1
CHAPTER
I Social Dimensions of Education Introduction
Sociologists see education as one of the major institutions that
constitutes society. While theories guide research and policy formulation
in the sociology of education, they also provide logical explanations tor
why things happen the way they do. These theories help sociologists
understand educational systems.
This chapter presents an introduction to the social science theories
of education-consensus and conflict, structural functionalist and
interaction theories as related to education.
Consensus and Conflict Theory In order for us to understand why sociological theories could be
classified into 'consensus' and 'conflict' perspectives let us examine the
definitions of consensus .and conflict.
Dahrendorf (1959, 1968) as cited by Ritzer(2000) is the major
exponent of the position that society has two faces (conflict and con-
sensus) and that sociological theory therefore should be divided into two
parts, conflict theory and consensus theory.
Consensus is a
general or
widespread
agreement
among all
members of a
particular
society.
CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION
Consensus theories see shared norms and values as fundamental to
society, focus on social order based on tacit agreements, and view social
change as occurring in a slow and orderly fashion. In contrast, conflict
theories emphasize the dominance of some social groups by others, see
social order as based on manipulation and control by dominant groups,
and view social change as occurring rapidly and in a disorderly fashion as
subordinate groups overthrow dominant groups (Ritzer, 2000).
Consensus theorists examine value integration in society, and
conflict theorists examine conflicts of interest anj the coercion that holds
society together in the face of these stresses. Dahrendorf recognizes that
society can not exis* without both conflict and consensus, which are
prerequisites for each other. Thus, we cannot have conflict unless there is
some prior consensus.
Consensus is a concept of society ;n which the absence of conflict if
seen as the equilibrium state of society based on a general or widespread
agreement among all members of a particular society. Conflict is a
disagreement or clash between opposing ideas, principles, or people - this
can be a covert or overt conflict.
The conf.ict theory, according to Horton and Hunt (1984) focuses on
the heterogeneous nature of society and the differential distribution of
political and social power. A struggle between social classes and class
conflicts between the powerful and less powerful groups occur. Groups
which have vested interest and power work for rules and laws,
particularly those that serve their own interests, to be passed to the
exclusion of others.
Conflict theorists ask how schools contribute to the unequal distri-
bution of people into jobs in society so that more powerful members of
society maintain the best positions and the less powerful groups (often
women, racial and ethnic groups) often minority groups, are allocated to
lower ranks in society. The larger issue for conflict theorists is the role
that education plays in maintaining the prestige, power, and economic and
social position of the dominant group in society (Ballantine and Spade,
2004).
The conflict perspective assumes that social behavior is best
understood in terms of conflict or tensions between competing groups.
Such conflict need not be violent; it can take the form of labor
negotiations, party politics, competition between religious groups for
members, or disputes over the budget.
Conflict theory grew out of the work of Karl Marx and focuses on
the struggle of social classes to maintain dominance and power in social
systems. It is a theory or collection of theories which places emphasis on
conflict in human society (Jary and Jary, 2000:105).
Conflict is a
clash
between
ideas, principles
and people.
Conflict theory focuses on the
struggle of
social classes
to maintain
dominance
and power in
social
systems.
Consensus
theory emphasizes on
social order,
stability and
social regula-
tion.
CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL
DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION
Social structures produce
patterns of
inequality in the distribution of
scarce resources
Figure 1. The Conflict Model (Source: Sociology and Anthropology, Javier et a/., 2002)
The discourse of conflict theory is on the emergence of conflict and
what causes conflict within ? particular human society. Or we can say that
conflict theory deals with the incompatible aspects of society. Conflict
theory emerged out of the sociology of conflict, crisis and social change.
The conflict theorists are interested in how society's institutions - the
family, government, religion, education, and the media - may help to
maintain the privileges of some groups and keep others in a Subservient
position. Their emphasis on social change and redistribution of resources
makes conflict theorists more "radical" and "activist" than furctfonplicts
(Schaefer, 2003).
Consensus theory, on the other hand, is a sociological perspective or
collection of theories, in which social order and stability/social regulation
form the base of emphasis. In other words, consensus theory is concerned
with the maintenance or continuation of social order in society, in relation
to accepted norms, values, rules and regulations as widely accepted or
collectively by the society-or within a particular society itself. It emerged
out of the sociology of social order and social stability/social regulation.
The consensus and conflict sociological theories are reflected in ihe
works of certain dominant social theorists such as Karl Marx, Emile
Durkheim, and Max Weber and other prominent social theorists such as
Talcott Parsons & Robert Merton, Louis Althusser & Ralph Dahrendorf
and Herbert Mead & Herbert Blumer.
The conflict model is
concerned with the
stresses and conflicts
that emerge in society
because of
competition over
scarce resources. It
focuses on the in-
equalities that are built
into social structures
rather than on those
that emerge because
of personal
characteristics.
Conflict
Reorganisation and Change
Conflict
theorists
emphasize
social change
and
redistribution of
resources.
CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION
tendency to the "optimization of gratification" and whose relation to their
situations, including each other, is defined and mediated in terms of a
system of culturally structured and shared symbols.
In his analysis of the social system, Parsons was primarily interested
in its structural components. In addition to a concern with the status-role,
he was interested in such large-scale components of social systems as
collectivities, norms, and values. Parsons was not simply a structuralist
but also a functionalist.
Functional Requisites of a Social System
1. Social system must be structured so that they operate compatibly with other systems.
2. To survive, the social system must have the requisite from other systems.
3. The system mus* meet a sighiricant proportion of the needs of its actors.
4. The system must elicit adequate participation from its members.
5. It must have at least a minimum of coiitrol over potentially disruptive behavior.
6. If conflict becomes sufficiently disruptive, it must be controlled.
J. Finally, a social system requires a language in order to survVe.
- Talcott Parsons
The functionalist perspective is primarily concerned with why a
society assumes a particular form. This perspective assumes that any
society takes its particular form because that form works well for the
society given its particular situation. Societies exist under a wide range of
environmental situations. Some societies have highly advanced tech-
nologies and they also differ in terms of their interactions with other
societies. Thus, what works for one society cannot be expected to work
for another.
In any society, however, the functionalist perspective makes one
basic argument. Whatever are the characteristics of a society, those
characteristics developed because they met the needs of that society in its
particular situation. The key principles of the functionalist perspective
(Farley, 1990) include the following:
1. Interdependency. One of the most important principles of
functionalist theory is that society is made up of interdependent
parts. This means that every part of society is dependent to some
extent on other parts of society, so that what happens at one place
in society has important effects elsewhere. For example, the class
requires a faculty member to teach a subject and the students to
learn it. Someone has to provide electricity to light the room, and
in order for that electricity to be provided, someone had to build a
dam or provide fuel to the power plant.
Key
principles of
the function-
alist theory
• interdepe
ndency
• functions
of social
structure
and culture • consensus
and
cooperation
• equilibrium
CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION
2. Functions of Social Structure and Culture. Closely related to
interdependency is the idea that each part of the social system exists
because it serves some function. This principle is applied by
functionalists to both social structure and culture. Social structure
refers to the organization of society, including its institutions, its
social positions, and its distribution of resources. Culture refers to a
set of beliefs, language, rules, values, and knowledge held in common
by members of a society.
5. Consensus and cooperation. Another key principle in
functionalist theory is that societies have a tendency
toward consensus; that is to have certain basic values
that nearly everyone in the society agrees upon. For
example, we all believe in the principles of democracy
and freedom. Societies tend toward consensus in order
to achieve cooperation. Functionalists believe that
inability to cooperate w'll paralyze the society, and
people will devote more and more effort to fighting
one another rather than getting anything done.
4. Equilibrium, A final principle of functionalist theories
is that of equilibrium. This view holds that, once a
society has achieved the form that is best adapted to its situation, it
has reached a state of balance or equilibrium, and !t will remain in
that condition until it is forced to change by some new condition.
New technology, a change in climate, or contact with an outside
society are all conditions to which a society might have to adapt.
When such conditions occur, social change will take place: society
will changc just enough to adapt to the new situation. However, once
that adaptation has been made, the society has attained a new state of
balance or equilibrium with its environment, and it will not change
again until some new situation requires further adaptation.
Equilibriu
m
characteris
tic of a
society
when it has
achieved
the form
that is best
adapted its
situation
Figure 3. The Structural-Functional Model (Source: Sociological Theory, George Ritzer,
2000)
Social structures provide preset
patterns which evolve to meet human
^iPj needs
Stability, order, and harmony
.Maintenance of society
CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION
The works of Marx in his early years was interpreted by some social
theorists as emphasizing the role of human beings in social conflict. They
explained change as emerging from the crisis between human beings and
their society. They argued that Marx's theory was a theory characterized
by class conflicts or the conflict between the bourgeoisie (rich owners)
and the proletariat (poor workers).
Max Weber argues that schools teach and maintain particular "status
cultures," that is, groups in society with similar interests and positions in
the status hierarchy. Located in neighborhoods, schools are often rather
homogeneous in their student bodies and teach to that constituency, thus
perpetuating that status culture. Weber outlines types of education found
in societies at different time periods, dist'nguishing between inborn
"charisma" and training in school, and the modern, rational method of
education. Education systems may train individuals in specialties to fill
needed positions or prepare "cultivated individuals," those who stand
above others because of their superior knowledge and reasoning abilities.
Individuals who had access to this type of education in eariv China were
from the educated elite, thus perpetuating their family status culture
(Sadovnik et al, 1994).
Structural Functionalism Structural functionalism, especially in the work of Talcott Parsons,
Robert Merton, and their students and followers, was for many years the
dominant sociological theory. However, in the last three decades it has
declined dramatically in importance (Chriss, 1995) and, in at least some
senses, has receded into the recent history of sociological theory.
Parsons' structural functionalism has four functional imperatives for
all "action" systems, embodied in his famous AGIL scheme. These
functional imperatives that are necessary for all systems are:
1. Adaptation: A system must cope with external situational
exigencies. It must adapt to its environment and adapt environment to its
needs.
2. Goal attainment: A system must define and achieve its primary
goals.
3. Integration-. A system must regulate the interrelationship of its
component parts. It must also manage the relationship among the other
three functional imperatives (A,G,L).
4. Latency (pattern maintenance): A system must furnish, maintain,
and renew both the motivation of individuals and the cultural patterns that
create and sustain the motivation.
Parsons designed the AGIL scheme to be used at all levels in this
theoretical system. The behavioral organism is the action system that
handles the adaptation function by adjusting to and transforming the
external world. The personality system performs the goal-attainment
function by defining system goals and mobilizing resources to attain
Status
cultures refer to
groups in
society with
similar
interests and
positions in
the status
hierarchy.
Structural
functionalism states that
society is made
up of various
institutions that
work together
in cooperation.
CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION
them. The social system copes with the integration function by controlling
its component parts. Finally, the cultural system performs the latency
function by providing actors with the norms and values that motivate
them for action (Ritzer, 2000). Parson's four action systems are shown in
Figure 2. Cultural System Social System
. Action System Personality
System
CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION
Figure 2: Structure of the General Action System
(Source: Sociological Theory, George Ritzer, 2000).
The heart of Parsons' work is found in his four action systems. In the
assumptions that Parson made regarding his action systems we encounter
the problem of order which was his overwhelming concern and that has
become a major source of criticism of his work. Parsons found his answer
to the problem of order in structural functionalism, which operates in his
view with the following sets of assumptions:
1. Systems have the property of order and interdependence of parts.
2. Systems tend toward self-maintaining order, or equilibrium.
3. The system may be static or involved in an ordered process of
change.
4. The nature of one part of the system has an impact on the form
that the other parts can take.
5. Systems maintain boundaries with their environments.
6. Allocation and integration are two fundamental processes
necessary for a given state of equilibrium of a system.
7. Systems tend toward self-maintenance involving the mainte-
nance of the relationships of parts to the whole, control of environmental
variations, and control of tendencies to change the system from within.
These assumptions led Parsons to make the analysis of the ordered
structure of society his first priority.
Parsons' conception of the social system begins at the micro level
with interaction between ego and alter ego, defined as the most elementary
form of the social system. He described a social system as something
which consists of a plurality of individual actors interacting with each
other in a situation which has at least a physical or environmental aspect,
actors who are motivated in terms of a
Social system
begins at the
micro level
with
interaction
between the
ego and alter
ego, defined as
the most
elementary
form of the
social system.
CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION
The structural functional model addresses the question of social
organization and how it is maintained. This theoretical perspective is the
legacy of Durkheim and Spencer. It has its roots in natural science and the
analogy between a society and an organization. In the analysis of living
organism, the scientist's task is to identify the various parts (structures)
and determine how they work (function). In the study of society, a
sociologist with this perspective tries to identify the structures of society
and how they function; hence the name structural functio-nalism (Javier et
al., 2002).
The component parts of a social structure are
families, neighbors, associations, schools, churches,
banks, countries, and the like. Functionalists maintain
that social structures exist in society for the functions
they have to carry out (Panopio et al., 1994).
Functionalist sociologists begin with a picture of
society that stresses tne interdependence of the social
system; these researchers often examine how well parts
are integrated with each other. Functionalists view
society as a kind of machine, where one part articulates
with another to produce the dynamic energy required to
make society work. Most important, functionalism
stresses the processes that maintain social order by
stressing consensus and agreement. Although function
alists understand that change is inevitable, they
underscore the evolutionary nature of change. Further,
although they acknowledge that conflict between group
exists, functionalists argue that without a common bond
to unite groups, society will disintegrate. 1 hus function-
alists examine the social processes necessary to the
establishment and maintenance of social order
(Ballantine and Spade, 2004).
Structural functionalism puts emphasis on social
order and social stability not on conflict. It claims that
society is made up of different institutions or
organizations that work together in cooperation - to
achieve their orderly relationship and to maintain social
order and social stability. This maintenance of society is
extracted from the internal rules, norms, values and
regulations of these various ordered institutions.
Modern functionalist theories of education have
their origin in the work of Talcott Parsons. As cited by
Ballantine and Spade (2004), Parsons believes that
education is a vital part of a modern society, a society
that differs considerably from all previous societies.
From this perspective, schooling performs an important
function in the development and maintenance of a
The component
parts of a social
structure
• families
•i neighbors
• associations
• schools
• churches
• banks
• countries
Schooling per-
forms an
important
function in the
development
and
maintenance of
modern, democratic
society,
especially with
regard to equality
of opportunity for
all citizens. Thus,
in modern societ-
ies, education
becomes the key
institution in a
meritocratic
selection process.
- Ballantine &
Spade, 20C4
CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION
modern, democratic society, especially with regard to equality of
opportunity for all citizens. Thus, in modern societies education becomes
the key institution in a meritocratic selection process.
In addition to its role in a meritocratic society, education plays a
significant function in the maintenance of the modern democratic and
technocratic society. In a political democracy, schools provide citizens
with the knowledge and dispositions to participate actively in civic life
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION Q
In ever increasingly technical society, schools provide students with the
skills and dispositions to work in such a society. Although schools teach
specific work skills, they also teach students how to learn so they may
adapt to new work roles and requirements (http://allfreeesays.
com/student/ConsensusConflict/Perspectives/html).
Interactionist Theories
In general, interactionist theories about the relation of school and
society are critiques and extensions of the functionalist and conflict
perspectives. The critique arises from the observation that functionalist
and conflict theories are very abstract and emphasize structure and
process at a societal (macro-sociological) level of analysis. While this
level of analysis helps us to understand education in the "big picture",
macro-sociological theories hardly provide us with an ir.terpretable snap-
shot of what schools are like on an everyday level. What do students and
teachers actually do in school?
Interactionist theories attempt to make the "commonplace strange"
by turning on their heads everyday taken-for-granted behaviors and
interactions between students and students and between students and
teachers. It is exactly what most people do not question that is most
problematic to the inieractionist. For example, the processes by which
students arc labeled "gifted" or "learning disabled" are, from an
interactionist point of view, important to analyze because such processes
carry with them many implicit assumptions about learning and children
(Ballantine and Spade, 2004).
• Symbolic Interactionism
Interactionist theory has its origin in the social psychology of
early twentieth century sociologists George Herbert Mead and
Charles Horton Cooiey. Mead and Cooley examined the ways in
which the individual is related to society through ongoing social
interactions. This school of thought, known as symbolic
interactionism, views the self as socially constructed in relation to
social forces and structures and the product of ongoing negotiations
of meanings. Thus, the social self is an active product of human
agency rather than a deterministic product of social structure.
The basic idea is a result of interaction between individuals
mediated by symbols" in particular, language. The distinctive
attributes of human behavior grow from people's participation in
varying types of social structure which depend in turn, on the
existence of language behavior (http://itsa.ucsf. edu/~eliotf?W.iy I
am alsoaSymbolic.html).
Symbolic interactionists are, of course, interested not simply in
socialization but also in interaction in general, which is of "vital
importance in its own right." Interaction is the process in
Symbolic
interactionism views the self as
socially
constructed in
relation to
social forces
and social
structures.
CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION
which the ability to think is both developed and expressed. All
types of interaction, not just interaction during socialization, refine
our ability to think. Beyond that, thinking shapes the interaction
process. In most interaction, actors must take others into consid-
eration and decide if and how to fit their activities to others. How-
ever, not all interaction involves thinking.
PRINCIPLES OF SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONS
Human beings unlike lower animals, are endowed w:th a capacity for thought. The
capacity for thought is shaped by social interaction. In social interaction, people learn the
meanings and the symbols that allow them to exercise their distinctively human canity for
thought. Meanings and symbols allow people to carry on distinctively human action and
interaction.
People are able to modify or alter meanings and symbols that they use in action and
interaction on the basis of their interpretation of the situation. People are able to make
these modifications and alterations because, in part, of their ability to interact witn
themselves, which allows them to examine possible courses of action, assess their
relative advantages and disadvantages, and then choose one.
The intertwined patterns of action and interaction make up groups and societies.
• Non-Symbolic Interactionism
The differentiation made by Blumer (following Mead) between two
basic forms of social interaction is relevant here. The first, nonsymbolic
interaction - Mead's conversation of gestures - does not involve thinking.
The second symbolic interaction does require mental processes (Ritzer,
2000).
Mead's approach to symbolic interaction rested on three basic pre-
mises.
1. The first is that people act toward the things they encounter on
the basis of what those things mean to them. (Things, in this context, refer
not just to objects, but also to people, activities, and situations).
2. Second, we learn what things are by observing how other people
respond to them, that is through social interaction.
3. Third, as a result of ongoing interaction, the sounds (or words),
gestures, facial expressions, and body postures we use in dealing with
others acquire symbolic meanings that are shared by people who belong
to the same culture. The meaning of a symbolic gesture extends beyond
the act itself. A handshake, for instance, is a symbolic gesture of greeting
among Filipinos. As such, it conveys more than just a mutual grasping of
fingers and palms. It expresses both parties' shared understanding that a
social interaction is beginning. In other cultures, such
1. 2.
4
.
Basic forms of
Social
Interaction • non-
symbolic
interaction
which does
not involve
thinking
• symbolic
interaction
which require
mental
processes
CHAPTER : INTRODUCTION TO THE SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION
as Japan, willingness to interact is expressed or symbolized in a
bow (Calhoun et al.,1994).
The importance of thinking to symbolic interactionists is reflected in
their views on objects. Blunter differentiates among three types of objects:
physical objects, such as a chair or a tree; social objects, such as a student
or a mother; and abstract objects, such as an idea or a moral principle.
Objects are seen simply as things "out there" in the real world: what is of
greatest significance is the way that they are defined by actors. The latter
leads to the relativistic view that different objects have different meanings
for different individuals: "A tree will be a different object to a botanist, a
lumberman, a poet, and a home gardener" (Blumer as
cited by Ritzer, 2000).
Another important concept that has long been used
by symbolic interactionist is the looking-glass self. This
concept was developed by the early symbolic
interactionist theorist Charles Horton Cooley. The basic
notion of the looking-glass self can be summed up as
"We see ourselves as others see us." In other words, we come to develop a
self-image on the basis of the messages we get from others, as we un-
derstand them. If your teachers and fellow students give you the message
that you are "smart," you will come to think of your self as an intelligent
person. If others tel! you thai you are attractive, you will likely think of
yourself as attractive. Conversely, if people repeatedly laugh at you and
tease you about being clumsy, you will probably come to decide that you
are clumsy. In Cooley's terms, you use other people as a mirror into which
you look to see what you are like (Farley, 1990)
Summary
Education is one of the major Institutions that constitute society. There are various social science theories that relate to education - consensus, conflict, structural functionalist and interaction theones.
Conflict theory deals with the emergence of conflict within a particular
human society while consensus is a concept of society in which the
absence of conflict is seen as the equilibrium state of society based on a
general or widespread agreement among all members of a particular
society. The consensus and conflict theories are reflected in the works of
certain dominant social theorists such as Karl Marx. Emile Durkheim, Max
Weber and other social theorists.
Structural functicnalism is concerned with the functions of schooling
in the maintenance of social order, it asserts that society is made up of different institutions or organizations that work together in cooperation to
achieve orderly relationship and to maintain social order and social stability.
Symbolic interactionists are interested not simply in socialization but in interactions between students and students and between students and teachers. All types of interactions refine our ability to think.
Looking-glass
Self- We see
ourselves as
others ste us.
-Charles Cooley
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