi, D., Kyle, P., Miller, P., Snelson, C., Aster, R. (2010). Seismic Tomography of Erebus Volcano, Antarctica. EOS Trans. Amer. Geop. Union. 91 (6), p. 53­55. 9 Feb 2010. From Web of Science search (keywords: Mount Erebus; n=128): Aiuppa, A., L. Fiorani, S. Santoro, S. Parracino, M. Nuvoli, G. Chiodini, C. Minopoli and G. Tamburello (2015). "New ground­based LIDAR enables volcanic CO2 flux measurements." Scientific Reports 5. Final Report to NSF: Community Workshop: “Scientific Drivers and Future of MEVO”

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Aster, R., S. Mah, P. Kyle, W. McIntosh, N. Dunbar, J. Johnson, M. Ruiz and S. McNamara (2003). "Very long period oscillations of Mount Erebus Volcano." Journal of Geophysical Research­Solid Earth 108(B11). Bargagli, R., P. A. Broady and D. W. H. Walton (1996). "Preliminary investigation of the thermal biosystem of Mount Rittmann fumaroles (northern Victoria Land, Antarctica)." Antarctic Science 8(2): 121­126. Bargagli, R., M. L. Skotnicki, L. Marri, M. Pepi, A. Mackenzie and C. Agnorelli (2004). "New record of moss and thermophilic bacteria species and physico­chemical properties of geothermal soils on the northwest slope of Mt. Melbourne (Antarctica)." Polar Biology 27(7): 423­431. Barletta, R. E. (2012). "Raman analysis of blue ice tephra: an approach to tephrachronological dating of ice cores." Antarctic Science 24(2): 202­208. Barton, H. A., J. G. Giarrizzo, P. Suarez, C. E. Robertson, M. J. Broering, E. D. Banks, P. A. Vaishampayan and K. Venkateswaran (2014). "Microbial diversity in a Venezuelan orthoquartzite cave is dominated by the Chloroflexi (Class Ktedonobacterales) and Thaumarchaeota Group I.1c." Frontiers in Microbiology 5. Beyersdorf, A. J., D. R. Blake, A. Swanson, S. Meinardi, F. S. Rowland and D. Davis (2010). "Abundances and variability of tropospheric volatile organic compounds at the South Pole and other Antarctic locations." Atmospheric Environment 44(36): 4565­4574. Boichu, M., C. Oppenheimer, T. J. Roberts, V. Tsanev and P. R. Kyle (2011). "On bromine, nitrogen oxides and ozone depletion in the tropospheric plume of Erebus volcano (Antarctica)." Atmospheric Environment 45(23): 3856­3866. *Boichu, M., C. Oppenheimer, V. Tsanev and P. R. Kyle (2010). "High temporal resolution SO2 flux measurements at Erebus volcano, Antarctica." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 190(3­4): 325­336. Bouche, E., S. Vergniolle, T. Staudacher, A. Nercessian, J. C. Delmont, M. Frogneux, F. Cartault and A. Le Pichon (2010). "The role of large bubbles detected from acoustic measurements on the dynamics of Erta 'Ale lava lake (Ethiopia)." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 295(1­2): 37­48. Burgi, P. Y., T. H. Darrah, D. Tedesco and W. K. Eymold (2014). "Dynamics of the Mount Nyiragongo lava lake." Journal of Geophysical Research­Solid Earth 119(5): 4106­4122. Burgisser, A., C. Oppenheimer, M. Alletti, P. R. Kyle, B. Scaillet and M. R. Carroll (2012). "Backward tracking of gas chemistry measurements at Erebus volcano." Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems 13.

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Cairns, F. J., P. B. Herdson, G. C. Hitchcock, T. D. Koelmeyer, W. M. I. Smeeton and B. J. L. Synek (1981). "Aircrash On Mount Erebus." Medicine Science and the Law 21(3): 184­188. *Calkins, J., C. Oppenheimer and P. R. Kyle (2008). "Ground­based thermal imaging of lava lakes at Erebus volcano, Antarctica." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 177(3): 695­704. Cannata, A., P. Montalto, E. Privitera and G. Russo (2009). "Characterization and location of infrasonic sources in active volcanoes: Mount Etna, September­November 2007." Journal of Geophysical Research­Solid Earth 114. Chaput, J., M. Campillo, R. C. Aster, P. Roux, P. R. Kyle, H. Knox and P. Czoski (2015). "Multiple scattering from icequakes at Erebus volcano, Antarctica: Implications for imaging at glaciated volcanoes." Journal of Geophysical Research­Solid Earth 120(2): 1129­1141. Chaput, J. A., D. Zandomeneghi, R. C. Aster, H. Knox and P. R. Kyle (2012). "Imaging of Erebus volcano using body wave seismic interferometry of Strombolian eruption coda." Geophysical Research Letters 39. Chouet, B., P. Dawson and A. Arciniega­Ceballos (2005). "Source mechanism of Vulcanian degassing at Popocatepetl Volcano, Mexico, determined from waveform inversions of very long period signals." Journal of Geophysical Research­Solid Earth 110(B7). Cooper, A. F., L. J. Adam, R. F. Coulter, G. N. Eby and W. C. McIntosh (2007). "Geology, geochronology and geochemistry of a basanitic volcano, White Island, Ross Sea, Antarctica." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 165(3­5): 189­216. Csatho, B., T. Schenk, P. Kyle, T. Wilson and W. B. Krabill (2008). "Airborne laser swath mapping of the summit of Erebus volcano, Antarctica: Applications to geological mapping of a volcano." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 177(3): 531­548. Dabrowa, A. L., D. N. Green, J. B. Johnson, J. C. Phillips and A. C. Rust (2014). "Comparing near­regional and local measurements of infrasound from Mount Erebus, Antarctica: Implications for monitoring." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 288: 46­61. *Davies, A. G., J. Calkins, L. Scharenbroich, R. G. Vaughan, R. Wright, P. Kyle, R. Castano, S. Chien and D. Tran (2008). "Multi­instrument remote and in situ observations of the Erebus Volcano (Antarctica) lava lake in 2005: A comparison with the Pele lava lake on the jovian moon Io." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 177(3): 705­724.

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Esser, R. P., P. R. Kyle and W. C. McIntosh (2004). "Ar­40/Ar­39 dating of the eruptive history of Mount Erebus, Antarctica: volcano evolution." Bulletin of Volcanology 66(8): 671­686. Esser, R. P., W. C. McIntosh, M. T. Heizler and P. R. Kyle (1997). "Excess argon in melt inclusions in zero­age anorthoclase feldspar from Mt. Erebus, Antarctica, as revealed by the Ar­40/Ar­39 method." Geochimica Et Cosmochimica Acta 61(18): 3789­3801. French, P. A. (1984). "The Principle Of Responsive Adjustment In Corporate Moral Responsibility ­ The Crash On Mount Erebus." Journal of Business Ethics 3(2): 101­111. Gerlach, T. M. (2003). Elevation effects in volcano applications of the COSPEC. Volcanic Degassing. C. Oppenheimer, D. M. Pyle and J. Barclay. 213: 169­175. Gret, A., R. Snieder, R. C. Aster and P. R. Kyle (2005). "Monitoring rapid temporal change in a volcano with coda wave interferometry." Geophysical Research Letters 32(6). Gupta, S., D. P. Zhao and S. S. Rai (2009). "Seismic imaging of the upper mantle under the Erebus hotspot in Antarctica." Gondwana Research 16(1): 109­118. *Harpel, C. J., P. R. Kyle and N. W. Dunbar (2008). "Englacial tephrostratigraphy of Erebus volcano, Antarctica." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 177(3): 549­568. Harpel, C. J., P. R. Kyle, R. P. Esser, W. C. McIntosh and D. A. Caldwell (2004). "Ar­40/Ar­39 dating of the eruptive history of Mount Erebus, Antarctica: summit flows, tephra, and caldera collapse." Bulletin of Volcanology 66(8): 687­702. Harris, A. J. L., L. P. Flynn, D. A. Rothery, C. Oppenheimer and S. B. Sherman (1999). "Mass flux measurements at active lava lakes: Implications for magma recycling." Journal of Geophysical Research­Solid Earth 104(B4): 7117­7136. Harris, A. J. L., R. Wright and L. P. Flynn (1999). "Remote monitoring of Mount Erebus volcano, Antarctica, using polar orbiters: Progress and prospects." International Journal of Remote Sensing 20(15­16): 3051­3071. Herbold, C. W., C. K. Lee, I. R. McDonald and S. C. Cary (2014). "Evidence of global­scale aeolian dispersal and endemism in isolated geothermal microbial communities of Antarctica." Nature Communications 5. Hudson, J. A. and R. M. Daniel (1988). "Enumeration Of Thermophilic Heterotrophs In Geothermally Heated Soils From Mount Erebus, Ross Island, Antarctica." Applied and Environmental Microbiology 54(2): 622­624. Iacovino, K. (2015). "Linking subsurface to surface degassing at active volcanoes: A thermodynamic model with applications to Erebus volcano." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 431: 59­74. Final Report to NSF: Community Workshop: “Scientific Drivers and Future of MEVO”

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*Ilyinskaya, E., C. Oppenheimer, T. A. Mather, R. S. Martin and P. R. Kyle (2010). "Size­resolved chemical composition of aerosol emitted by Erebus volcano, Antarctica." Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems 11. Iverson, N. A., P. R. Kyle, N. W. Dunbar, W. C. McIntosh and N. J. G. Pearce (2014). "Eruptive history and magmatic stability of Erebus volcano, Antarctica: Insights from englacial tephra." Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems 15(11): 4180­4202. James, M. R., S. J. Lane and B. A. Chouet (2006). "Gas slug ascent through changes in conduit diameter: Laboratory insights into a volcano­seismic source process in low­viscosity magmas." Journal of Geophysical Research­Solid Earth 111(B5). James, M. R., E. W. Llewellin and S. J. Lane (2011). "Comment on "It takes three to tango: 2. Bubble dynamics in basaltic volcanoes and ramifications for modeling normal Strombolian activity" by J. Suckale, B. H. Hager, L. T. Elkins­Tanton, and J.­C. Nave." Journal of Geophysical Research­Solid Earth 116. *Johnson, J., R. Aster, K. R. Jones, P. Kyle and B. McIntosh (2008). "Acoustic source characterization of impulsive Strombolian eruptions from the Mount Erebus lava lake." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 177(3): 673­686. Johnson, J. B. and R. C. Aster (2005). "Relative partitioning of acoustic and seismic energy during Strombolian eruptions." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 148(3­4): 334­354. Johnson, J. B., R. C. Aster and P. R. Kyle (2004). "Volcanic eruptions observed with infrasound." Geophysical Research Letters 31(14). Johnson, J. B., R. C. Aster, M. C. Ruiz, S. D. Malone, P. J. McChesney, J. M. Lees and P. R. Kyle (2003). "Interpretation and utility of infrasonic records from erupting volcanoes." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 121(1­2): 15­63. Johnson, J. B. and M. Ripepe (2011). "Volcano infrasound: A review." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 206(3­4): 61­69. *Jones, K. R., J. B. Johnson, R. Aster, P. R. Kyle and W. C. McIntosh (2008). "Infrasonic tracking of large bubble bursts and ash venting at Erebus Volcano, Antarctica." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 177(3): 661­672. Jones, L. K., P. R. Kyle, C. Oppenheimer, J. D. Frechette and M. H. Okal (2015). "Terrestrial laser scanning observations of geomorphic changes and varying lava lake levels at Erebus volcano, Antarctica." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 295: 43­54. Jones, L. M., G. Faure, K. S. Taylor and C. E. Corbato (1983). "The Origin Of Salts On Mount Erebus And Along The Coast Of Ross­Island, Antarctica." Isotope Geoscience 1(1): 57­64. Final Report to NSF: Community Workshop: “Scientific Drivers and Future of MEVO”

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Jourdain, B. and M. Legrand (2002). "Year­round records of bulk and size­segregated aerosol composition and HCl and HNO3 levels in the Dumont d'Urville (coastal Antarctica) atmosphere: Implications for sea­salt aerosol fractionation in the winter and summer." Journal of Geophysical Research­Atmospheres 107(D22). Kaminuma, K., M. Baba and S. Ueki (1986). "Earthquake Swarms On Mount Erebus, Antarctica." Journal of Geodynamics 6(1­4): 391­404. *Kelly, P. J., N. W. Dunbar, P. R. Kyle and W. C. McIntosh (2008). "Refinement of the late Quaternary geologic history of Erebus volcano, Antarctica using Ar­40/Ar­39 and Cl­36 age determinations." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 177(3): 569­577. *Kelly, P. J., P. R. Kyle, N. W. Dunbar and K. W. W. Sims (2008). "Geochemistry and mineralogy of the phonolite lava lake, Erebus volcano, Antarctica: 1972­2004 and comparison with older lavas." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 177(3): 589­605. Keys, J. G., S. W. Wood, N. B. Jones and F. J. Murcray (1998). "Spectral measurements of HCl in the plume of the Antarctic volcano Mount Erebus." Geophysical Research Letters 25(13): 2421­2424. Kobayashi, R. and D. P. Zhao (2004). "Rayleigh­wave group velocity distribution in the Antarctic region." Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 141(3): 167­181. Kobayashi, T., A. Namiki and I. Sumita (2010). "Excitation of airwaves caused by bubble bursting in a cylindrical conduit: Experiments and a model." Journal of Geophysical Research­Solid Earth 115. Kumagai, H. (2006). "Temporal evolution of a magmatic dike system inferred from the complex frequencies of very long period seismic signals." Journal of Geophysical Research­Solid Earth 111(B6). Kyle, P. R., W. F. Giggenbach and H. J. R. Keys (1976). "Volcanic Activity Of Mount Erebus, Ross­Island." Antarctic Journal of the United States 11(4): 270­271. Kyle, P. R., K. Meeker and D. Finnegan (1990). "Emission Rates Of Sulfur­Dioxide, Trace Gases And Metals From Mount Erebus, Antarctica." Geophysical Research Letters 17(12): 2125­2128. Kyle, P. R., J. A. Moore and M. F. Thirlwall (1992). "Petrologic Evolution Of Anorthoclase Phonolite Lavas At Mount Erebus, Ross Island, Antarctica." Journal of Petrology 33(4): 849­875. Le Losq, C., D. R. Neuville, R. Moretti, P. R. Kyle and C. Oppenheimer (2015). "Rheology of phonolitic magmas ­ the case of the Erebus lava lake." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 411: 53­61. Final Report to NSF: Community Workshop: “Scientific Drivers and Future of MEVO”

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Rowe, C. A., R. C. Aster, P. R. Kyle, R. R. Dibble and J. W. Schlue (2000). "Seismic and acoustic observations at Mount Erebus Volcano, Ross Island, Antarctica, 1994­1998." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 101(1­2): 105­128. Rowe, C. A., R. C. Aster, P. R. Kyle, J. W. Schlue and R. R. Dibble (1998). "Broadband recording of Strombolian explosions and associated very­long­period seismic signals on Mount Erebus volcano, Ross Island, Antarctica." Geophysical Research Letters 25(13): 2297­2300. Seaman, S. J., M. D. Dyar, N. Marinkovic and N. W. Dunbar (2006). "An FTIR study of hydrogen in anorthoclase and associated melt inclusions." American Mineralogist 91(1): 12­20. *Sims, K. W. W., J. Blichert­Toft, P. R. Kyle, S. Pichat, P. J. Gauthier, J. BlusztaJn, P. Kelly, L. Ball and G. Layne (2008). "A Sr, Nd, Hf, and Pb isotope perspective on the genesis and long­term evolution of alkaline magmas from Erebus volcano, Antarctica." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 177(3): 606­618. Sims, K. W. W., S. Pichat, M. K. Reagan, P. R. Kyle, H. Dulaiova, N. W. Dunbar, J. Prytulak, G. Sawyer, G. D. Layne, J. Blichert­Toft, P. J. Gauthier, M. A. Charette and T. R. Elliott (2013). "On the Time Scales of Magma Genesis, Melt Evolution, Crystal Growth Rates and Magma Degassing in the Erebus Volcano Magmatic System Using the U­238, U­235 and Th­232 Decay Series." Journal of Petrology 54(2): 235­271. Skotnicki, M. L., R. Bargagli and J. A. Ninham (2002). "Genetic diversity in the moss Pohlia nutans on geothermal ground of Mount Rittmann, Victoria Land, Antarctica." Polar Biology 25(10): 771­777. Skotnicki, M. L., P. M. Selkirk, P. Broady, K. D. Adam and J. A. Ninham (2001). "Dispersal of the moss Campylopus pyriformis on geothermal ground near the summits of Mount Erebus and Mount Melbourne, Victoria Land, Antarctica." Antarctic Science 13(3): 280­285. Smith, R. I. L. (2005). "The thermophilic bryoflora of Deception Island: unique plant communities as a criterion for designating an Antarctic Specially Protected Area." Antarctic Science 17(1): 17­27. Soo, R. M., S. A. Wood, J. J. Grzymski, I. R. McDonald and S. C. Cary (2009). "Microbial biodiversity of thermophilic communities in hot mineral soils of Tramway Ridge, Mount Erebus, Antarctica." Environmental Microbiology 11(3): 715­728. Steinmetz, L. (2006). "Antarctica erupts! (Mount Erebus)." Smithsonian 37(9): 58­62. Storey, B. C., P. T. Leat, S. D. Weaver, R. J. Pankhurst, J. D. Bradshaw and S. Kelley (1999). "Mantle plumes and Antarctica­New Zealand rifting: evidence from mid­Cretaceous mafic dykes." Journal of the Geological Society 156: 659­671.

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*Sweeney, D., P. R. Kyle and C. Oppenheimer (2008). "Sulfur dioxide emissions and degassing behavior of Erebus volcano, Antarctica." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 177(3): 725­733. Tamburello, G., A. J. S. McGonigle, E. P. Kantzas and A. Aiuppa (2011). "Recent advances in ground­based ultraviolet remote sensing of volcanic SO2 fluxes." Annals of Geophysics 54(2): 199­208. Taylor, K. S., G. Faure, C. E. Corbato and L. M. Jones (1983). "The Sources Of Strontium In Soil Salts On Mount­Erebus And On Ross­Island, Antarctica." Ohio Journal of Science 83(2): 22­22. Tebo, B. M., R. E. Davis, R. P. Anitori, L. B. Conne, P. Schiffman and H. Staudigel (2015). "Microbial communities in dark oligotrophic volcanic ice cave ecosystems of Mt. Erebus, Antarctica." Frontiers in Microbiology 6. Treves, S. B. and P. R. Kyle (1974). "VOLCANIC ACTIVITY OF MOUNT EREBUS, 1973­1974." Antarctic Journal of the United States 9(4): 147­147. Ugolini, F. C. (1967). "Soils Of Mount Erebus Antarctica." New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 10(2): 431. Ugolini, F. C. and J. G. Bockheim (2008). "Antarctic soils and soil formation in a changing environment: A review." Geoderma 144(1­2): 1­8. Ugolini, F. C. and R. L. Starkey (1966). "Soils And Micro­Organisms From Mount Erebus Antarctica." Nature 211(5047): 440. Varley, N., J. Johnson, M. Ruiz, G. Reyes and K. Martin (2006). Applying statistical analysis to understanding the dynamics of volcanic explosions. Vaughan, R. G., L. P. Keszthelyi, A. G. Davies, D. J. Schneider, C. Jaworowski and H. Heasler (2010). "Exploring the limits of identifying sub­pixel thermal features using ASTER TIR data." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 189(3­4): 225­237. Wardell, L. J., P. R. Kyle and A. R. Campbell (2003). Carbon dioxide emissions from fumarolic ice towers, Mount Erebus Volcano, Antarctica. Volcanic Degassing. C. Oppenheimer, D. M. Pyle and J. Barclay. 213: 231­246. Wardell, L. J., P. R. Kyle and C. Chaffin (2004). "Carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide emission rates from an alkaline intra­plate volcano: Mt. Erebus, Antarctica." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 131(1­2): 109­121. *Wardell, L. J., P. R. Kyle and D. Counce (2008). "Volcanic emissions of metals and halogens from White Island (New Zealand) and Erebus volcano (Antarctica) determined with chemical traps." Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 177(3): 734­742.

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Anderson, K. R., and M. P. Poland (in review). Magma supply, storage and eruption rates from Bayesian joint inversion of diverse observations and prior information: Kilauea Volcano (2000­2012), Earth and Planetary Science Letters. Armienti, P., and Tripodo, A., (1991), Petrography and chemistry of lavas and comagmatic xenoliths of Mt. Rittman, a volcano discovered during the IV Italian Expedition in northern Victoria Land (Antarctica): Memorie della Societa Geologica Italiana, v. 46, p. 427­451. Aster, R., W. MacIntosh, P. Kyle, R. Esser, B. Bartel, N. Dunbar, J. Johnson, R. Karstens, C. Kurnik, M. McGowan, S. McNamara, C. Meertens, B. Pauly, M. Richmond and M. Ruiz (2004). "Real‐time data received from Mount Erebus Volcano, Antarctica." Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union 85(10): 97­101. Aster, R., Zandomeneghi, D., Mah, S., McNamara, S., Hendersono, D.B., Knox, H. and Jones, K. (2008). Moment tensor inversion of very long period seismic signals from Strombolian eruptions of Erebus Volcano, J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res., 177: 635–647. Baker, P.E., McReath, I., Harvey, M.R., Roobol, M.J., and Davies, T.G., 1975, The geology of the South Shetland Islands: V. Volcanic evolution of Deception Island. British Antarctic Survey Scientific Report No 78, 81p. Burton, M., Allard, P., Muré, F. and La Spina, A. (2007). Magmatic gas composition reveals the source depth of slug­driven Strombolian explosive activity. Science, 317: 227­230. Carbone, D. M. P. Poland, M. R. Patrick, and T. R. Orr (2013). Continuous gravity measurements reveal a low­density lava lake at Kīlauea Volcano, Hawai`i, Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 376, pp. 178­185, doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2013.06.024. de Moor, J.M., Fischer, T.P., Sharp, Z.D., King, P.L., Wilke, M., Botcharnikov, R.E., Cottrell, E., Zelenski, M., Marty, B. and Ayalew, D. (2013). Sulfur degassing at Erta Ale (Ethiopia) and Masaya (Nicaragua) volcanoes: Implications for degassing processes and oxygen fugacities of basaltic systems. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., doi: 10.1002/ggge.20255 Dunbar, N. W., McIntosh, W. C., and Esser, R. P. (2008), Physical setting and tephrochronology of the summit caldera ice record at Mount Moulton, West Antarctica: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 120, no. 7­8, p. 796­812. Fischer, T.P. and Chiodini, G., (2015). Volcanic, Magmatic and Hydrothermal Gas Discharges. Encyclopedia of Volcanoes, 2nd Edition p. 779­ 797 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978­0­12­385938­9.00045­6 Fischer, T.P., Curtis, A.G., Kyle, P.R. and Sano, Y. (2013). Gas discharges in fumarolic ice caves of Erebus volcano, Antarctica. AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts: 2706.

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Gerst, A., M. Hort, R. C. Aster, J. B. Johnson and P. R. Kyle (2013). "The first second of volcanic eruptions from the Erebus volcano lava lake, Antarctica­Energies, pressures, seismology, and infrasound." Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 118(7): 3318­3340. Girona, T., F. Costa, B. Taisne, B. Aggangan, and S. Ildefonso (2015), Fractal degassing from Erebus and Mayon volcanoes revealed by a new method to monitor H2O emission cycles, J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth, 120, 2988–3002, doi:10.1002/2014JB011797. Heeszel, D. S., D. A. Wiens, S. Anandakrishnan, R. C. Aster, I. W. D. Dalziel, A. D. Huerta, A. A. Nyblade, T. J. Wilson and P. Winberry (2016). "Upper Mantle Structure of central and West Antarctica from Array Analysis of Rayleigh Wave Phase Velocities." Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. Herbold, C. W., I. R. McDonald and S. C. Cary (2014). Microbial Ecology of Geothermal Habitats in Antarctica. Berlin, Heidelberg, Springer Berlin Heidelberg: 181­215. Herbold, C. W., C. K. Lee, I. R. McDonald, and S. C. Cary (2014). Evidence of global­scale aeolian dispersal and endemism in isolated geothermal microbial communities of Antarctica. Nat. Commun. 5:3875 doi: 10.1038/ncomms4875. Hill, G. J., P. E. Wannamaker, J. A. Stodt, M. J. Unsworth, V. Maris, M. A. Kordy, E. L. Wallin, and Y. Ogawa, Magnetotelluric imaging of the Mount Erebus, magmatic system from source to surface: Proc. SCAR Open Science Conference, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, August 22­26, 2016. Ilanko, T., Oppenheimer, C., Burgisser, A. and Kyle, P. (2015). Transient degassing events at the lava lake of Erebus volcano, Antarctica: Chemistry and mechanisms. GeoResJ, 7: 43­58. Jugo, P.J., Luth, R.W. and Richards, J.P. (2005). Experimental data on the speciation of sulfur as a function of oxygen fugacity in basaltic melts Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 69: 497–503. Kyle, P. R. (1977). Mineralogy and glass chemistry of recent volcanic ejecta from Mt Erebus, Ross Island, Antarctica. New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 20, 1123­1146. Kyle, P. R. (1981). "Mineralogy and Geochemistry of a Basanite to Phonolite Sequence at Hut Point Peninsula, Antarctica, based on Core from Dry Valley Drilling Project Drillholes 1, 2 and 3." Journal of Petrology 22(4): 451­500. Lough, A. C., Wiens, D. A., Barcheck, C. G., Anandakrishnan, S., Aster, R. C., Blankenship, D. D., Huerta, A. D., Nyblade, A., Young, D. A., and Wilson, T. J. (2013), Seismic detection of an active subglacial magmatic complex in Marie Byrd Land, Antarctica: Nature Geoscience, v. 6, no. 12, p. 1031­1035.

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Molina, I., A. Burgisser and C. Oppenheimer (2012). "Numerical simulations of convection in crystal­bearing magmas: A case study of the magmatic system at Erebus, Antarctica." Journal of Geophysical Research 117(B7): B07209­07238. Moussallam, Y., C. Oppenheimer, B. Scaillet, I. Buisman, C. Kimball, N. Dunbar, A. Burgisser, C. I. Schipper, J. Andújar and P. Kyle (2015). "Megacrystals track magma convection between reservoir and surface." Earth and Planetary Science Letters 413(C): 1­12. Oppenheimer, C., Fischer, T.P. and Scaillet, B. (2014). Volcanic degassing: processes and impact. Treatise on Geochemistry (second edition) 4, The crust p.111–179 http://dx.doi.org/110.1016/B1978­1010­1008­095975­095977.000304­095971. Oppenheimer, C., P. Kyle, F. Eisele, J. Crawford, G. Huey, D. Tanner, S. Kim, L. Mauldin, D. Blake, A. Beyersdorf, M. Buhr and D. Davis (2010). "Atmospheric chemistry of an Antarctic volcanic plume." Journal of Geophysical Research 115(D4): D04303­04315. Peters, N., C. Oppenheimer, D. R. Killingsworth, J. Frechette and P. Kyle (2014). "Correlation of cycles in Lava Lake motion and degassing at Erebus Volcano, Antarctica." Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 15(8): 3244­3257. Ritzwoller, M. H., N. M. Shapiro, A. L. Levshin and G. M. Leahy (2001). "Crustal and upper mantle structure beneath Antarctica and surrounding oceans." Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 106(B12): 30645­30670. Rocchi, S., P. Armienti, M. D’Orazio, S. Tonarini, J. R. Wijbrans and G. Di Vincenzo (2002). "Cenozoic magmatism in the western Ross Embayment: Role of mantle plume versus plate dynamics in the development of the West Antarctic Rift System." Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth 107(B9): ECV 5­1­ECV 5­22. Segall, P., P. Cervelli, S. Owen, M. Lisowski, and A. Miklius (2001). Constraints on dike propagation from continuous GPS measurements, Journal of Geophysical Research, 106, pp. 19,301—19,317, doi:10.1029/2001JB000229. Sims, K.W.W. and S.R. Hart (2006). Comparison of Th, Sr, Nd and Pb Isotopes in Oceanic Basalts: Implications for Mantle Heterogeneity and Magma Genesis. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 245, 743­761. doi: 10.1016/j.epsl.2006.02.030. Wilch, T. I., McIntosh, W. C., and Dunbar, N. W. (1999), Late Quaternary volcanic activity in Marie Byrd Land: Potential 40Ar/39Ar dated time horizons in West Antarctic ice and marine cores: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 111, p. 1563­1580. Worner, G., and Viereck, L. (1989), The Mt. Melbourne Volcanic Field (Victoria Land, Antarctica) ­ I. Field Observations, in Damaske, D., and Durbaum, H. J., eds., GANOVEX IV­ 1984/1985, Volume 38: Hannover, Bundesandtalt fur Geowissenschafter und Rohstoffe, p. 369­394. Final Report to NSF: Community Workshop: “Scientific Drivers and Future of MEVO”

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APPENDICES

1) Workshop Final Agenda 2) Workshop participant list 3) UNAVCO MEVO support summary 4) IRIS/PASSCAL MEVO support summary (missing) 5) Detailed proposed deep drilling plan for ME

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APPENDIX 1 ­ Final MEVO Workshop Agenda

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APPENDIX 2 ­ MEVO workshop participant list Kyle Anderson kranderson@usgs.gov USGS Dr. Anderson develops multiphysical (physics­based) models of volcanic systems, which can be used to predict a variety of observations including ground deformation, gas emissions, and eruption rate. These models are constrained with prior information and data in a Bayesian inverse procedure, yielding probabilistic estimates of things like magma supply rates and storage volumes. I have worked primarily at Mount St. Helens and Kilauea volcanoes. Kent Anderson (invited speaker) kent@iris.edu IRIS I am the IRIS program manager for portable seismic instrumentation, including the observatory systems in Antarctica Rick Aster (invited speaker) rick.aster@colostate.edu Colorado State University I am an Earth scientist with broad interests in geophysics, seismological imaging and source studies, and Earth processes. My work has included significant field research in western North America, Italy, and Antarctica. I also have strong teaching and research interests in geophysical inverse and signal processing methods and am the lead author on the widely used reference volume and textbook "Parameter Estimation and Inverse Problems" (Aster, Borchers, and Thurber, 2012). I have been Professor and Department Head of the Geosciences Department at Colorado State University since January of 2014. Jackie Caplan­Auerbach caplanj@wwu.edu Western Washington University I am a volcano seismologist whose research spans both subaerial and submarine volcanism, and mass wasting on volcanoes. I study these systems using seismic and acoustic methods to infer eruption dynamics and to investigate volcanic structure, growth, and collapse. I have been on the faculty at Western Washington University since 2006, prior to which I was a postdoctoral research fellow at the Alaska Volcano Observatory. I earned my Ph.D. at the University of Hawai`i, studying the seismicity of Lo`ihi submarine volcano. Paul Carpenter (invited speaker) pcarpenter@passcal.nmt.edu IRIS­PASSCAL I am an Engineer at the IRIS PASSCAL Facility at New Mexico Tech. I am responsible for the design and deployment of PASSCAL instruments in Antarctica among other duties.

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Craig Cary (invited speaker) caryc@waikato.ac.nz and caryc@udel.edu University of Waikato (NZ) and University of Delaware I received my Ph.D. from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in 1989 working on the microbiological communities inhabiting deep­sea hydrothermal vents. This work was focused on understanding how these organisms were able colonize, organize and survive these dynamic extreme environments. In 2004 I transitioned to Antarctica with the same set of questions but focusing on the soil microbial communities in the Dry Valleys and those found in the hot soils of Mt Erebus, Melbourne and Rittman. Using new genomic tools we are currently looking at the several unique endemic members of the Erebus communities in relation to their biogeographic separation from other geothermal habitats. Amanda Clarke amanda.clarke@asu.edu Arizona State University I completed a B.S. in aerospace engineering and a B.A. in philosophy at the University of Notre Dame in 1994. Following an internship at Boeing in Seattle, she completed a year of independent research in the Philippines as a Fulbright Scholar, studying the economic and cultural effects of a lethal eruption of Mayon Volcano in 1993 on four proximal agricultural villages. At Penn State she formalized her interests in applying fluid mechanics and numerical methods to fundamental questions in volcanology. She began studying pyroclastic deposits and eruption dynamics at Mount St. Helens in 1996 and at the Soufrière Hills volcano as a junior member of the Montserrat Volcano Observatory (MVO) team in 1997. She was part of the MVO staff that monitored a long sequence of explosive eruptions in 1997, which served as the basis for her PhD thesis. She completed a post­doctoral Royal Society of London Fellowship, at the University of Bristol with Professor RSJ Sparks F.R.S. and collaborated with several other scientists based at Bristol. In Bristol she began using laboratory experiments to understand the dynamics of solid/gas mixtures, and began conduit flow modeling and petrologic analysis of eruption products in order to better understand magma ascent dynamics and the role it plays in transitions in eruption style. She became an Assistant Professor at Arizona State University in 2003 and an Associate Professor in 2009. In 2011, she received the Wager Medal. Laurie Connell (invited speaker) laurie.connell@umit.maine.edu University of Maine My PhD is in Genetics from the University of North Carolina in Chapel Hill, School of Medicine with a Post doctoral position at the MIT Center for Cancer research. Currently I am a Research Professor at the University of Maine, School of Marine Sciences and Department of Molecular and Biomedical Sciences. My research has been split between detection of Red Tide causing marine algae and basic research of fungi from extreme environments. Work in Antarctica began in the 1990 field season at Palmer Station with most recent work on Mt Erebus, the McMurdo Dry Valleys, and the Royal Society Range. Major interests are the abiotic drivers and survival mechanisms for microbial communities in oligotrophic habitats. Final Report to NSF: Community Workshop: “Scientific Drivers and Future of MEVO”

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Chuck Connor cbconnor@usf.edu University of South Florida I am a volcanologist and geophysicist, working on the structure of volcanoes, distributed volcanic fields and volcanic hazards. He develops computer code for probabilistic volcanic hazard assessment. I use potential field data (gravity, magnetics, electromagnetics) to better understand the structure and evolution of volcanic systems. I am former Chair of the Department of Geology and former Associate Dean of Research at the University of South Florida. Jessie Crain jlcrain@nsf.gov NSF I am the Antarctic Research Support Manager at the National Science Foundation. I oversee logistics support for researchers working at McMurdo and South Pole Stations and at field camps. Nelia Dunbar nelia@nmt.edu New Mexico Tech I am a geochemist and deputy director at the New Mexico Bureau of Geology. I also manage the Cameca SX­100 electron microprobe laboratory at New Mexico Tech. I completed a B.A. in geology at Mount Holyoke College (1983) and then went on to a Ph.D. in geochemistry at New Mexico Tech (1989). I have worked for the Bureau of Geology, at New Mexico Tech, since 1992, focusing on geochemistry of volcanic rocks, particularly volcanic ashes and other explosive eruptions, mainly in New Mexico and Antarctica. My professional interests include research on a wide range of topics broadly focused on volcanic and igneous processes. These include studies of chronology and chemistry of volcanic ashes, volcanic eruption processes, geochemical evolution of magmas, fluid migration within magmas and geochemical alteration caused by fluids that interact with volcanic rocks. In addition to research, I am an adjunct faculty member at the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, teach a graduate class on electron microprobe analysis, advise graduate students and serve on student committees, and am involved in outreach activities for New Mexico teachers and students. John Eichelberger jceichelberger@alaska.edu University of Alaska, Fairbanks I am the Dean of Graduate School and Interdisciplinary Studies at the University of Alaska Fairbanks (UAF) and Vice­President Academic of the University of the Arctic, a network of 170 universities and institutes with interests in the Far North. I hold a BS and MS in Earth Sciences from MIT and a PhD in Geology from Stanford. I was a research scientist at Los Alamos National Laboratory during 1974­79 and at Sandia National Laboratories from 1979­91. During 1991­2007 I was Professor of Volcanology at UAF and managed the UAF portion of the Alaska Volcano Observatory in partnership with the USGS and Alaska Division of Geological and Geophysical Surveys. In 2007, I left UAF Final Report to NSF: Community Workshop: “Scientific Drivers and Future of MEVO”

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for Reston, VA to be Coordinating Scientist of the USGS Volcano Hazards Program, comprising the five US volcano observatories and associated research facilities. Five years later I returned to UAF as a dean. The European Geoscience Union awarded him the Sergey Soloviev Prize for work in natural hazards in 2015. Much of Dr. Eichelberger’s scientific career has concerned the behavior of magma before and during volcanic eruptions. This included publication of influential papers on magma mixing and syneruptive degassing. His work has since broadened to interdisciplinary studies of natural hazards and development of international programs in research and education, particularly in the Arctic and with Russia. For 35 years he has advocated and led research drilling into active volcanic systems. Tobias Fischer fischer@unm.edu University of New Mexico Tobias Fischer (Ph.D. 1999) is a volcanologist, specializing in the geochemistry of gases discharging from active volcanoes, hydrothermal systems and volcanic regions. Since January 2000 he has been serving on the faculty of the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences at the University of New Mexico. Over the past two decades he is leading investigations with a significant field component on all continents, including Antarctica. His most recent work includes studies of magmatic volatiles emitted from active volcanoes in the East African Rift with the purpose of constraining the processes that lead to explosive eruptions in this region and better understand rift related volatile emissions. He has collaborated on time­series sampling and monitoring of volcanic gas compositions to investigate pre­cursors of recent phreatic eruptions of volcanoes in Costa Rica and Japan. Together with his students and post­doc he maintains a laboratory at the University of New Mexico for gas and water geochemical analyses. Helge Gonnermann helge@rice.edu Rice University Professional Preparation: University of California, Berkeley, Earth Science, PhD, 2004; University of Arizona, Tucson, Geophysics, MS, 1995; University of Montana, Missoula, BA, 1992. Appointments: 2015 Associate Professor, Rice University 2009­2015; Assistant Professor, Rice University 2006­2008; SOEST Young Investigator, University of Hawaii 2005­2006; Daly Postdoctoral Fellow, Harvard University 1996­1999; Hydrogeologist, Geomatrix Consultants. Research Interests: Magmatic and Hydrothermal Processes Geological Fluid Mechanics Geodynamics. Joachim Gottsmann j.gottsmann@bristol.ac.uk Bristol University (UK) Gottsmann uses integrated geodetic observations (gravimetric and GPS data) and advanced numerical modeling to inform on the link between magmatic stressing, crustal mechanics, fluid migration and resultant surface observables prior and during volcanic activity. His main research focus is on caldera unrest and explosive arc and ocean island volcanism with major interest in the Lesser Antilles, Canaries, and central and South America. He has recently started investigating temporal mass variations at deforming volcanoes in the East African Rift and also investigates stakeholder interaction during Final Report to NSF: Community Workshop: “Scientific Drivers and Future of MEVO”

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volcanic unrest crises. Applications of his research include understanding hydrothermal activity and risk mitigation. Gottsmann has coordinated the EC­FP7 VUELCO project and has been PI or Co­I on national and international research projects which brought more than £3M in research funding to the University of Bristol. Ronni Grapenthin rg@nmt.edu New Mexico Tech During the work on my Dipl­Inf. degree (Computer Science) at Humboldt­University in Berlin, Germany, I worked as a visiting student at Norvulk in Iceland mainly on isostacy related questions. Shortly after finishing my degree, I started my PhD work at UAF in Alaska with support from AVO. My dissertation revolved around subdaily GPS applications around volcanoes, but included source models for Bezymianny, Kamchatka, and the 2009 Redoubt eruption in Alaska. Following my graduation in 2012 I worked for 2 years as a post­doc at the Berkeley Seismological Laboratory to integrate real­time GPS analysis into earthquake early warning applications. Since August 2014 I am an Assistant Professor of Geophysics at New Mexico Tech. Part of my work includes analysis of geodetic records for Ross Island / Mt Erebus which is the topic of a MS thesis I supervise. I have completed two field seasons at Erebus. Julia Hammer jhammer@hawaii.edu University of Hawaii, Manoa I am a professor in the Department of Geology and Geophysics at the University of Hawaii. I was educated at Dartmouth College (BA 1993), the University of Oregon (PhD 1998), and Brown University (postdoc 1999­2002). Last semester (Fall 2015) I was a visiting professor at the Laboratoire Magmas et Volcans (LMV) at the University of Clermont­Ferrand, France. At the University of Hawaii, I teach courses for undergraduates and graduate students in introductory geoscience, mineralogy, volcanology, and igneous petrology. My research group continues to build and expand the capabilities of the UH Experimental Petrology laboratory. I am interested in using experimental petrology methods to solve problems in volcanology, igneous petrology and planetary science. I am particularly interested in the kinetics of crystallization. My current research themes are to understand the relationships between superheating, undercooling, nucleation and growth rates, crystal morphology, and the development of compositional heterogeneity in magmatic olivine, clinopyroxene, and plagioclase. Our current focus areas include Quizapu (Chilean Andes), Haleakala (Maui, Hawaii), Mars, and the Moon. Graham Hill (invited speaker) gjhill77@gmail.com Gateway Antarctica, Canterbury University Christchurch NZ My research focus is in geophysical modeling and the analysis of field imaging data using electromagnetic methods such as magnetotellurics. I apply electromagnetic studies in new and unique environments to better understand active geological processes and the role of geofluids in: volcanic systems; tectonic evolution of rift zones and subduction systems; geothermal systems. Final Report to NSF: Community Workshop: “Scientific Drivers and Future of MEVO”

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Brendan Hodge hodge@unavco.org UNAVCO I am a UNAVCO Engineer on the Polar Services team. I have completed four seasons of GPS and LiDAR fieldwork and science support on Erebus. Michael Jackson mejackso@nsf.gov NSF Michael E. Jackson, Ph.D. is the Program Director for Antarctic Research Facilities and Special Projects at the National Science Foundation Division of Polar Programs. As part of his duties he oversees a diverse portfolio of instrumentation proposals and support facilities, including data management plans for the Antarctic Sciences. Dr. Jackson’s scientific interests include seismology, geodesy and atmospheric and space weather disciplines. Dr. Jackson has also served in large project management roles building facilities for the National Science Foundation (NSF) and he has chaired and participated in numerous review panels for the NSF, USGS, NOAA, and NASA. He has authored over 60 articles and abstracts on tectonics, volcanology, atmospheric water vapor, and technological innovations. He has a B.S. in geology from the University of New Mexico, and a M.S. in geological sciences and a Ph.D. in geophysics from the University of Colorado. Leif Karlstrom leif@uoregon.edu University of Oregon I am an assistant professor at the University of Oregon. My interests are broadly in fluid motions around volcanoes, glaciers and bedrock landscapes. Past work includes magma chamber mechanics and thermodynamics, caldera forming eruptions, crustal growth in arcs, geyser eruption mechanics, supraglacial stream dynamics, and VLP seismicity around open vent volcanoes. My interests specific to Erebus lie in interpretation of seismic and infrasonic signals associated with fluid motion within the conduit. I develop multiphase flow models for magma transport, and the corresponding elastic deformation that generates seismicity. Peter LaFemina (Co­PI for workshop) plafemina@psu.edu Penn State University Dr. Peter La Femina is an Associate Professor of Geosciences at The Pennsylvania State University. He holds a PhD in Marine Geology and Geophysics from the University of Miami – Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, where he was awarded the Walton Smith Prize for best PhD dissertation, an MSc in Geology from Florida International University, and a BA in Geology from Hartwick College. In his geodynamics research, he integrates geophysical measurements with numerical modeling to study active tectonic, magmatic and volcanic processes, with the goals of improving our knowledge of fault systems during the earthquake cycle, the geodynamics of plate boundary zone deformation, the short and long­term interaction of magmatic and fault systems, and precursors to volcanic activity. He has published over 34 peer­reviewed publications and book chapters, and has performed research for the US Final Report to NSF: Community Workshop: “Scientific Drivers and Future of MEVO”

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National Science Foundation, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Nuclear Regulatory Commission, and International Atomic Energy Agency across the Earth. Dr. La Femina is the former Chairman of the Board of Directors – UNAVCO, Inc. Jessica Larsen jflarsen@alaska.edu University of Alaska, Fairbanks I am a Professor of Volcanology at the University of Alaska, Fairbanks. I have worked for the Alaska Volcano Observatory as part of the UAF Geophysical Institute partner agency for 18 years. My research expertise is focused on: natural sample petrology and geochemistry of volcanic rocks; experimental petrology; and field based studies of eruptive history, stratigraphy, hazard assessment, an mapping of recently active volcanic systems. Einat Lev einatlev@ldeo.columbia.edu LDEO Columbia University My research is focused around how the physical properties of lava and magma influence the dynamics of volcanic eruptions and lava flow emplacement. I simulate how lava flows evolve, lava domes grow, and lava lakes circulate using numerical models. I use laboratory experiments with both analogue fluids and natural molten basalts to examine the details of flows involving complex materials and geometries. Lastly, I employ a range of field observation methods to capture the temperature and speed of flow of lava bodies. I have recently studied the circulation of Erebus’ lava lake using thermal camera footage and identified dominant time frequencies of change in lake circulation. Glen Mattioli (PI for workshop) mattioli@unavco.org UNAVCO Mattioli is the Director of Geodetic Infrastructure (GI) at UNAVCO, Inc., which operates the Geodesy Advancing Geosciences and EarthScope – The GAGE Facility for the NSF, with additional core support from NASA. Mattioli also is an adjunct professor of Earth & Environmental Sciences at the University of Texas at Arlington, having transitioned to a full­time position at UNAVCO in 2015. The GI program at UNAVCO is responsible for the planning, construction, operation and maintenance, and data flow of geodetic networks, including the EarthScope Plate Boundary Observatory, which spans the North American continent, COCONet throughout the Caribbean region, the recently funded TLALOCNet in Mexico, and POLENet in Greenland and Antarctica. In addition, the GI program supports NSF, NASA, and community PIs with planning, logistics, engineering, and GPS and TLS imaging instrumentation, as requested. Mattioli received his BA from the University of Rochester in geology, and his MS and PhD from Northwestern University, in geological sciences, before completing post­doctoral fellowships at Caltech and UC Berkeley. Mattioli has been doing tectonic and volcanic geodesy across the Caribbean since 1994. He has over 275 total publications, including 64 peer­reviewed articles. Thomas Nylen nylen@unavco.org Final Report to NSF: Community Workshop: “Scientific Drivers and Future of MEVO”

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UNAVCO I have been a UNAVCO field engineer for 8 years. During that time, I have contributed to the maintenance and upgrade of the MEVO GPS network. Kurt Panter kpanter@bgsu.edu Bowling Green State University I am currently an Associate Professor of Geology at Bowling Green State University in Ohio and earned my Ph.D. under the supervision of Phil Kyle at New Mexico Tech in 1995. My research is field­initiated igneous petrology, geochemistry and volcanology. My main focus is the origin of alkaline volcanoes and their evolution and eruptive environment in the southwestern Pacific region; Antarctica and New Zealand. Other research is focused on volcanism in the northern Rio Grande Rift and San Juan Volcanic Field, USA. Antarctic Research ­ I have been involved in several international interdisciplinary research programs and initiatives. I have participated in 10 field seasons in Antarctica focused on magmatic and glacial­volcanic history of alkaline rocks in Marie Byrd Land, the western Ross Sea (including five seasons on Erebus Volcano) and in the southern Transantarctic Mountains. I was a Co­leader of the Petrology and Geochemistry group of the ANDRILL program (SMS project ­ 2007), and was a member of both sedimentology and core characterization teams during drilling. I have participated in a marine geophysical cruise (NBP0701) aboard RVIB N.B. Palmer in 2006/07. I am currently a member of the Polar Rock Repository Curatorial Advisory Board and a past member of the U.S. ANDRILL Steering Committee. I have also acted as a Guest Associate Editor for the journal Geosphere ­ special theme issue on ANDRILL (since 2009), and I am now an Advisory Editor for the journal Antarctic Science. Joe Pettit (invited speaker) pettit@unavco.org UNAVCO I have been an employee of UNAVCO, Inc. for nine years, beginning my career as a field engineer for the Polar Support team in the spring of 2007. During this time I have spent numerous field seasons supporting various PI teams both in Antarctica and the Arctic. In 2012, I became the project manager leading the Polar Support team. In this role I direct the activities of five field engineers and a technician, as we provide geodetic support to upwards of forty­five projects annually. My educational background is in Electrical Engineering, and I have spent most of the past twenty­six years working with the US Antarctic Program in various capacities, ranging from engineering design support to station operations management.

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Michael Poland mpoland@usgs.gov USGS I am a volcano geodesist based at the Cascades Volcano Observatory. My experience includes 10 years at the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, where I worked with geodetic and other data to investigate magma supply, storage, and eruption. I have expertise in InSAR and microgravity, but I work to combine disparate volcanological datasets to form coherent conceptual models of volcano behavior. Diana Roman droman@carnegiescience.edu Carnegie Institution of Science Diana Roman's research straddles the boundary between volcanology and seismology, with a dual focus on understanding the nature of magma ascent and eruption and of volcanic microearthquake swarms. Specifically, Roman works to understand, from a mechanical perspective, the formation, evolution, and dynamics of crustal magmatic systems and the source mechanisms and causes of microearthquake swarms occurring in the vicinity of active volcanoes. These two lines of research are tied together through development of conceptual and numerical models of the interaction of tectonic and volcanic processes. Roman's primary research efforts have been aimed at identifying, documenting, and understanding systematic patterns in precursory volcanotectonic (VT) earthquake swarms and crustal stress field orientations during episodes of magma ascent, and at exploring the potential of volcanic stress field analysis as an eruption forecasting technique. A major result has been the recognition, though detailed analysis of precursory VT swarms and split S­wave polarizations, that changes in the orientation of local maximum compression precede many eruptions by weeks to months and that these changes are caused by the dilation of the volcanic conduit system during magma influx. Roman has also demonstrated that identification of local stress field reorientations may be used to assess the likelihood of impending eruptive activity. Linda Rowan rowan@unavco.org UNAVCO Linda Rowan is the Director of External Affairs at UNAVCO. Her responsibilities include policy liaison, media relations, open access to data, international cooperation and capacity building and connecting the facility, community and other stakeholders. She has a PhD in Geology from Caltech and a B.S. in Geology/B.S. in Computer Science/Math from the University of Illinois­Urbana­Champaign. She previously worked at the American Geosciences Institute, Science/AAAS and NASA­JSC. Philipp Ruprecht Ruprecht@ldeo.columbia.edu LDEO Columbia University Philipp Ruprecht is a native German, and received his Bachelor’s degree in Geological Sciences from Georg­August University Göttingen, Germany, in 2001. After a year abroad at UCLA, he finished his Diplom degree in Geological Sciences (MSc equivalent) at Georg­August University in 2004. Philipp received his PhD in Geological Sciences from the University of Washington, Seattle, USA, in 2009. His dissertation explored the Final Report to NSF: Community Workshop: “Scientific Drivers and Future of MEVO”

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time and length scale of magma mixing in natural systems and by numerical modeling in general, and in particular focused on the historic eruptions in 1846 and 1932 of Volcán Quizapu in Chile. Following a three­year post­doctoral appointment at Lamont­Doherty Earth Observatory (Columbia University), including a Feodor­Lynen Fellowship from the Alexander­von­Humboldt Foundation, he has since joined the research faculty at Lamont­Doherty Earth Observatory as a Lamont Assistant Research Professor. Philipp combines fieldwork in volcanic areas with petrological and geochemical studies from those areas to understand how Earth differentiates, what the inner workings of volcanoes are as well as how volatiles condition the atmosphere, generate pathways for ore formation, and provide real­time insights into volcanic hazards and eruption forecasting. While having a focus on the natural systems and their geochemical fingerprints, his research always ties in constraints from the physical processes and fluid dynamics. Philipp has worked in volcanic areas that span the Americas. Kenneth Sims (invited speaker) ksims7@uwyo.edu University of Wyoming I am a Professor at the University of Wyoming and a former tenured Research Scientist at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. I use isotopic and chemical tracers to study geologic processes in the Earth and other planetary bodies. Ken has over sixty­five peer­reviewed scientific publications focusing on: the study of mantle melting; oceanic and continental crustal genesis; volcanology; geothermal, glacial and groundwater hydrology; planetary core­formation; weathering and alteration of oceanic and continental crust; and chemical and paleo­oceanography. Dr. Sims earned his BA in Geology from Colorado College, his MSc from the Institute of Meteoritics at the University of New Mexico; and his PhD in Geochemistry from the University of California, Berkeley. Ken’s field experience ranges from ocean floor geology, using submersibles and remote sensing techniques, to geological studies of active volcanoes at high altitudes in technical terrain. Relevant to this MEVO workshop, Dr. Sims has worked in Antarctica for 13 summer field seasons over 25 years as both a mountain guide (including being the head guide for the NASA Erebus Robotic Development Study NERDS in 1992/93) and as an NSF funded PI. Sims is also one of the organizational leaders for the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory Consortium: http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/observatories/yvo/yvo_about.html. For Dr. Sims complete Curriculum Vitae and Mountaineering Resume please see http://www.uwyo.edu/geolgeoph. Alan Smith alsmith@csusb.edu Cal State San Bernardino Dr. Alan Smith is currently Professor Emeritus at the California State University, San Bernardino, prior to being hired at San Bernardino, he was Professor and Chair at the University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez. His research efforts over the past 45 years have been on the geology, stratigraphy, and geochemistry of the potentially active volcanoes of the Lesser Antilles island arc. The results of his studies have also been used to assess the volcanic hazards posed by these potentially active volcanoes, and he has served as an associate scientist to the Montserrat Volcano Observatory since its inception in 1995, he was also a member of the team studying the 1979 eruption of Final Report to NSF: Community Workshop: “Scientific Drivers and Future of MEVO”

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Soufriere volcano, St. Vincent. He is currently working on the stratigraphy of the historic eruptions of Soufriere volcano, St. Vincent and on the geology of the island of Providencia in the western Caribbean. His research has resulted in the publication of numerous scientific papers including memoirs on the islands of Saba, St. Eustatius, Dominica and on Mt. Pelée, Martinique. These memoirs also included the publication of new geological maps of the three islands as well as a stratigraphically­based map of Mt. Pelée. Meghan Walker meghan.walker.contractor@usap.gov Antarctic Support Contractor After completing a BS in Biology/Chemistry from the University of Minnesota­Duluth and a certificate in International Relations­Environmental Policy from Bard NY I started my career with the USAP. I’ve been supporting polar field science in various roles and locations for over a decade and am currently the Field Science Manager at the Antarctic Support Contract (ASC). Phil Wannamaker (invited speaker) pewanna@egi.utah.edu University of Utah Dr. Philip E. Wannamaker is Research Professor of Electromagnetic Geophysics at the University of Utah, Energy & Geoscience Institute. Professional interests span geophysical inversion, global tectonism, volcanology and geothermal resources. He has lead field campaigns and integrative interpretations for U.S. Cascadia, Great Basin, and S Appalachia, New Zealand South Island, and Antarctica. An example result is in: Wannamaker, P. E., R. L. Evans, P. A. Bedrosian, M. J. Unsworth, V. Maris, and R. S. McGary, 2014, Segmentation of plate coupling, fate of subduction fluids, and modes of arc magmatism in Cascadia, inferred from magnetotelluric resistivity: Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 15, doi:10.1002/2014G204, 2014. Thomas Wilch twilch@nsf.gov NSF I am the NSF Antarctic Earth Sciences (AES) Program Director. The AES program has provided science funding for past research at Mt. Erebus. I have research experience studying records of past volcanism and glaciation in the McMurdo Sound area and Marie Byrd Land, Antarctica.

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APPENDIX 3 ­ UNAVCO MEVO support summary The NSF­PLR event number that MEVO operates under each year is G­081M. UNAVCO currently operates the Geodesy Advancing Geosciences and EarthScope (GAGE) Facility under a Cooperative Agreement with NSF. As part of GAGE, the Geodetic Infrastructure Program, directed by PI Mattioli, is responsible for providing support to NSF­funded investigators in the polar regions with direct funding from the Arctic Sciences (ARC) and Antarctic Sciences (ANT) programs in the Division of Polar Programs within the NSF Geosciences Directorate. PLR supports 8.0 FTE with an annual budget of $1.45M. UNAVCO Polar Services staff includes a full­time Polar Services manager, five full­time field engineers, one technician, and 1.0 FTE of support distributed among individual members of the UNAVCO Development and Testing group. Geodetic observations were initiated on Ross Island in 1995 with the establishment of the Crary Laboratory campaign reference site (CRAR) and the continuous GPS (cGPS) station at McMurdo Station (MCM4). Six campaign GPS sites were established as part of the 1996/1997 TAMDEF project. These initial GPS observations were ~24 to 50 km away from the summit of Mount Erebus (Figure 1). One site (ERE0) was established in 1998 at Lower Erebus Hut and five additional campaign sites were established in 1999 and another in 2002 for a total of seven sites that were within 10 km of the summit. Twelve cGPS stations are within ~10 km of the summit, with the first station established in 2002. Currently, six stations are considered operational and four of these are delivering data to the UNAVCO archive when the MEVO workshop proposal was submitted in late December 2015. GPS data and associated metadata from both campaign sites and continuous stations are all available in the UNAVCO data archive. At this time, geodetic data from GPS stations in Antarctica in general (i.e., including stations that are part of ANET and LARISSA) and more specifically on Ross Island, including MEVO stations, are not processed by the GAGE Facility GPS analysis workflow and thus there are no position estimates, time series, or site velocity estimates available from UNAVCO for use by the US and global geodetic community. UNAVCO support for research on ME, including ongoing operation and maintenance (O&M) for the geophysical sensors (e.g., continuous GPS) that comprise MEVO has been substantial over the past two decades. UNAVCO support has ranged from collecting kinematic and static GPS data sets to the installation of geodetic monuments and permanent stations. The initial installations of cGPS stations were at Hooper’s Shoulder and Cones sites in 1999. Other cGPS stations were installed in subsequent years (additional details are discussed above). Currently, there are six continuously operating, telemetered GPS sites on ME for which UNAVCO provides some level of maintenance and data archiving support. Annual GPS pool equipment provided for ME­related research is variable, and ranges from between 2 and 12 GPS static/kinematic kits. Support also includes O&M to cGPS sites and radio telemetry network. Initially, UNAVCO provided field engineer support to collect and process campaign data, the products of which were provided to the MEVO PI. More recently, the MEVO PI has deployed graduate students to collect kinematic

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and static GPS data. Since UNAVCO has not participated in collecting these data, the PI assumed the responsibility of processing the raw GPS observations. All Permanent Station data is delivered to the UNAVCO permanent archive and is provided to the PI via the UNAVCO DAI. In addition to supporting GPS stations and data archiving, UNAVCO has also provided annual Terrestrial Laser Scanning (TLS) support since 2008. TLS and associated GPS data are processed by the responsible UNAVCO field engineer and products are provided to the PI. Typical annual support effort by UNAVCO on Erebus In Antarctica: 1. Permanent station support: 2 FTE, 4­5 days. 2. TLS – one FTE for one week. At times we have had two operators for the same duration. 3. Campaign GPS, training, etc: 1 FTE, one day. PI field team has done most of the campaign measurements and GPS data processing over recent years. In Boulder: 1. TLS Data processing: 1 FTE, 2­10 days, depending on TLS projects on Erebus. 2. Pre­season planning, equipment prep and shipping – 1 FTE for 1 week. UNAVCO Support by Year (1995­2015) 1995­96 ­ UNAVCO provided field engineer for mapping seismic station locations. 1996­97 ­ UNAVCO provided field engineer for mapping seismic station locations. 1997­98 ­ UNAVCO provided field engineer for mapping study locations, and providing georeferencing support for aerial gas sampling campaign. Provided 2 kinematic GPS kits and field team training. 1998­99 ­ No support provided 1999­00 ­ Installed and surveyed nine permanent monuments to create a deformation network for episodic occupations. Site names were: ABBZ, BOMZ, HOOZ, SISZ, CONZ, EAST, ELHT, HELZ, and NAUS. In addition to this, UNAVCO provided seven GPS campaign GPS receivers to the project and post processing of data. UNAVCO installed semi­continuously operating L1 stations at Truncated Cones (CONZ) and Hooper’s shoulder (HOOZ). 2000­01 ­ Deformation network monuments were re­occupied. Five receivers and two field engineers were provided for this effort. Additional instrumentation in the form of a replacement L1 receiver and a dual frequency L1/L2 receiver were installed at Truncated Cones. An L1 receiver was installed at Nausea Knob (NAUS). Mt Erebus GPS data telemetry infrastructure was moved from the Crary Lab to Bldg 71.

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2001­02 ­ Deformation network monuments were re­occupied. Four receivers and two field engineers were provided for this effort. Additionally, maintenance to permanent stations CONZ, NAUS, and HOOZ was provided. Installed a continuously operating, dual frequency receiver at the Lower Erebus Hut (ELHT) 2002­03 ­ GPS support – 6 campaign instruments and training. Also Installed or replaced L1 sites at Hooper’s Shoulder (HOOZ), Abbott Peak (ABBZ), Nausea Knob (NAUS), Erebus Lower Hut (E1GP), Mackintosh (MAC) and Bombs Peak (BOMZ). Provided maintenance to CONZ. 2002­03 ­ Deformation network monuments were re­occupied. Four receivers and field engineer assistance were provided for this effort . Provided ongoing support of semi continuous sites and data processing assistance. Upgraded continuous sites HOOZ, NAUS, E1GP. 2004­05 ­ Deformation network monuments were re­occupied. Provided three campaign receivers and one field engineer to measure network and displacement markers on the Barne Glacier. Provided routine maintenance to seven telemetered GPS stations on Erebus. 2005­06 ­ training, technical support, maintenance provided for Erebus continuous network. 2006­07 ­ Campaign GPS support and cGPS O&M at CONZ. Three campaign GPS kits provided. 2007­08 ­ 2 GPS campaign kits. Maintenance provided to permanent stations at CONZ and Abbot Peak. New cGPS station MACG installed. 2008­09 ­ Provided two campaign receivers and training to the MEVO field team. Also provided ongoing maintenance and data archiving support to the continuously operating stations on Erebus. This year marked the first year for TLS work on Erebus, scanning the lava lake in the upper crater. 2009­10 ­ Provided five campaign receivers and training to the MEVO field team. Also provided ongoing maintenance and data archiving support to the continuously operating stations on Erebus. TLS work on Erebus: Temporal scanning of the lava lake in the upper crater. 2010­11 ­ Provided three campaign receivers and training to the MEVO field team. Also provided ongoing maintenance and data archiving support to the continuously operating stations on Erebus. TLS work on Erebus: Temporal scanning of the lava lake in the upper crater and selected fumarole interiors. 2011­12 ­ Provided three campaign receivers and training to the MEVO field team. Also provided ongoing maintenance and data archiving support to the continuously operating stations on Erebus. TLS work on Erebus: Temporal scanning of the lava lake in the upper crater and selected fumarole interiors. Final Report to NSF: Community Workshop: “Scientific Drivers and Future of MEVO”

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2012­13 ­ Three campaign systems plus training provided to Field team. Erebus continuous stations currently six: MACG, MONZ, CON2, ABBZ, HOOZ and the newly added station, PHIG. TLS efforts were repeated on the lava lake and fumaroles. 2013­14 ­ Three campaign systems; set up ERE0 temporary base station. Upgraded permanent station at Abbott Peak (ABBZ) to improve power and provide telemetry. TLS scans were repeated on the lava lake. 2014­15 ­ Two campaign systems provided. Set up ERE0 Temporary base station. Provided six additional static campaign systems. Upgraded continuous station at Hoopers Shoulder. Renamed HOG2. 2015­16 ­ Provide six campaign systems with one controller, set up ERE0 Temporary base station. Upgrading site at Bombs Peak to improve power and add telemetry for data. ­Current continuous stations receiving maintenance, data archive (DOI’s exist for these):

CON2, ABBZ, PHIG, BOMZ, MACG, HOG2 ­Campaign monuments and sites of transient continuous stations (DOI’s exist for these):

E1G2, RAYG, NAUS, ELHT, LEHG

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APPENDIX 4 ­ IRIS/PASSCAL MEVO support summary The PLR­ANT program provides incremental costs to support the following resources related to Polar Services at IRIS/PASSCAL: 1) 4.3 FTE in engineering, development, fabrication, and field support for Antarctic deployments; 2) specialized equipment, in particular, sensors, power and communication systems, and enclosures that are cold­rated for deployment in polar experiments. IRIS support on ME began in 1996­1997 with a project called “Erebus I” with PIs R. Aster and P. Kyle. This included the installation of 5 passive seismic stations. The next experiment was “Tomo Erebus” in 2007­2009, again with PIs R. Aster and P. Kyle. This experiment included 25 stations and 60 channel high resolution recording system. “Tomo Erebus” was followed by “Erebus Seismic Refraction Experiment” in 2008­2009 with PIs K. Snelson and P. Kyle. This experiment had 115 passive stations and 400 single channel recording systems and included active explosion sources near the the central vent and crater of ME and at distal locations adjacent to Ross Island. This was followed by “Erebus II” in 2009­2010, a 10 station passive network. The last PASSCAL experiment was “Erebus Small Aperture Array” in 2011­2012, a 5 station passive network, again with PIs R. Aster and P. Kyle. A summary of the station deployment over the past 20 years is shown in Figure 2 above. Data for each PASSCAL experiment are archived at the IRIS Data Management Center (DMC) at the University of Washington. The individual DOIs for each data set are listed in Appendix 4. The current MEVO Seismic Network is operated and maintained by NMT under the MEVO award with PIs P. Kyle and C. Oppenheimer. This 12 passive station network is currently in a state of disrepair and thus was not delivering data to the DMC at the time of the MEVO workshop.

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APPENDIX 5 ­ Proposed Deep Drilling Plan for ME Drilling to the conduit With the geometry of the system, a summit plateau close to the active vent, and robust logistical base at McMurdo Station a short distance away, it is possible that an international program could be launched to drill into the conduit. If results from coring of Kilauea Iki in 70s to 1981 and inferences from drilling at Krafla are applied, the interval from a relatively cool hydrothermal system to magma may be only a matter of meters, a favorable situation from the standpoint of what it will take to keep the well cool. One can imagine that because of magma convection the margin of the conduit is a constant temperature boundary and that outboard of that would be another constant temperature boundary, perhaps more diffuse, with a convecting hydrothermal system. The intervening zone would be a mostly ductile conductive wall, the thickness of which would control heat loss from the magma column to the edifice. As the objective conduit segment would be shallow, targeting would be largely a matter of aiming to a point directly below the lava lake, adjusted by any convincing geophysical evidence. This simple geometric approach was entirely successful in coring through conduits of Inyo Domes, CA in the 1980s. If there is any evidence of elongation of the conduit in a particular direction, it would be wise to slant the borehole in a plane perpendicular to that. With sensors being designed for monitoring jet engines approaching magmatic temperatures, it is not unreasonable to consider implanting such sensors in the wall of the conduit when the well is completed. Suggested development steps 1. Assemble international science/engineering/logistics team. Propose workshop to ICDP and NSF, develop full drilling proposal and submit to ICDP (may require two years). 2. Conduct surface soil gas and shallow (10+/­ m) core hole survey. Holes would include microbiology, stratigraphy, heat flow, and emplacement of geophysical instruments. Scout prospective conduit drilling camp and sites – may include some shallow geophysics such as ground penetrating radar, etc. 3. In parallel, develop detailed logistical, engineering, and science plan for conduit hole. These may require addenda to drilling and science proposals. 4. Conduct drilling. During drilling, deploy dense seismic array using bit as energy source. Put tracers in drilling fluid and monitor fumaroles for connectivity with hydrothermal system and conduit. Injection tests to measure permeability coupled with surface geodetic measurements should be considered. 5. The borehole should be completed with permanent instrumentation in the cooler part and pressure and temperature sensors as close to magma as the state­of­the art allows. 6. All core and downhole fluid and gas samples must be carefully distributed under control of representative committee and subsequently archived at permanent repository.

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Commonly, science team members are allowed a one­two year lead on sample research before opening up to all qualified scientists.

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