Architecture StylesSpotter's Guide
CLASSICAL TEMPLES TO SOARING SKYSCRAPERS
Sarah CunliffeJean Loussier
EDITORS
Sarah Cunliffe, Clare Haworth-Maden,Michael Kerrigan, Donna F. Shelmerdine,
Stephen Small, M. Jane TaylorCONTRIBUTORS
~\I/~:::::s§ ~
THUNDER BAY
P'R'E'S'S
San Diego, CalifC)rnia
The Classical Heritage
"1 ~3
LEVI: The U.S. Capitol
in Washington. DC,
Classical features
Roman dome anel arches anel
grace}ill Corinthian columns. U
was built in 1793 to a byWilliam Thornton aud subse
quently nwdified by Ncod(cIsicist
Benjamin Henry Latrobe.
Grand AmbitionsThe Romans also set about building a much
wider range of public structures. As well as
temples and theaters, they married Classical
styles with engineering prowess to create
aqueducts, bridge~, palaces, basilicas,. bathhouses, and sewers-many of whieh still
stand In doing so, the Romans gave to
posterity a rich architectural vocabulary that
we have returned to repeatedly whenever we
have sought symmetry, order, and beauty in
our built landscape.
STYLE FILE
Notable Features:Common elements in allthe Classical stylesinclude symmetry andvisual order. as well asthe use of columns thatsupported lintels, arches, and vaults.
Where and When:Mediterranean region;c. 6th century BC to3rd century AD.
BELOW: Columns that
lh] teis were III II() ng
the basic components
olchiteetllre. 1I1is
a Creek {elll'u/ein J-tr1ri,uerdo Oil
the isle ,out/w rn
THE CLASSICAL STYLEInfluences fromEarlier CivilizationsIt is hard to believe that such inf1uence has
been exerted hy a 2,500-year-old civilizationof smal] that were scattered around
the eastern Mediterranean. But when the
Greeks the architectural traditions
of their ancI;stors in the region, as well as their
Persian and neighbors, they laiddown klll1ldations It)!· \'Vestcrn architecturethat arc still intact.
The Classical Heritage
Columns and LintelsIn the sixth Be, the ancient Greeks
the use of columns and lintels
supports bearing the wcight of bor-
to create structures of unpar
alleled and power. This
Classical style is best symboli/.ed by the ele
gant Doric and Ionic temples of the flfth
Be:. T'he pmity and beauty of buildings sucb as the Parthenon and the
Erec1ltlwioll on the Acropolis in Athens,Greece, had influence on later
ami eSDcciallv on the Homans.
The GI'eek Influenceon Later Architecture
tiieir across the
iVlediternll1ci\l1world ill the Hrst and second
clmtmjps Be. Ihe r:OlTlans IIsed Creck styles
(and to build imposing,Ililil brilliant
But tbe HomallS did not imitate. Theymaterials
and added curve.s-
domc--!o thc ~traightarch ilecturc that
the Greeks.
IiIi'
I:
I
III,
II
I,
The Classical Heritage
BELOW: A column and capital at the
Doric at Sounion, Greece.
17
THE DORIC ORDER
Simple SupportsTbe plain, fluted Doric columns
emerge directly from the plinth(thcre is no column base). The flut
infi may have evolved from tied bundles of reeds or sticks, placed into
holes in the ground, that were used
for supports in earlier times.
The plain, circular echinus (an
inverted bell-shaped capital) and flat,
undecorated, square stone abacus
togcther form a simple capital that supports a
plain architrave. Above that, the fricze alterenates between triglyphs and metopes as you
scan horizontally. Triglyphs (meaning "three
slits") are possibly a stylized tbrowback to the
ends of cross beams originally used to support
the roof. The metopes carried carved marble
or terra-cotta panels depicting heroic narra
tives or images of the gods.
Occasionally, the Doric style has a slightly
heavy look due to the thickness of columnssuch as those at the temples at Paestum, butsHch criticism cannot be leveled at the
Parthenon, Athens, which appears perfectly
balanced despite its monumental size.
An Enduring LegacyThe Doric order is seen mostly on the Greekmainland and in the Dorian Greek colonies in
Italy. Modern use of this order can be seen in
many public buildings, including the OldPatent Office in Washington, D.C.
The nrst, and simplest, order to develop was the Doric-appearing betweenabout 1O00 and 600 BC. It was perfected inthe late sixth and early fifth cen
turies BC. Its roots in earlier architectural styles are clear. Sonle elements are
reminiscences of the structural necessities of wooden construction petrified in
stone as ornamental features.
How Orders Were Used
Some buildings, like the Parthenon, fol
Iowa single order (i.e., Doric). But many
Classical buildings combine orders, s\lch
as the Propylaea on the Acropolis, whichcombines Doric and Ionic, and the
Temple of Apollo at Bassae, Greece,which has a Doric cxterior, an Ionic inte
rior, and the first known example of aCOt1nthian column inside.
The Homans often combined orders.
The exterior of the Coliseum, illr cxam
pIe, stacks Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian
floors on top of each other. Eventually,
new orders devcloped, using and modi
fying features of the original models,such as the Tuscan, Roman Doric, and
Composite, which mixed elements ofthe Corinthian and Ionic orders.
and columnBELOW:
6
detail (if II Neoclllssicol
What Is an Order?An order defines the style and structure of
the columns, capitals, and entablature used in
a building. How the column is fluted; what
style of decoration the capital has; the structure and ommnentation of the frieze and cor
nice-all of this is set by rules.
The principal sections of an order are the
column (which has a capital on top and,
depcnding on the order, a base below) and
the entablature (which typically consists of anarchitrave, a fricze above that, and thcn a
layer of stone jutting out above the frieze,whidi is called a cornice).
THE CLASSICAL ORDERSThe Classical orders of Doric, Ionic, and C0l1nthian are three styles of post
and lintel that have been used and developed by architects from Classical
times to the present day. Togetber with the Roman dome and arch, they are
the basic vocabulary of most architecture in the \Vestern, Classical tradition.
The Classical Heritage
19
STYLE FILE
Where and When:Greece, Roman Empire;from c.350 Be.
Major Influences:Previous orders ofancient Gree.karchitecture.
Notable Features:Lavishlyechinusbell-shaped
Carved leaves andas
Volutes
ABOVE AND BELOW: Corinthian
columns, Classical and Neo
classical, with elaborate
The New LeafThe order's main distinguishing fea
ture is an eehinus (see page 17) that is
lavishly dccorated with serrated acan
thus leaves, palm leaves, and spirals.Small volutes at each corner give the
capital the same appearance from all
sides, making it better suited to cor
ners than the Ionic capital.
The Classical Heritage
THE CORINTHIAN ORDER
Monumental StyleEarly, and subtle, examples of the
Corinthian capital can be seen on the
Choragic Monument of Lysicrates in Athens,
completed in 334 Be. Initially this style was
used primarily for interior columns. The ear
liest exam pIc of a Corinthian capital used asthe sole exterior column order is probably the
temple of Olympian Zeus in Athens, com
pleted in the second century BC. Perhaps the
grandest building of the Corinthian order isthe TClnple of Bacchus at Baalbek, Lebanon,until thc Classical revivals began.
The Corinthian was the last of the orders to be developed; it flourished during
the Hellenistic period (fourth to first centuries BC), and its lavish carving anddecoration became a hallmark of the Roman architecture that followed.
Scrolls and ScallopsAs with the other orders, the Ionic is
quickly identified by its capital,which curves into scrolls (or volutes)
at its edges to frame the top of thc
column. The column fluting is scal
loped at the top and bottom, and thearchitrave is slimmer than in the
Doric order. On the frieze, a band of
stone, often richly carved with fig-
lues, replaces the Doric metopes
and triglyphs. c'==
Ionia and BeyondThe Ionic order originated, and is most com
monly found, in the Greek cities of Ioniaislands and coast of Asia Minor, now western
Turkey). Invented around ,550 BC, it was per
fected in the early fifth century BC and
adopted on the Greek mainland later in the
same century. Some of its flnest examples arcin Athens, such as the Erechtheion, built inmarble between 421 and 406 BC.
STYLE FILE
Where and \I\lhen;
Turkey ancl Greece; from5th century Be.
Notable Features:Scrolled capitals;Scalloped fluting at topand base of colurnns;
Slimrner architraves;CarvE~dfriezes.
Major Influences:Ancient Greek buildings
in the Doric order.
THE IONICORDER
The Classical Heritage
The Ionic order began about ,5,50Be. It has a lighter, more slender feel thanthe Doric, yet is often richly carved and decorated, and includes elaborate,
tiered bases for its columns (which are missing entirely from Doric columns),
took
at the
En:chtheioll, Lehieh is ))([1'1 or
the ill Athells
BELOW: lrJllie colllilms IlIlhe
ojAtllI;tlc Nike in Athens.
THE HAGIA SOPHIA
It "seems not to restupon solid masonry,to cover the spaceits golden dome suspended from heaven,marveled Procopiusof the new ChurChof Hagia Sophia. Built532-7 in Constantinople by the emperorJustinian, this famouschurch Cwhi\:hwas con,verted into a mosqueunder Ottoman rule)represents the Byzantine achievement at itsheight. So daring waSits design, however,that it twice collapsedand had to be rebuilt.The see todaywas completed in 1346,
AnOvE:lnerru,gniAc:enf
Hagia Sophia ("Holy Wisdom"),
whuse minarets were added
up on its CO<'11)/:JCsl'on
church to mosque.
The Dome from RomeThe great problem with any dome is that of
controlling the outward thrust of all that
unsupported weight. The use of' tapering tri
angular "pendentives" allowed this thrust to
be directed downward, The word "penden
tive" literally means "hanging," and such
structures Ieally do seem to be suspended inthe air. Vast loads could be distributed around
arched windows and held up by gigantic sup
ports, while still conve)ing an impression of
gravity-dehing grace.
Byzantine and Romanesque Architecture
The Basic BasilicaThe basic form for the Christian church was
taken over from that of the Roman basilica
the rectangular room in which a magistrate or
public flgure gave audiences, Long and open,with colonnaded aisles at either side, it
allowed large congregations to come together
and mingle freely. Another popular ground
plan was that of the Greek cross (in which
cach arm is equal). The obvious Christian
symbolism apart, this layout offered the ideal
basis for the building of impressive domes.
Body and SoulByzantine builders matched their Roman
predecessors in ambition and accomplish
ment. taking teehniques like the arch anddome to new levels of refinement. To the
massive monurnentalisrn of their forebears.
however, they added a new and paradoxical
dimension, creating impressions of quite
eerie ethereality. Typically, the Byzantine
structure appears squat and solid from tbe
outside; within, though, the impression is of
weightlessness and light. Another Roman
technique-that of mosaic-was used to
shimmering effect to give an extraordinarysense of spiritual transcendence.
(/ !I/O,Wjue
Whe"""",nd When:Constantinople(Istanbul, Turkey) andthe Byzantine Empire ineastern Mediterrqneanand Near East;c. AD 400-1453.
Mqjor Influences:Roman technologies;Christian spirituality.
BYZANTINE
STYLE FILE
Not",ble Fe",tures:Rounded arches;Domes;Interior' mosaics.
Byzantine and Romanesque Architecture
Unlike ancient Home, Constantinople was conceived as a Clllistian capital. ltsgreatest monnments were to be its churches. That bias can be overestimated
over time, religious sites would be spared, while secular buildings werecleared-but the pre-eminence of ecclesiastical architecture is still clear.
HIGHT: Ti,e j(rt/'iIJe Milseum.
}'.!imhlli, tJ/lill in the
eel/tllry (IS the Church
Sm:!ur Olltside the
Wall, (tJeCliIlSe
SANTIAGO DECOMPOSTELA
35
The tomb of the ApostleJames made this cathedral in Galicia, Spain,one of medievalChristendom's mostimportant places ofpilgrimage. Its imposingtunnel-like interiornlakes up in atmos"phere \Nhat it lacks indecorative ebullience;light streams sparinglyin through \Nindows sethigh above buttressingaisles. The blankness ofthe exterior" walls is broken up by ornamentalarches; the main portalsale riChly ornamentedwith sacred statuary.
BELOW: The tower in a
Hom.anesque city wall, Italy.
ABOVE: The Constantine church
oISan Lorenzo Ftwri Ie M/{Ta,
H01/{e (no
Byzantine and Romanesque Architecture
SimplicityHomanesquc architects were at their case with
rectangu lar forms, so the basilica plan
rernained popular for churches; columned
aisles and chapels could readily be added
around the sides. The result was frcquently
crucifCJrln, with perhaps a semicircular apse at
the eastern end for the main altar. Ceilings
wew carried by simple, semicircular arches, or
barrel vaulting. Towcrs tended toward stubbi
ness-construction techniques simply did not
allow for anything morc slender and tall.
A Virtue of NecessityThe Europe of the first millcnnium had losttouch with what should have been its inheri
tance of Classical learning-including thegreat manuals of Classical architecture.
Builders worked by trial and error, then, and
many of the features of the Homanesque style
reflect the practical steps they found toaccommodate thcse theoretical limitations.
The rounded arch, for example, had been
prized by the Romans on aesthetic grounds: it
was not an especially efficient way of bearing
loads. Hcnce the squat forms of so rnanyHomanesque structures, their massive, windowless walls and the ranks of thick-set
columns to be seen within. But architects of
the time understood clearly how to make
these limitations a source of strength:
Homanesque buildings seem imprcssive nowin their unity and restraint.
Giovmlld
Where "od When:Western Europe
(Carolingian Germany,France, northernItaly, and Spain).;c. WOOc1100.
Major.lnfluEloces:Romelh buildit'1gs,especii311ytheir arches.
ROMANESQUE
Byzantine and Romanesque Architecture
Hornanesque architecture takes its name from its use of the rounded arches so
popular \vith tbc Homans, but beyond tbat the similarity is superficial. European
architects in the tenth and eleventh centuries created their own distinctive style
of arcbitecture, prodllcing buildings of great dignity and simplicity.
and Paolo, Yenice,
BELOW: 'the
cfutrch
:35
New Possibilities
By the twelfth century, however, it was begin
ning to look as though the possibilities of
Romanesque architecture had been pretty
much exhausted. Fortunately, new tech
niques were opening up new opportunities
for design: the glories of the Gothic age were
just arounc! the corner.
buttressing, and though they gave the most
spacious interior a boxy, subdivided feel, they
gave Homanesque architecture a new flexibil
ity that had never before been seen. The but
tressing dIect of groin-vaulted side aislesallowed rnain walls to be less massive than
previously, allowing for the inclusion of
clerestory windows above the aisle roof. At
the elevcnth-century Abbey of Cluny,
France, the square bays were replaced at the
eastern-apse end by circular forms, but the
chapels still radiated outward from the cen
ter, giving the effect of a conical duster of"cells" like those of a beehive.
Byzantine and Romanesque Architecture
TRANSITIONAL TOURNAI
Belgium's TournaiCathedral was begunin 1146 and completedalmost two centurieslater, in 1325; thus, itsconstruction bridged theRomanesque period andthe high Gothic. Bothstyles are clearlyevident In the finishedbuilding. Tournai's cluster of towers, spectacular as they are, have allthe restraint of theRomanesque, as doesthe rounded apse andthe barrel vaulting ofthe nave. The wildexuberance of thetransepts and choir--both built in the Gothicperiod---serves toundmline the sobrietyof these sections.
BELOW: To/tmai Cathedml, in II
World War II
Increased Elaboration
Homanesque architecture was essentially aus
tere. The blankness of an external wall may
have bcen hroken up by the addition of a por
tico, or nonload-bearing arches or pilasters
Inay have been incorporated f(J]' decorative
effect. But the soaring spires and stainedglass windows of later Gotbic: architecture
were as yet unavailable: Hornanesejlle build
ings impress by virtuc of their simple dignity.
It was much the same story inside, though
new possibilities hac! been opened up by theuse of "groin vaults." Architects had learned
to intersect barrel vaults at right angles,
enclosing a square space known as a
\vhich became the basic unit of ground-plan
Groin vaults werc built to be nmtllally
Where and When:Thmughout the
area,architects in the
north (France andGermanv) were
the mo.st
STYLE FILE
c.1100·,·1250.
LATE ROMANESQUE
Mqjor Influences:Roman· architecture.
Notable Features:(iroin vaulting;Oen~s·tol-v windows;Increased use of(semi)circular floor plan.
Byzantine and Romanesque Architecture
In southern Europe-especially Italy-Roman ruins remained an ever-presentinf1uencc, and for a long time architects kept closely to established f()[ms.
Farther north, however, builders were increasingly emboldened by their Illas-
of' construction techniques and were setting their sights higher-literally.
115
ABOVE A~"IJ BELOW: The
Alhamhra Spain.
OPPOSITE: The Bano.\' de la
Encina castle was constructed
by the Moors in 986.
Islamic Architecture
Within and Without
Light, air, and space are all key to the appeal of
the Alhamlml, a felrtified palace complex on an
outcrop above Granada. vVith its delicately orna
mented stucco interior walls and ceilings, deco
rative screens, and ornate brickwork, this jL1Stly
celebrated monument is an architectnral show
case, but is perhaps most remarkable of all f(lr its
intimate courtyards and peaceful gardens. Space
was as important to the Islamic architect as the
solid walls and roofs that contained it; gardens
were conceived as symbolic earthly paradises.
and airiness is exhilarating and is only enhanced
by the abundant light that streams iu from so
many horseshoe-arched windows, set very high.
The Damascus of the West
AI-Andalus was the one part of the Istunic
empire in which the writ of the Abbasids never
ran: it remained an Umayyad hold-out fe)r sev
eral centuries, The C:rand Mosqne at Cordoba
was accOl:dingly modeled on that of Damascus,
thougb the Moorish masterpiece had a charac
ter all of its own. It occupied the site of an old
Visigothic church, mnch of whose masomy was
incOllJorated into the northwest corner-so its
"conversion" into a cathedral in 12:36 is an irony.
It remains distinctly different, thongh: ahove
columned aisles nse a riot of interlocking or
stacked-up horseshoe arches, often delicately
lobeel j(lr extra ornamental complexity; the alter
nating terra-cotta and crcam slabs of their sur
ronnels crcate a decorously festive rnooe!. The
is massivc-the third-largest rnosqnc
ever con.structed-but the stmctnre seems to
t10at weiglltlessly, borne lip by its slcnder
colnlllils and shapely arches. The scnsc of space
Major Influence.s:LJrnayyacl;Abbasid.
STYLE FILE
Notable Features:I-Iorseshoe clrches, oftenlobed and constructed'vvith polycr-wor1lepatterning;
Dorries;fVlosaics;
L..asting legacy a distinctrnozarabic influence onthe :;panish archib~ctule(even ec:cIE~sja5tjcal)oflater, Christian tjrrIE~s.
Where. and \I\Ihe.n:In late 8th imd 9th
Mour-ishillfluencc\ extended O\lE~r
rnuch b"f' Spain; thereafte~r incr-easinglyf.:rlE'd to' Arlclalusia untilthe: -13th" century.
MOORISH ARCHITECTURE
Islamic Architecture
Andalusia, sonthern was hOin the encl of the eighth century the stable, pros
perous-clild Islamie-kingdonl of al-Andalus, Under the Moors--Arab and
Berber invaders who had made the short crossing from north Africa-some of theworld's most beantifill monuments were built here:
81
The Renaissance and Beyond
Florence V5. VeniceA Florence dominated by the Medici family
may have led the way to the Renaissance in
Italy, hut the port city of Venice was not to
lag too far behind. A wealthy republic in its
own right, Venice had a trading network
extending far to the east, frorn where artisticinfluences were imported, along with materi
al commodities. The headline story of the art
and architecture of the Henaissance may be
the rediscovery of the Classical heritage, but
the impact of trade with the East (and, later,the Americas) was arguably as crucial.
lL DUOMO
Renaissance artists andscientists found in theClassical cc'xample a liberation from a medleva\mind set ;3chooled in5ub5erviE:nt~evensuper5tiboU5--~adherence to the authority ofthe Church. On the faceof it, Italian architectshad never abandonedt:heir Cla~;sical inheritance, but in truth theRornane:::;que vvas really"Rornan" only superficially. Not until FilippoBr"unelle::.,chi's greatOuomo, or cathedral, inFlorence (1420-36) dowe see triunlphantrecapturing of theF\Orrians' structuralengineering skills, andthe enterprising spirit ofthe etas';Ical builders.
ABOVE: Chdtem.t de CharnlJord
(1$19-47), Loire Valley, France.
Leonardo da Vinci is thought to
have been involved in its
BELOW: The domed Church of
Santa Maria di Loreto, Rome.
The Human Scale"Study good architecture," Leonardo da Vinci
urged the readcr hoping to attain expertisc in
art; the proportions of a fine bnilding, hc
had all the balance of the perfect human
body. The hnman f()nn was now accepted asthe nltimatc standard of beauty, jnst as the
hnman mind was regarded as the lllti mate
guarantee of truth. Humanism Ilourished firstin where wealthy f~lnlilies likc the
JVIridicis and the Borgias were lavishing
patronage on artists, architects, and scholars.
Their aim may have been self-glorification,
Lut they ended up glorifying humankind.Soon tbese new values were spreading, hrst
to France, and then to Germanv. thcthe British Isles,
eellfer
Notable Features:Classical :..::;tylE!s, includingdomes and arches;
HerrinS-db<?n(~ bdck\/vorkfor greater strc-,;ngth.
THE RENAISSANCE
STYLE FILE
J)lIorliO illAIlOVI':: Florellce; 13rllllelleschi:y
Major Influences:Roman ruins, still to beseen across Italy;
RediscovE-:n~c1wr"itings ofVitruvius and others.
l'Where and 'When:ItalY), sp.re.,adir'i9 to Franceand bEi,/ond; 15th·· 16thcentunes.
_~ ._. __ . __ . J
The Italian Renaissance of thehfteenth centm)' was underwritten byeconom
ic prosperity: trade flourished, increasing wealth while extending cultural hori
zons; the principles of modern banking were imported from the Islamic world.
i\rtistic patronage became a way of expressing the pride and prestige of a com
mnnity or private magnatc-and architecture was the most visible of the arts.
The RE:~nai55anceand Beyond
invast itsWay just as
The Two-in-One ChurchAndrea Palladio (1.508-80) was later to
become ;lssoeiated with an almost ostenta
tiously modest version of Neoclassicism (see
pages J :3S-39), but in his own day be wasFamed lor his Mannerist works, His 11
llederltUl!' church was built to thauk God f(lr
Venice's (Ieliverance from plague in 1.57.')-76,
but fOl' "II its pious intent, it has an air of
it, too, is two huildings in one, The
Ihst, seen across the water, is a luassive, squat
structure set ofT by its lofty campanile and
c101ninatcd by its dome; the second is defined
its elegant, Greek-templelike facades,
The Renaissance and Beyond
Commissioned by the city authorities, ABOVE: Palladio\ Il Hcdentore
Michelangelo laiel out the whole trapezoidal church, Venice
piazza as a "frame" lelr the ancient equestrianstatne of Marcus Aurelius, He did so with
astonishing success, thongh f(lr some this veryenlistment of architecture in the service of
sculpture may have underlined the feeling
that Mannerisln was about self-indulgence,
Over the Top?"Mannerism" was not necessarily a term of
approval: such self~eonseious virtuosity was
viewed with some suspicion, Michelangelo's
Piazza clel Campidoglio in HOIne was typical,
achievcd with breathtaking beauty and .iaw
dropping panache, but almost too brilliant in
its exeeution,vVhere a High Henaissancearchitect would bave worked to ensure that
everything looked exactly right, Michelangelo
courted the reaction tbat everything was
somehow perfect and yet slightly wrong, The
Museo Capitolino (left, in the picture
Ie))'exarnple, is a work of utterly accomplished
alld yet unsettling architectural ambiguity, Its
columns belong to a sing1c-
storied bnilding, whereas the tiered columns
between suggest a lnore compact creati(lIl,
Pia.::11
nOIll('
MANNERISM
Where-and When:Italy: c. 1S3Cl·90,
STYLE FILE
Major Influences:Crisis of confidence fol,
IO\Ning Charles V's sackof Rome in 1527;
Sense'that the aims ofthe Rfmaissance had allnow·been achieved.
Notable Features:Renaissance Classicalforms taken toextrernesof virtuosity;
Effects of exagger-ationand even inibaJance.
BI·:LOW:
riel
The Reriaissance and Bc=yonrl
Tbe word "mannerism" comesfi-Oln the Italian word 1!1aniera, "style" or "teeh
" It was first nsed in the mid-sixteenth century to refer to painters of a
younger generation who were starting to abandon their elders' (luiet, Classical
correctness fe)]'a more adventurously exhibitionistic style,
The Renaissance and Beyond
A surprisingly late irlVention, made as recentlyas the 14th century,the chimney stillseemed innovative inTudor times. The transition from a simple holein the roof to a verticalshaft that sucked upsmoke and Fumes,had changed horne lifeImmeasurably for thebetter. It is no surprise,then, that Tudor archItects should have madetheir chimney stackssuch a feature: elaborately curved, evencorkscreV\/ing constructions of patterned bnck.
85
CHIMNEYS
ABOVE: The Elizahethan-era
Ahhot Reginald:' Gatewa1j,
Evesham.
OPPOSITE: A Tudor house
in a historic, mral
in Wiltshire.
The Renaissance and Beyond
Nostalgic VirtuesIt's revealing that this style sho11ld have been
revived pages 188-89) for the "stock
broker Tlldor" of tvventieth-century suburbia;
even at their grandest, half~timbered build
ings had a cozy and intimate feel. These were
comparatively peaceful times, so the English
man's home uo longer had to be his castle:there was no defensive air, and where build
ings had once been alTayed round central
courtyards, more open (often E-shaped)
ground plans were now 11sed.
Function was never forgotten, though-in
fact, it was made a feature: the rough-cut
wood frame was invariably visible and gem:r
ally painted to contrast starkly with thc
walling in between. A style that's come to
symbolize "timeless" Englishness thus affords
intriguing comparisons with Postmodern
monuments like Paris's Pompidon Center
page 249), with its exoskeleton of pipesand ducts: both scorn to conceal their status
as artificial, built constructions.
Beauty in Black and WhiteThe system of construction known as haH~
timbering was actually of medieval origin,
but is generally held to have reached its high
point in Tudor England (148.5-1603), or,
Tnore specifically, the Elizabethan period
(Queen Elizabeth I, rcigned L5,58-16(),3).
Briefly, a timber framework was filled in withwhat is known as "wattle and daub"-a mesh
of interwoven reeds or twigs, eaulkcd with
mud and plaster, and whitewashed over. A
rough-and-ready method, it might be
thought, and yet in the late fHteenth and six
teenth centuries, this simple, yet effective,
buildi ng style was brought to an unprece
dented pitch of decorative creativity.
STYLE FILE
Major Influences:Medieval origins.
Where and When:A medieval method
refined in 16th- and17th-centul"Y England.
ENGLISH TUDOR
Notable Features:Timber framEeS,filled inwith and daub,generally painted incontrasting Colors.often black and white;
A "homespun" look;Proje!:tingupper stories;Thatched or tiled roofs.
'While the architects of the Renaissance and Baroque periods poured creative
energy into the of ever-more-astounding churches and palaces, house
building followcd its own, much quieter, course. Yet the well-designed horne
could, in its way, bc every bit as impressive as the grandest monument, as the
example of English Tudor architecture clearly shows.
PSYCHODRAMA
Lift up your eyes inRome's 17th-centurySan Ignacio Church,and instead of a ceiling,you see a host offigures streamingheavenward. Somethingof a craze in CounterReformation architecture, the trompe l'oeil("trick the eye") ceilingwas just one in a rangeof techniques used todisorient, dazzle, andgenerally bamboozle.On the one hand,"in-your-face" ornamentation, from gildedstatues to sweepingstaircases and spiralingcolumns; on the other,games of space withwall recesses and disappearing ceilings: all wascalculated to compelbelief in the shellshocked Vie\Ner.
89
The Renaissance and Beyond
Palaces and PropagandaSo rich an architectural mixture was far too
intoxicating to be left to the Church, The
Baroque style was quickly taken up in the sec
ular sphere. In France and central Europe,
where unpopular monarchies werc attempt
ing the same sort of ideological Fight-back as
the Catholic Cllllrch, Baroque palaces magni
fled the mystique of the ruling dynasties,
Though sometimes exuberantly ornamented,
exterior facades were often comparatively
restrained, though this beautiful simplicity
only heightened the shock and awe that
awaited the visitor within, Throughout the
latc seventeenth and early eighteenth cen
turies, the Baroque style continued to devel
op, with regional cliflerenees reflecting localtraditions and conditions.
An Aesthetic of AssaultThe architectural expression of the COUll ter
Reformation was the Baroque, a style that set
the symmetries of Renaissance Classicism oft
against the vvildest extravagances of ornamen
tation, Simple, barrel-vaulted ceilings were
transformed by spectacular paintings; florid
columns glowed in gold leaf and marble; plain
facades were bedecked with pilasters andornamental urns, ';\There the statues and
stained glass of the Gothic cathedrals had
offered scriptural instruction to the uneducated, these interiors ravished the senses and
took the soul by storm.
STYLE FILE
Meijor Influences:Renaissance Classical;
grovvth in dec-
driven by desire findarchitectural representation for a sense ofreligious (and latermonarchical) majestyand mystique.
Where and When :Italy,1
)gEngland, and
central Europe throughtrle1 7th and early 18th
The Renaissance and Beyond
THE BAROQUEIt was, perhaps, inevitable that Hcnaissance should lead to Hefonnation.
Protestantism placed the thinking individual at the very center of religiousfaith. What did CatholiCism, with its rules and hierarchies, have to ofler the
self-conscious, self-confIdent humanist? The Church launched a more
passionate, intensely experienced Catholicism in its Counter Reformation.
.RICIIT: The
(17.55-65, Anselmo Lllro.~,o.) ill
Prague:, Old 'llnell .'i1!'Wre.
Opposrn . AllOVI,: rhe IIweb!"
(,ollp,dioll of il/lcola Salvi:, Trevi
FOlllltain (17'J2-51) alld the
/f/(:ade Poli, BO/(Le.
detail
The Renaissance and Beyond
50 much seventy wouldhave been hard to bearhad it not been For thevery different Bar-oquespirit introduced intoSpain by Jose BonitoChurriguera ('16651725) and his followers.Churriguera's energetic,mesmerizingly ornate,yet at the same timedynamic and Fluid styleis now known a5 the"Churrigueresque. "Despite its narT18, itwould reach its zenithafter its originator'sdeath. in the mainFacade of MurciaCathedral (17305).
LEFT: The elaborate facade of a
Bal'Oqlle building in .Madrid.
OPPOSITE: The aus-tem
El Escorial
near ivfadrid,
by Juan de flerrem.BELOW: The almost Hococo
facacw of [vfurcia Cathedral.
This huilding is considered the
peak Churrigueresque
style of Spain~, "Colden Age"
CHEERFULCHURRIGUERA
97
The Renaissance and Beyond
almost aggressively plain in its design. Part
palace, part -Inonastery, part-mausoleum forhimself and for all the monarchs of Spain, this
vast monument was designed by Juan de
Herrera. Its beauty is chaste and intimidating;
the only COllcession that Herrera and the kingallowed thf:mselves was to arrange the COl11
pJex on a gridlike ground plan in honor of the
grid on which St. Lawrence was martyred.
The "Golden Age"Spain's discoveries and conquests in the
Americas brought a sixteenth· and seven··
teenth-century "Golden Age" (Siglo de Oro),
which corresponded with the Counter
Reformation and the Baroque. Spain's mon
archs took a leading role in promoting
CatholiCism and suppressing heresy, andthat purist fervor is evident in the art andarchitecture of the time.
As golden ages go, Spain's was a rcmarkably
austere, even gloomy, one: think of the paint
ings of EI Greco-despite their wild manner
ism, fundamentally simple-for example.
Philip II's great palace complex, San Lorenzo
dc EI Escorial (late sixteenth century), is
STYLE FILE
SPANISH BAROQUE
Where.and When:Spain; in "Golden Age"of 16th--1 7th centuries.
Major- Influences:Italian Baroque prinCiples,given a ne'vV slant andspecial impetus by thereligious fervor of theSpanish monarchy.
Notable Features:Austere movement
pioneered by Juande Herrera (1530-97):
More lavishly ornamented style introducedby Churrlguera.
By the seventeenth century, Spain already had a long and distinguished architec
tural It could boast some of Europe's oldest Homanesque architecture,
as well as great Gothic cathedrals like Burgos, Toledo, and Leon. The great
Islamic monmnents of al-Andalus page 44) were also pmt of its heritage,
even if they were preserved mainly for the propagandistic purpose of underscor
ing the success of the Cluistian reconqldsl;a ("reconquest") of the conntiy.
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