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Unit 1: What is Biology?
Unit 2: EcologyUnit 3: The Life of a Cell
Unit 4: Genetics
Unit 5: Change Through Time
Unit 6: Viruses, Bacteria, Protists, and Fungi
Unit 7: Plants
Unit 8: Invertebrates
Unit 9: Vertebrates
Unit 10: The Human Body
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Unit 1: What is Biology?
Chapter 1: Biology: The Study of LifeUnit 2: Ecology
Chapter 2: Principles of Ecology
Chapter 3: Communities and Biomes
Chapter 4: Population BiologyChapter 5: Biological Diversity and Conservation
Unit 3: The Life of a Cell
Chapter 6: The Chemistry of Life
Chapter 7: A View of the Cell
Chapter 8: Cellular Transport and the Cell Cycle
Chapter 9: Energy in a Cell
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Unit 4: Genetics
Chapter 10: Mendel and Meiosis
Chapter 11: DNA and Genes
Chapter 12: Patterns of Heredity and Human Genetics
Chapter 13: Genetic Technology
Unit 5: Change Through Time
Chapter 14: The History of Life
Chapter 15: The Theory of Evolution
Chapter 16: Primate Evolution
Chapter 17: Organizing Lifes Diversity
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Unit 6: Viruses, Bacteria, Protists, and Fungi
Chapter 18: Viruses and BacteriaChapter 19: Protists
Chapter 20: Fungi
Unit 7: Plants
Chapter 21: What Is a Plant?
Chapter 22: The Diversity of Plants
Chapter 23: Plant Structure and Function
Chapter 24: Reproduction in Plants
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Unit 8: Invertebrates
Chapter 25: What Is an Animal?Chapter 26: Sponges, Cnidarians, Flatworms, and
Roundworms
Chapter 27: Mollusks and Segmented Worms
Chapter 28: ArthropodsChapter 29: Echinoderms and Invertebrate
Chordates
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Unit 9: Vertebrates
Chapter 30: Fishes and Amphibians
Chapter 31: Reptiles and Birds
Chapter 32: Mammals
Chapter 33: Animal Behavior
Unit 10: The Human BodyChapter 34: Protection, Support, and Locomotion
Chapter 35: The Digestive and Endocrine Systems
Chapter 36: The Nervous System
Chapter 37: Respiration, Circulation, and Excretion
Chapter 38: Reproduction and Development
Chapter 39: Immunity from Disease
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Ecology
Principles of Ecology
Communities and Biomes
Population Biology
Biological Diversity and Conservation
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Chapter 2 Principles of Ecology
2.1: Organisms and their Environment
2.1: Section Check
2.2: Nutrition and Energy Flow
2.2: Section Check
Chapter 2 SummaryChapter 2 Assessment
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What Youll Learn
You will describe ecology and the work ofecologists.
You will identify important aspects of anorganisms environment.
You will trace the flow of energy andnutrients in the living and nonlivingworlds.
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Distinguish between the biotic and abioticfactors in the environment.
Section Objectives:
Compare the different levels of biologicalorganization and living relationshipsimportant in ecology.
Explain the difference between a niche anda habitat.
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What affects theenvironment alsoaffects you.
Understandingwhat affects theenvironment is
important becauseit is where youlive.
Sharing the World
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The study of plants and animals, includingwhere they grow and live, what they eat, orwhat eats them, is called natural history.
These data reflect the status or health of theworld in which you live.
Studying nature
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The branch of biology that developed fromnatural history is called ecology.
Ecology is the study of interactions that takeplace between organisms and theirenvironment.
What is ecology?
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Scientific research includes using descriptiveand quantitative methods.
Most ecologists use both descriptive andquantitative research.
Ecological research
They obtain descriptive information byobserving organisms.
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They obtainquantitativedata by making
measurementsand carrying outcontrolledexperiments inthe field and inthe laboratory.
Ecological research
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Thebiosphere is theportion of Earththat supports living
things.
It extends from highin the atmosphere to
the bottom of theoceans.
The Biosphere
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Although it is thin, the biosphere supports adiverse group of organisms in a wide rangeof climates.
Living things are affected by both thephysical or nonliving environment and byother living things.
The Biosphere
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The nonliving parts of an organismsenvironment are the abiotic factors.
Examples of abiotic factors include aircurrents, temperature, moisture, light, andsoil.
The nonliving environment: Abiotic
factors
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Ecology includes the study of features of theenvironment that are not living because these
features are part of an organisms life.
The nonliving environment: Abiotic
factors
Abiotic factors have obvious effects onliving things and often determine which
species survive in a particular environment.
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The nonliving environment: Abiotic
factors This graph shows how the plants glucose
(food) production is affected by temperature.
5
10
15
Food Production in Salt Bush
10 20 30 40 50Temperature (C)
Foodp
roduction
(mgof
glucose/hr)
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The living environment: Biotic factors
A key consideration of ecology is that livingorganisms affect other living organisms.
All the living organisms that inhabit anenvironment are calledbiotic factors.
All organisms depend on others directly or
indirectly for food, shelter, reproduction orprotection.
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Levels of Organization
Ecologists study individual organisms,interactions among organisms of the samespecies, interactions among organisms of
different species, as well as the effects ofabiotic factors on interacting species.
Ecologists have organized the living world
into levels
the organism by itself,populations, communities, and ecosystems.
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Organism
An individual living thing that is made ofcells, uses energy, reproduces, responds,grows, and develops.
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Interactions within populations
Apopulation is a group of organisms, all ofthe same species, which interbreed and livein the same area at the same time.
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Interactions within populations
Members of the same population maycompete with each other for food, water,mates, or other resources.
Competition can occur whether resources arein short supply or not.
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Interactions within communities
Just as a population is made up of individuals,several different populations make up abiological community.
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Interactions within communities
Abiological community is made up ofinteracting populations in a certain area at acertain time.
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Interactions within communities
A change in one population in a communitymay cause changes in the other populations.
Some of these changes can be minor, such aswhen a small increase in the number ofindividuals of one population causes a smalldecrease in the size of another population.
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Interactions within communities
Other changes might be more extreme, aswhen the size of one population grows solarge it begins affecting the food supply for
another species in the community.
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Ecosystem
Populations of plants and animals thatinteract with each other in a given area andwith the abiotic components of that area.
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Biotic and abiotic factors form
ecosystems Terrestial
ecosystems
are thoselocated onland.
Table 2.1 Examples of Ecosystems
TerrestrialEcosystems
Forest
Old farm field Meadow
Yard
Garden plot
Empty lot
Compost heap Volcano site
Rotting log
AquaticEcosystems
Freshwater
Pond
Lake
Stream
Estuary
Salt water(marine)
Ocean Estuary
Aquarium
Other Sites forEcosystems
Human body
Skin
Intestine
Mouth
Buildings
Mold in walls,floors, or basement
Ventilation systems
BathroomsFood
Any moldy food
Refrigerator
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Biotic and abiotic factors form
ecosystems
Aquaticecosystems
occur in bothfresh- andsaltwaterforms.
Table 2.1 Examples of Ecosystems
TerrestrialEcosystems
Forest
Old farm field
Meadow
Yard
Garden plot
Empty lot
Compost heap
Volcano site
Rotting log
AquaticEcosystems
Freshwater
Pond
Lake
Stream
Estuary
Salt water(marine)
Ocean
Estuary
Aquarium
Other Sites forEcosystems
Human body
Skin Intestine
Mouth
Buildings
Mold in walls,floors, or basement
Ventilation systems
Bathrooms
Food
Any moldy food
Refrigerator
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Biotic and abiotic factors form
ecosystems
Freshwater ecosystems include ponds, lakes,and streams.
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Biotic and abiotic factors form
ecosystems
Saltwaterecosystems, also
called marineecosystems,make upapproximately
70 percent ofEarths surface.
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Organisms in Ecosystems
A habitatis theplace
where anorganismlives outits life.
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Organisms in Ecosystems
Habitats can change, and even disappear.Habitats can change due to both natural andhuman causes.
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Niche
Although several species may share ahabitat, the food, shelter, and other essentialresources of that habitat are often used in
different ways. A niche is the role or position a species has
in its environmenthow it meets its specific
needs for food and shelter, how and where itsurvives, and where it reproduces in itsenvironment.
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Niche
A species niche, therefore, includes all itsinteractions with the biotic and abiotic partsof its habitat.
It is thought that two species cant exist forlong in the same community if their nichesare the same.
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Symbiosis
The relationship in which there is a close andpermanent association between organisms ofdifferent species is called symbiosis.
Simbiosis means living together. Threekinds of symbiosis are recognized:mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism.
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Mutualism
A symbioticrelationshipin which
both speciesbenefit iscalledmutualism.
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Commensalism
Commensalismis a symbioticrelationship in
which onespecies benefitsand the otherspecies is neither
harmed norbenefited.
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Parasitism
Some interactions are harmful to one species,yet beneficial to another.
A symbiotic relationship in which a memberof one species derives benefit at the expenseof another species (the host) is calledparasitism.
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Parasitism
Parasites have evolved in such a way thatthey harm, but usually do not kill the hostspecies.
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Parasitism
A predator is a type of consumer. Predatorsseek out and eat other organisms.
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Parasitism
Predation is found in all ecosystems andincludes organisms that eat plants andanimals.
The animals that predators eat are calledprey.
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Question 1
The study of interactions that take placebetween organisms and their environment is__________.
D. biology
C. ecology
B. symbiosisA. abiosis
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The answer is C. Ecology is a branch of biologythat developed from natural history.
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Question 2
Which of the following is found in thebiosphere?
D. constellation Orion
C. the Sun
B. maria
A. ozone layer
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The answer is A. Thebiosphere is theportion of Earth thatsupports living things
and extends high intoEarth's atmosphere.Maria are dark-colored regions on
the moon.
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Question 3
Which of the following is a biotic factor?
D. light
C. earthworm
B. soil
A. moisture
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The answer is C. Biotic factors are all the livingorganisms that inhabit an environment.
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Question 4
A(n) __________ is a group of organisms, allof the same species, which interbreed and livein the same place at the same time.
D. habitatC. ecosystem
B. population
A. biological community
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Section Objectives
Trace the path of energy and matter in anecosystem.
Compare how organisms satisfy theirnutritional needs.
Analyze how matter is cycled in the abiotic
and biotic parts of the biosphere.
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How Organisms Obtain Energy
One of the most important characteristics ofa species niche is how it obtains energy.
Ecologists trace the flow of energy throughcommunities to discover nutritionalrelationships between organisms.
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The producers: Autotrophs
The ultimate source of the energy for lifeis the sun.
Plants use the
suns energy tomanufacturefood in aprocess calledphotosynthesis.
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The producers: Autotrophs
Other organisms in the biosphere depend onautotrophs for nutrients and energy. These
dependent organisms are called consumers.
An organism that uses light energy or energystored in chemical compounds to makeenergy-rich compounds is a producer, or
autotroph.
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The consumers: Heterotrophs
Heterotrophs include organisms that feedonly on autotrophs, organisms that feed onlyon other heterotrophs, and organisms thatfeed on both autotrophs and heterotrophs.
An organism that cannot make its own foodand feeds on other organisms is called aheterotroph.
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The consumers: Heterotrophs
A heterotrophthat feeds only
on plants is anherbivore.
Heterotrophsdisplay a varietyof feeding
relationships.
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The consumers: Heterotrophs
Someheterotrophseat other
heterotrophs.Animals suchas lions that killand eat only
other animalsare carnivores.
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The consumers: Heterotrophs
Scavengers eat animals that have already died.
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The consumers: Heterotrophs
Some organisms, such as bacteria and fungi,are decomposers.
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The consumers: Heterotrophs
Decomposersbreak down the complexcompounds of dead and decaying plants andanimals into simpler molecules that can be
more easily absorbed.
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Flow of Matter and Energy in Ecosystems
Autotrophs
First-orderheterotrophs
Third-orderheterotrophs Second-order
heterotrophs
Decomposers
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Food chains: Pathways for matter
and energy
In a food chain, nutrients and energy movefrom autotrophs to heterotrophs and,eventually, to decomposers.
A food chain is a simple model that scientistsuse to show how matter and energy move
through an ecosystem.
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Food chains: Pathways for matter
and energy A food chain is drawn using arrows to
indicate the direction in which energy is
transferred from one organism to the next.
berries miceblack bear
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Food chains: Pathways for matter
and energy Most food chains consist of two, three, or
four transfers.
The amount of energy remaining in the finaltransfer is only a portion of what wasavailable at the first transfer.
A portion of the energy is given off as heatat each transfer.
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Trophic levels represent links in the
chain Each organism in a food chain represents a
feeding step, or trophic level, in the passage
of energy and materials.
A first order heterotroph is an organism thatfeeds on plants, such as a grasshopper.
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Trophic levels represent links in the
chain A second order heterotroph is an organism
that feeds on a first order heterotroph.
A food chain represents only one possibleroute for the transfer of matter and energythrough an ecosystem.
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Food webs
Ecologists interested in energy flow in anecosystem may set up experiments with asmany organisms in the community as they
can. The model they create, called a food web,
shows all the possible feeding relationships
at each trophic level in a community.
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Energy and trophic levels: Ecological
pyramids An ecological pyramid can show how energy
flows through an ecosystem.
The base of the ecological pyramidrepresents the autotrophs, or first trophiclevel. Higher trophic levels are layered on
top of one another.
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Energy and trophic levels: Ecological
pyramids The pyramid of
energy illustrates
that the amountof availableenergy decreasesat each
succeedingtrophic level.
Pyramid of Energy
Heat
Heat
Heat
Heat
0.1% Consumers
1% Consumers
10% Consumers
100%Producers
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Energy and trophic levels: Ecological
pyramids The total energy transfer from one trophic
level to the next is only about ten percent
because organisms fail to capture and eat allthe food energy available at the trophic levelbelow them.
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Energy and trophic levels: Ecological
pyramids Some of the energy transferred at each
successive trophic level enters the
environment as heat, but the total amountof energy remains the same.
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Energy and trophic levels: Ecological
pyramids A pyramid of
numbers shows
that populationsizes decreaseat each highertrophic level.
Pyramid of Numbers
Fox (1)
Birds (25)
Grasshoppers (250)
Grasses (3000)
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Energy and trophic levels: Ecological
pyramids Biomass is the total
weight of livingmatter at eachtrophic level. Apyramid of biomassrepresents the total
weight of livingmaterial available ateach trophic level.
Pyramid of Biomass
1 kilogram ofhuman tissue
10 kilogramsof beef
100 kilogramsof grain
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The carbon cycle
From proteins to sugars, carbon is thebuilding block of the molecules of life.
Linked carbon atoms form the frame for
molecules produced by plants and otherliving things.
Organisms use these carbon molecules for
growth and energy.
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The nitrogen cycleNitrogen in the atmosphere
Nitrogen-fixingbacteria in the
nodules on roots ofleguminous plants fix
atmospheric nitrogen.
Nitrogen-fixingsoil bacteria
Some excess nitrogenevaporates from soil.
Nitrogen
compoundsreleased intosoils and acted
upon by soilbacteria
Released to theatmosphere
Assimilatedby plants
Urine fromanimals
Dead plant
matterDecomposing
organisms
Decomposersbacteria and fungibreakdown tissues and wastes and nitrogen-
containing compounds are released.
Converted to othernitrogen compounds
by soil bacteria
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The phosphorus cycle
In the phosphorus cycle, phosphorus movesbetween the living and nonliving parts of theenvironment.
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Which of the following is a producer?
Question 1
D. herbivore
C. decomposerB. heterotroph
A. autotrophNucleusChloroplast
Mitochondrion
Eyespot
FlagellumPellicle
Contractile vacuole
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The answer is A. Organisms that make energy-
rich compounds are producers, or autotrophs.
Nucleus
Chloroplast
Mitochondrion
Eyespot
Flagellum
Pellicle
Contractile vacuole
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In a food chain, nutrients and energy movefrom __________ to __________.
Question 2
D. decomposers, autotrophs
C. heterotrophs, autotrophs
B. autotrophs, heterotrophs
A. autotrophs, autotrophs
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The answer is B. The first level in all food
chains is made up of producers.
berries miceblack bear
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A model of all the possible feeding relationshipsat each trophic level in a community is a(n)__________.
Question 3
D. food web
C. food matrix
B. food chain
A. food pathway
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Chihuahuan raven Honey mesquite(pods eaten by beetles)
Pronghornantelope
Gambelquail
Jackrabbit
Desert
tortoisePricklypear cactus
Long-tailweasel
Coyote
(top carnivore)
Roadrunner
Kangaroo rat(seed eater)
ants
Texas hornedlizard
Red spottedtoad Mexican
whiptail lizard
Mojaverattlesnake
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The answer is D. A food web is a more realistic
model than a food chain, because most organismsdepend on more than one other species for food.
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Natural history, the observation of howorganisms live out their lives in nature, led tothe development of the science of ecologythe study of the interactions of organisms withone another and with their environments.
Organisms and Their Environment
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Organisms and Their Environment
Ecologists classify and study the biologicallevels of organization from the individual toecosystem. Ecologists study the abiotic and
biotic factors that are a part of an organismshabitat. They investigate the strategies anorganism is adapted with to exist in its niche.
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Autotrophs, such as plants, make nutrients thatcan be used by the plants and by heterotrophs.Heterotrophs include herbivores, carnivores,
omnivores, and decomposers.
Nutrition and Energy Flow
Food chains are simple models that show howenergy and materials move from autotrophs to
heterotrophs and eventually to decomposers.
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Food webs represent many interconnectedfood chains and illustrate pathways in whichenergy and materials are transferred within an
ecosystem. Energy is transferred through foodwebs. The materials of life, such as carbonand nitrogen, are used and reused as theycycle through the ecosystem.
Nutrition and Energy Flow
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Question 1
Which of the following is a biologicalcommunity?
D. the factors interacting in an aquaticecosystem
C. the abiotic factors in the environment
B. the tadpoles living in a pond
A. the organisms living in your backyard today
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The answer is A. A biological community
consists of all the populations of different speciesthat live in the same place at the same time anddoes not include abiotic factors. Changes in one
of these populations may cause changes in theother populations of the community.
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Question 2
A(n) __________ is the place where anorganism lives out its life.
D. community
C. habitat
B. niche
A. environment
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The answer is C. Aspecies' habitat is theplace where it lives andits niche is the role it
plays in its environment,including interactionswith abiotic factors.
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Question 3
Compare commensalism and parasitism.
Haustorium Host cell
Fungal hypha
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Both commensalism and parasitism are examples
of symbiosis, in which organisms of differentspecies live in close association, benefiting onespecies. In parasitism, one species derives benefit
at the expense of the other, but in a commensalrelationship the second species is not harmed.
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Question 4
Which of the following models best illustratesheat released at each trophic level of anecosystem?
D. pyramid of biomassC. pyramid of energy
B. food web
A. food chain
h i h
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Pyramid of Energy
Heat
Heat
Heat
Heat
0.1% Consumers
1% Consumers
10% Consumers
100%
Producers
The answer is C. Thepyramid of energy
shows energy available.Organisms at eachtrophic level use someenergy in food for
metabolism and someis given off as heat. Thetotal amount of energyremains the same in
accordance with thelaw of conservation ofenergy.
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Question 5
Compare the amount of energy available inthe biosphere to the amount of matter here.
h d
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Both energy and matter areconserved: they may be
transformed, but are notdestroyed. However, sunlightis the primary source of all the
energy utilized and transferredin the biosphere. It is alwaysbeing replenished by the sun.
In contrast, there is a finite amount of matter inthe biosphere, which is cycled and notreplenished.
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Question 6
Which of the following does not cycle intothe atmosphere?
D. water
C. carbon
B. nitrogen
A. phosphorus
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The answer is A. Phosphorus moves between the
living and nonliving parts of the environment, butdoes not enter the atmosphere as a gas.
Phosphate enters
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Rain washes phosphatesfrom the land.
Phosphate weathersfrom rock.
Animalwastes
Plantwastes
Soil decomposers act onplant and animal wastes.
Short-term Cycle Long-term Cycle
Phosphatesreleasedinto soil,.
Phosphates becomeavailable for plants
again.
Phosphatesleach intostreams fromsoil.
Decaying materialscontaining
phosphates settleout into streamsand oceans.
Geologicprocess ofuplifting occursover millions ofyears.
Phosphate entersstreams and oceansfrom weatheringrocks, runoff, andleaching, from soil.
New rockforms fromsedimentation.Phosphate
becomeslocked inrocks.
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Question 7
Which type of organism consumes both plantand animal products?
D. omnivore
C. predator
B. carnivore
A. herbivore
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The answer is D.
Humans areomnivores and eat avariety of foods thatinclude both plantand animal materials.The figure showsrecommended food
servings for goodhealth.
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Question 8
Which of the following relationships is anexample of mutualism?
B. orchids aided by growing on large plantsneither harming nor benefiting the larger
plants
A. Ants feeding on nectar of acacia trees while
protecting the trees from other animals.
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Question 8
Which of the following relationships is anexample of mutualism?
D. lions preying on zebras
C. ticks obtaining nutrients from a host animal
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The answer is A. Ants and acacia trees both
benefit from living in close association.
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Question 9
Compare a niche to a population.
Answer
A population is a group of organisms of thesame species that live in the same place at thesame time. A niche is the role a species has in
its environment, and includes all its interactionswith biotic and abiotic parts of its habitat.
Q ti 10
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Question 10
How does water on Earth's surface get backinto the atmosphere?
Precipitation
Evaporation
Runoff
Groundwater
TranspirationEvaporation
Condensation
Oceans
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Photo Credits
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Corbis
Digital Stock
Harris Biological Supplies, LTD
NOAA
PhotoDisc
Alton Biggs
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End of Chapter 2 Show
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