Research paper
A Late Roman ceramic production from Pompeii
Celestino Grifa a,*, Alberto De Bonis b, Alessio Langella a, Mariano Mercurio a, Gianluca Soricelli c,Vincenzo Morra b
aDipartimento di Scienze per la Biologia, la Geologia e lAmbiente, Universit del Sannio, Via dei Mulini 59/A, 82100 Benevento, ItalybDipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Universit Federico II, Via Mezzocannone 8, 80134 Napoli, ItalycDipartimento di Scienze Umane, Storiche e Sociali, Universit del Molise, Via Mazzini 8, 86170 Isernia, Italy
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 12 September 2011
Received in revised form
27 August 2012
Accepted 28 August 2012
Keywords:
Pompeii
Pottery
Clayey deposits
Volcanic temper
a b s t r a c t
The Via Lepanto site is one of the best examples showing how the Vesuvian region was partially
reconstructed and earlier re-occupied after Vesuviuss eruption in the year 79 AD. The large amount of
ceramic nds illustrates the typology in use in this area during the IV and V century AD. Analyses were
focused on table and cooking ware productions. Archaeometric data were obtained using chemical and
minero-petrographical methods (OM, XRD, XRF and SEM). Grain size measurements using Image Anal-
yses on thin sections and a geochemical comparison with clayey deposits outcropping in the Campania
region permitted the identication of the rawmaterials used for these pottery productions. XRD and SEM
completed the data set, establishing the protocols used for pottery production in the Pompeii area during
Late Roman period. The Via Lepanto site was part of an exchange network of markets with a periodic
frequency, where locally produced and imported pottery was sold, indicating a ourishing network of
exchanges spanning short, medium and long distances.
2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The so-called Agro Nocerino-Sarnese, in the southern part of the
Campanian Plain, had been an optimum for human settlements
since pre-historic times, due to its fertile soils and propitious
climate (Soricelli, 2001; Marturano et al., 2009). However, the
scenario commonly proposed for this land immediately after the 79
AD eruption, which destroyed Pompeii, Ercolano and Stabia, is that
of a bare and abandoned land. In fact, several authors hypothesise
an abrupt interruption of all human activities immediately after the
eruption and only a late and sporadic reoccupation of the area, up
until III century AD (Soricelli, 2002). However, such reconstructions
suffer a lack of interest on the part of archaeologists for the post-79
AD levels which consequently, were only summarily investigated or
simply removed, in order to reach the pre-eruption layers.
According to ancient sources (Suet. Tit. 8,4; Cass. Dio LXVI.24, 3e
4 in Gazzetti, 1976), the reconstruction process immediately after
the disaster, which focused on agricultural infrastructures, public
buildings and road networks, was managed by two imperial of-
cers, the curatores restituendae Campaniae, and was funded by
the imperial treasury (Soricelli, 2001, 2002). Several sites and
settlements, in particular along the NuceriaePompei road (Fig. 1)
(De Carolis and Soricelli, 2005), conrm a reoccupation of the area,
such as the Porta-Vesuvio necropolis and the Moregine complex.
The Via Lepanto site is one of the best examples of a reoccupa-
tion of the Vesuvius area after the 79 AD eruption (Fig. 1). It dates
back to the rst half of II century AD (as shown by the African Red
Slip Ware, forms Hayes 7A, 8A). The site is located on the Nuceriae
Pompei road, at approximately 1 km from the SEwalls of the ancient
city of Pompeii. It was abandoned after the 472 AD eruption, as
shown by the Pollena pyroclastic deposits that covered the whole
settlement (De Carolis and Soricelli, 2005). Some ceramic dumps,
dating back to the late IVeearly V century AD by the African Red Slip
Ware forms Hayes 59, 60, 61, 73 and 91, brought to light a large
amount of pottery, among which samples of table and cooking
ware. These were collected and analysed from a mineralogical and
petrographical point of view.
This research study aims at dening the technological features of
some selected ceramic productions that werewidespread in the Via
Lepanto site, by means of an exhaustive mineralogical, petrograph-
ical and chemical characterisation, focussing on the identication of
the clays and tempers used, as well as the ring technologies.
Moreover, the whole data set aims at providing a useful archaeo-
metric database on the ceramic productions from this area. An
attempt of hypothesis on the provenance of the shards was also
carried out in order to conrm the presence of active ceramic
workshops in Pompeii and the surrounding area during the Late* Corresponding author. Tel.: 39 (0)824 363649; fax: 39 (0)824 323623.
E-mail address: [email protected] (C. Grifa).
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Journal of Archaeological Science
journal homepage: http: / /www.elsevier .com/locate/ jas
0305-4403/$ e see front matter 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2012.08.043
Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) 810e826
Roman period. This would provide a useful indicator of a retrieved
socialeeconomic activity. Mineralogical, petrographical and
geochemical analyses may also provide information on the prove-
nance of the pottery. This is particularly true for coarse-grained
common ware and amphorae productions in which inclusions can
be easily correlated to the rocks cropping out in the surrounding
area.
The relationship between the minero-petrographical composi-
tionof thecoarse-temper isparticularlyeffective involcanic contexts,
as reported for some ceramic productions of the Circum-Mediterra-
nean volcanic area, such as those from Sicily (Barone et al., 2010), the
Aeolian islands (Williams et al., 2008) and Pantelleria (Grifa et al.,
2005a). With regards to ceramic productions from the Bay of
Naples, the occurrence of well sorted, rounded volcanic temper,
mainlycomposedof sanidine, Ca-richpyroxene, plagioclase, pumices
and scoriae, is largely attested in both fabrics of commonwares and
amphorae (Grifa et al., 2005b, 2006, 2009a). To complete the char-
acterization of the potsherds, clayey raw materials located close to
the Pompeii area and along the Late Roman period main roads (e.g.
Appia and Traiana roads) were also sampled and compared with the
investigated ceramic products, from a mineralogical and geochem-
ical point of view (De Bonis, 2011; De Bonis et al., 2012).
2. Volcanological remarks
Located not far from the Southern-eastern part of the city of
Naples and within one of the most densely inhabited areas of the
world, this typical stratovolcano has always conditioned human
behaviour in this portion of the Campania region. Mount Somma
represents the oldest volcano that concluded its activities with
a caldera formation. Within this caldera, the Vesuvius volcano
successively formed (Cioni et al., 1999). The volcanic history of the
SommaeVesuvius complex is still debated. After a rst phase,
which started circa 300e400 ka (Brocchini et al., 2001), it was only
after the Phlegraean Campanian Ignimbrite eruption that activity
was recorded (39 ka; Fedele et al., 2008). It was upon this eruption
that the present volcanic complex was formed (Di Vito et al., 1998).
Since its last eruption in 1944 AD, the SommaeVesuvius has
experienced a quiescent status.
From a petrological point of view, the volcanic products belong
to the HK series and they are typical leucite-bearing rocks
(Conticelli et al., 2004). The rst historical Plinian eruption, recor-
ded in the archaeological layers and largely used as a stratigraphic
marker for the Bronze Age, is the Pomici di Avellino eruption
(4.365 ka; Santacroce et al., 2008) which deposited large volumes
of pyroclastic falls and ows, causing the migration of the pre-
historical population to the surrounding areas. However, the most
important Plinian event, also from a historical point of view, is the
79 AD Pompei eruption (Lanphere et al., 2007) directly observed
and carefully described by Plinius the Younger. Successively, the
472 AD Pollena eruption (Santacroce et al., 2008) also had a strong
impact on the Vesuvius area. These latter two eruptions represent
important events for the Via Lepanto site, as they mark the
beginning and the end of occupancy.
Fig. 1. Simplied geological map of Campania region (modied from Bonardi et al., 2009). Main roads (Shepherd, 1911) and clay sampling sites are also reported.
C. Grifa et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) 810e826 811
3. Materials
3.1. Pottery
Some Late Roman potsherd dumps, sealed by Pollena products
(472 AD), brought to light several thousands of ceramic fragments,
mainly represented by common ware (table and cooking ware).
Fifty-two fragments from these ceramic classes (Table 1) were
sampled for minero-petrographical analyses. From an archaeolog-
ical point of view, the pottery from Via Lepanto can be compared to
similar products circulating in the region between the end of IV
century AD and the beginning of the V century AD (De Carolis and
Soricelli, 2005).
Three different types of table were investigated: Red Painted
Ware (RPW), Painted Ware (PW) and Burnished Ware (BW). The Red
Painted Ware (17 samples), mainly represented by open shapes
(Fig. 2a), can be easily identied by a light reddish slip that covers
the entire internal surface and partially overlaps the external rim of
the artefact. Macroscopic observations permit the recognition of
two different groups of fragments. The rst is characterised by
a ne and very hard paste. The colour of the paint is red/red-orange
(2.5YR 4/8). A second group of samples shows a coarser and softer
paste. The thin paint is red in colour (2.5YR 5/6). In both groups, the
ceramic body has a redebrown colour (2.5YR 5/8) but some sand-
wich structures can be observed (sample PVL 39 and 41, Table 1).
Examples of RPW have been found in late IVeearly V century AD
contexts from Somma Vesuviana (Aoyagi et al., 2007) and Mer-
cato S. Severino (Fiorillo, 2003). These can be compared with
pottery from other Southern Italy sites: Naples (Arthur, 1994),
Pratola Serra (Alfano, 1992), Ordona (Annese, 2000) and Calle (Di
Giuseppe, 1998).
A second tableware ceramic class is represented by 5 samples of
the Painted Ware (Whitehouse, 1966) showing a greyish ne paste
(5YR 6/3) with a redebrown decoration applied by a paintbrush or
a cloth. These vessels (Fig. 2b) can be compared with analogous
products from other Campanian sites: Cuma, Miseno (Grifa et al.,
2005b, 2009a), Benevento (Lupia, 1998) and Caudium (Perrone,
2005; De Bonis et al., 2010). The last three samples of tableware
are represented by small closed shapes with a ne red paste (2.5YR
5/8) and with a shiny red cover (2.5YR 4/8) on the external surface:
the Burnished Ware (inset of Fig. 2b). Well represented in Vesuvius
area, this ware is common in Naples and in other Campanian sites
(De Carolis and Soricelli, 2005).
The Cooking Ware samples (CW, 27 samples) show a very coarse
paste. In general, the matrix shows a red/brown colour (5YR 6/3e
5YR 6/6) but in several samples, sandwich zoning of the ceramic
body can be observed. Main attested shapes (Fig. 2c) are the
casseroles that can be found in other Campanian contexts, in
particular in Benevento (Lupia, 1998), Caudium (De Bonis et al.,
2010), Neapolis (Carsana, 1994) and the Phlegraean area (Soricelli,
2000). Saucepans and lids also occur. Only one sample (Fig. 2c)
can be referred to the PantellerianWare, a cooking warewidespread
in the Mediterranean area between IV and VI century (Grifa et al.,
2005a).
3.2. Clayey raw materials
Ten samples of clayey raw materials (Table 2, Fig.1) were
collected in order to compare their mineralogical and geochemical
composition with that of the ceramic nds. Samples were chosen
according to their proximity to both possible ancient sites of
production and the main Roman roads of the Campania region
(Fig. 1). They are mainly represented by basinal sediments, subor-
dinate alluvial deposits and strongly weathered pyroclastic soils
(Table 2). Basinal sediments mainly outcrop along the Apennine
chain located in the eastern part of the Campania Region and are
ubiquitously ascribed to different units such as the Sicilide Unit
(samples BS1, BS2, GS1) or the Fortore Unit (sample MLV1), which
all date from the Upper Cretaceous to the Lower Miocene (Table 2;
Fig. 1) (Bonardi et al., 2009). Sample MLV1 was collected in the area
surrounding the mud volcano known as the Bolle della Malvizza in
the Miscano river valley, very close to the Traiana Roman Road
(Fig. 1), which crossed the Apennine chain to the Adriatic coast. The
GS1 sample crops out close to the town of Gioia Sannitica (Caserta
province). Other basinal samples (SQ1 and TRE1), ascribed to
Caiazzo Sandstones (Bonardi et al., 2009), come from the Northern
Campania area, which is well-known for the presence of several
Roman settlements. The SQ1 sample was collected near the town of
Caiazzo (Caserta province). The TRE1 sample comes from the
village of Treglia (Caserta province), a Roman settlement (Trebula),
Table 1
Archaeological information of 52 common ware ceramic samples from Via Lepanto.
The colour code form Munsell Soil Colour Chart.
Sample Class Body Zoning Heart Rim Slip
PVL 1 BW 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 4/8
PVL 2 BW 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 4/8
PVL 3* BW 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 4/8
PVL 4* PW 5YR 6/3
PVL 5* PW 5YR 6/3
PVL 6 PW 5YR 6/3
PVL 7* PW 5YR 6/3
PVL 8 PW 5YR 5/6
PVL 9* CW 5YR 6/3
PVL 10* CW 5YR 6/6
PVL 11 CW 5YR 6/6
PVL 12* CW faded 5YR 6/3 2.5YR 5/8
PVL 13 CW faded 5YR 6/3 2.5YR 5/8
PVL 14 CW faded 5YR 6/3 2.5YR 5/8
PVL 15* CW faded 5YR 6/3 2.5YR 5/8
PVL 16 CW 5YR 6/3
PVL 17 CW 5YR 6/3
PVL 18 CW faded 5YR 6/3 2.5YR 5/8
PVL 19* CW 5YR 6/3
PVL 20 CW faded 5YR 6/3 2.5YR 5/8
PVL 21* CW 5YR 6/3
PVL 22 CW faded 5YR 6/3 2.5YR 5/8
PVL 23 CW 5YR 5/6
PVL 24 CW sharp 5YR 6/3 2.5YR 5/8
PVL 25 CW 5YR 6/6
PVL 26* CW faded 5YR 6/3 2.5YR 5/8
PVL 27* CW 5YR 6/6
PVL 28 CW 5YR 6/6
PVL 29 CW faded 5YR 6/3 2.5YR 5/8
PVL 30 CW 5YR 6/6
PVL 31 CW faded 5YR 6/3 2.5YR 5/8
PVL 32 RPW 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 4/8
PVL 33 RPW 2.5YR 5/6
PVL 34* RPW 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 5/6
PVL 35* RPW 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 4/8
PVL 36 CW sharp 5YR 6/3 2.5YR 5/8
PVL 37 CW sharp 5YR 6/3 2.5YR 5/8
PVL 38* RPW 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 4/8
PVL 39* RPW sharp 5YR 6/3 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 4/8
PVL 40 RPW 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 4/8
PVL 41 RPW sharp 5YR 6/3 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 4/8
PVL 42 RPW 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 4/8
PVL 43 RPW 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 4/8
PVL 44 RPW* 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 5/6
PVL 45 CW 2.5YR 5/8
PVL 46 RPW* 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 4/8
PVL 47 RPW 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 4/8
PVL 48 RPW 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 4/8
PVL 49 RPW 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 4/8
PVL 50 RPW 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 5/6
PVL 51 RPW 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 5/6
PVL 52 CW 5YR 4/3
BW Burnished Ware; PW Painted Ware; CW Cooking Ware; RPW Red Painted
Ware, * Samples studied by image and modal analyses.
C. Grifa et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) 810e826812
where an ancient ceramic workshop is reported to have existed
(Livadie, 1994).
The PMV2 alluvial clayey sediment (Piana di Monte Verna,
Caserta province) of the Volturno River plain is a holocenic clay
collected two meters below the ground level, in which bricks of
Roman age were also found. VEL1 is an Alento River sediment
(PleistoceneeHolocene), sampled in a former clay quarry in the
area surrounding Velia, the ancient Greek colony of Elea. Other
clayey raw materials derive from strongly weathered pyroclastic
deposits that were widespread in the volcanic areas of the region.
Such materials were most likely exploited in the past for pottery
productions, especially in the Bay of Naples area, and are still used
for the manufacturing of bricks for wood-burning ovens or cooking
wares, following ancient techniques and taking advantage of their
refractory properties. One sample (SO1) comes from a brownish
lahar-like deposit of the Sorrento Peninsula, deriving from the
activity of SommaeVesuvius. The other sample (CSC1) comes from
the pyroclastic soils of the Roccamonna volcano (De Bonis, 2011).
4. Analytical techniques
The mineralogical and textural properties of the pottery frag-
ments were investigated on thin sections with a Leitz Laborlux
12POL polarising microscope. On selected representative samples
of each ceramic class, accurate measurements of the non-plastic
inclusions were carried out with an image analysis software
(Leica Q-Win). Point-to-point modal analyses were carried out on
Fig. 2. The variegated repertoire of the common ware ceramic from Via Lepanto; a) the Red Paint Ware (RPW), bowls and dishes; b) the Painted Ware (PW), bowls and dishes, in the
inset the shape representative of the Burnished Ware (BW); c) The Cooking Ware (CW), pans, pots, saucepan and lids, in the inset a typical saucepan of Pantellerian Ware.
Table 2
Clayey deposits description.
Sample Locality Geological origin Description
BS1 Bisaccia (AV) Basinal sediment Blue-greenish
clayey silt
BS2 Bisaccia (AV) Basinal sediment Reddish clayey silt
GS1 Gioia Sannitica (CE) Basinal sediment Reworked brown-
yellowish sediment
MLV1 Montecalvo
Irpino (AV)
Basinal sediment Greyish clayey
sediment
SQ1 Castel Campagnano
(CE)
Basinal sediment Reworked brownish
silty sediment
TRE1 Pontelatone (CE) Basinal sediment Reworked brownish
silty sediment
PMV2 Piana di Monte
Verna (CE)
Alluvial sediment Yellowish clayey silt
VEL1 Velina di Castelnuovo
Cilento (SA)
Alluvial sediment Yellowish sandy silt
CSC1 Cascano di Sessa
Aurunca (CE)
Pyroclastic deposit Reddish clayey silt
SO1 SantAgnello (NA) Pyroclastic deposit Brownish sandy silt
C. Grifa et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) 810e826 813
ca. 3000 points for each sample, evaluating the abundance of paste
constituents (grains, matrix and pores). Using a manual procedure,
image analyses also permitted measuring some shape parameters
of the inclusions, such as the minimum (Am) and maximum (AM)
axis of single grains, assuming the grain inscribed in an ellipse. The
two axes were used to calculate the Krumbein f size (f!log2 AM;
Krumbein and Sloss, 1963) and the Am/AM axis ratio that was
assumed, in this study, as a shape factor (SF). As SF values range
from nearly 1.0 for circular grains to nearly 0.0 for elongated grains,
a logit transformation, Logit (SF) Ln(SF/(1 ! SF)), was applied
(Prakongkep et al., 2010). Optical conditions for particles
measurements varied as a function of the inclusion grain size.
Image resolution was 1280 " 1024 pixel, for ner grains captured
with 40" magnication (1 mm 480 pixel) and for coarser grains
captured using 25" magnication (1 mm 320 pixel). All images
were captured in parallel-polarized light in order to avoid extinc-
tion problems.
Bulk chemical compositions of the shards and the reference clay
samples were evaluated by XRF (Philips PW 1400): ten major
elements (Si, Ti, Al, Fe, Mn, Mg, Ca, Na, K, P as oxide %) and 9 trace
elements (Ni, Rb, Sr, Zr, Nb, Sc, V, Cr, Ba in ppm)were determined on
pressed pellets. Analytical procedureswere carried out according to
Melluso et al. (2005). Volatile content (LOI) was determined
measuring mass lost (1 g of powdered sample) heated at 1000 #C.
XRF analyses were not performed for sample PVL 28 and 41 due to
a lack of sufcient material. A statistical multivariate approach was
carried out on the XRF data set to better evaluate the chemical
behaviour of the ceramic fragments in a multidimensional space
and to verify homogeneity in the different data populations.
Statistical treatment of the Grain-Size Distribution (hereafter GSD)
and the XRF data was carried out using the R version 2.10.0 soft-
ware (R Development Team, 2005).
Two analytical approaches were united in order to evaluate the
ring temperatures of the ceramic shards. X-ray diffraction (XRD)
permitted the identication of the mineralogical composition of
the potsherds, which depends on the base-clay and possible sub-
microscopic phases related to the ring dynamics (Philips PW
1730/3710 diffractometer, CuKa radiation 40 kV, 30 mA, curved
graphite monochromator, scanning interval 3e80#, step
size 0.020# 2q, counting time 5 s per step). Scanning Electron
Microscopy (SEM Jeol JSM 5310) observations, carried out on gold-
coated fresh-fractured fragments, provided information in terms of
microstructures and the sintering degree of the clay matrix
(Maniatis and Tite, 1981). Bulk mineralogy of clay-rich sediments
was investigated by XRD on randomly oriented powders; clay
minerals were identied on the
red slip (Fig. 3a). The modal analysis carried out on the PVL 3
sample evidenced a low porosity (5.63%), tiny particles of quartz
and feldspars (28.6%) and subordinate volcanic grains such as:
obsidians (4.13%), clinopyroxene (pale green Fe-rich diopside and
colourless diopside, 3.62%), scoriae (3.38%), sanidine (2.23%),
pumices (1.63%) and plagioclase (1.00%) attesting a high total
inclusions content (Fig. 4a).
For all the samples, a theoretical skew-t (Azzalini and Genton,
2008; Azzalini, 2006) Probability Density Function (PDF, dashed
curves in Fig. 5) was plotted (using the same mean and standard
deviation values) in order to compare the real and the theoretical
curves. The density GSD histogram (Fig. 5a) showed a skewed f size
curve from main coarse silt/ne sand particle sizes (median value
3.93; z0.70 mm, mean value 3.88) to subordinate coarse/very
coarse sand (weak negative spread). The standard deviation value
(sf 0.61) expressed a moderately well sorted distribution of
the inclusions (Folk, 1974). Moreover, the logit (SF) histogram
highlighted moderately to poorly elongated shapes of grains as
illustrated by the tail toward positive values of the PDF curve
(Fig. 5b).
The PW pasteswere formed bypredominant grey (PVL 4, 6, 7 and
8) to red-brown isotropic matrixes (PVL 5), ranging from 62.4 to
65.2% in PVL 4 and PVL 5, respectively, and subordinate inclusions
(from 27.2 in PVL 5e30.7% in PVL 7). This ceramic class is
characterised by the highest matrix/inclusions ratio (>2) and
lowest volcanics and inclusions content when compared to the
others (Fig. 4a, Table 3). Furthermore optical properties of the clay
matrix (Fig. 3b), PVL 5 also showed a different GSD, namely,
a skewed PDF curve (main medium silt/medium sand, Fig. 5c) with
a tail toward coarser grains (coarse sand), due to a higher volcanic
grains content (6.00%) and the moderate sorting (sf 0.75). The
inclusions are mainly constituted by microcrystalline quartz and
feldspars (21.2%) and subordinate volcanic elements, such as clino-
pyroxene (2.20%), sanidine (1.4%), scoriae (1.2%), plagioclase (0.8%),
Fig. 3. Micrographs showing some optical properties of the analysed samples. a) paste and cover, sample PVL 1, parallel polars; b) matrix and inclusions, sample PVL 5, parallel
polars; c) matrix and inclusions, sample PVL 4, parallel polars; d) grain and matrix of RPW group 1 representative sample, sample PVL 34, parallel polars, e) grain and matrix of RPW
group 2 representative sample, sample PVL 44, crossed polars; f) coarse-grained CW sample, sample PVL 9, crossed polars; g) coarse-grained CW sample, sample PVL 15, crossed
polars; h) anorthoclase crystal, sample PVL 52, crossed polars.
Fig. 4. Diagrams showing some modal parameters.
C. Grifa et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) 810e826 815
leucite-bearing scoriae (0.2%) and obsidian fragments (0.2%). The
grain shape varies from subrounded to poorly elongated (Fig. 5d).
In contrast, samples PVL 4 and PVL 7 (Fig. 3c) showed approx-
imately normal GSD diagrams (Fig. 5e), ranging frommedium silt to
ne sand, and moderately well sorted grains (sf 0.50 and 0.67,
respectively) composed of quartz and feldspar particles and very
subordinate volcanic grains (Table 3). Logit (SF) curves evidenced,
for each sample, a moderately elongated shape of the grains
(Fig. 5f). Porosity ranged from 6.00% in PVL 7 up to 10.1% in PVL 4.
The RPW samples can be grouped in accordance with their
different textures, despite their similar stylistic character. All the
samples generally showed a red-to-red-orange coloured isotropic
matrix. Occasional colour zoning can be related to a different
optical activity of the clay matrix. Group 1 (PVL 32, 34, 35, 38, 39,
40, 41, 42, 47, 48 and 49, Fig. 3d) showed a slight lower matrix (50%
vs. 54%, on average), volcanic grains (14% vs. 23%, on average) and
a higher quartz-feldspar fraction (23% vs. 14%, on average; Figs. 3d
and 4b and Table 3), when compared to the samples of group 2 (PVL
33, 44, 46, 50 and 51, Fig. 3e). Volcanic grains were constituted by
scoriae (2.20e4.29%, average values), obsidians (1.72e3.42%),
plagioclase (1.20e2.78%), pumices (1.12e4.67%), sanidine (1.43e
2.76%), biotite (0.60e2.64%) and clinopyroxene (0.12e0.80%). A
skewed GSD from medium silt to medium sands, with the tail
towards coarser grains up to coarse sand (Fig. 5g) was evidenced
for the group 1 samples. The inclusions varied from moderately
well (PVL 34) tomoderately sorted (PVL 35, 38, 39), as illustrated by
the sf values (Table 3). The logit (SF) evidenced a mainly elongated
shape of inclusions (Fig. 5h).
The samples of group 2, on the other hand, show higher sfvalues, indicating a moderate (PVL 44) to poor (PVL 46) sorting. In
Fig. 5. f size and logit (SF) frequence diagrams for some representative samples of the studied potsherds. a), b) PVL 3, BW sample; c), d) PVL 5, PW sample; e), f) PVL 4, PW sample;
g), h) PVL 39, RPW sample; i), l) PVL 44, RPW sample; m), n) PVL 10, CW sample; o), p) PVL 15, CW sample.
C. Grifa et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) 810e826816
Fig. 5. (continued).
C. Grifa et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) 810e826 817
reference to this group, the GSD diagrams (Fig. 5i) showed a skewed
distribution (medium silt to coarse sand) with a more pronounced
tail (higher density) toward coarser grains. Non-crystalline
elements, such as scoriae (leucite-bearing scoriae in PVL 44),
pumices and obsidians still represent the most abundant volcanic
component. Subordinate sanidine, plagioclase, clinopyroxene and
biotite were also observed (Table 3). RPW group 1 showed a higher
porosity than group 2 (12% vs. 6%, on average). The logit (SF) again
evidenced a mainly elongated shape of inclusions (Fig. 5j).
TheCW samples (PVL9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19, 20, 21, 22,
23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 36, 37, 43, 45 and 52) showed wider
differences in textures namely, GSD and inclusions content and
optical characters of the matrix (Fig. 3f, g). The inclusions range
between 35.6% (PVL 9) and 46.0% (PVL 10), dened matrix/inclu-
sions ratios from 1.02 (PVL 10) to 1.79 (PVL 15) (Fig. 4a). GSD
diagrams varied from slightly positive skewed (PVL 10, Fig. 5k) to
bimodal textures (PVL 15, Fig. 5m). The sorting rate ranged from
moderately well sorted (sf 0.67 in PVL 19) to moderately sorted
(sf 0.95 in PVL 21). In comparison to the other ceramic classes, the
GSD curve of the CW samples evidenced a shift toward larger grain
size and ahigherdensity of coarse grains, fromcoarse silt tomedium
sand (Fig. 5k, m). The shape of the grains is generally elongatedwith
a weak tail toward more rounded grains (Fig. 5l, n). Along with the
quartzefeldspar component (ranging from 7.98% up to 29.1% in PVL
15 and PVL 26, respectively), volcanic grains always occur and are
mainly constituted by sanidine (4.04e12.17%), plagioclase (2.43e
4.50%), scoriae (1.13e7.71%), clinopyroxene (0.52e2.67%), obsidian
(0.38e4.75%), biotite (0.30e2.76%) and pumices (0.22e1.25%).
Garnet (0.11%) was observed in samples PVL 10, 15 and 21; leucite-
bearing scoriae were only recorded in PVL 19. The presence of
secondary calcite was noticed in PVL 9, 10, 12, 15, 19, 21, 26 and 46.
Some relevant exceptions should also be noted: samples PVL 24, 25,
26 lack volcanics, whereas the PVL 52 sample showed distinctive
exotic volcanic grains such as quartz, anorthoclase (Fig. 3h), green
clinopyroxene, subordinate aenigmatite.
5.2. XRF
All the ceramic fragments are characterised by a low CaO
content (3.50 wt
%). The low CaO samples, excluding silica (58.3 wt% in PVL 44 up to
67.2 wt% in PVL 2), are all characterised by a good chemical
homogeneity, as illustrated in diagram Fig. 6. A higher Na2O content
(3.2 wt%) was recorded for sample PVL 52. North America Shale
Composition (NASC)-normalized (Gromet et al., 1984) spider
diagrams permitted a simultaneous comparison of the trace
elements abundance. Similar patterns (Fig. 7a and b) were recog-
nised for samples from the BW and RPW classes, which only differ
from the NASC by a slight Rb enrichment. The high CaO samples
(PVL 4, 6, 7 and 8) of the PW group (Fig. 7c) have similar patterns,
withmarked positive Sr and Nb peaks when compared to the NASC;
Rb, Zr and Nb are denitely enriched in sample PVL 5.
With regards to trace elements, the CW group identied similar
patterns for a large number of samples (shaded elde Fig. 7d). Only
Nb and subordinately Sc experienced a wider variation. However,
within this group few samples can be distinguished: PVL 52
showed a bell-shaped pattern attesting very low content in the Nie
Cr pair and enrichment with respect to the NASC in ZreNb. Samples
PVL 24 and 25 differ by way of the lowest Nb content. PVL 26
showed a marked Sr and Sc enrichment. LOI values (Table 5) range
from 0.15 wt% in PVL 35 up to 9.80 wt% in PVL 46.
All clayey samples show low CaO contents, ranging from 0.28 to
4.3 wt%. Silica ranges from 55.2 wt% (GS1) to 69 wt% (SQ1). These
values are negatively correlated with Al2O3 (from 16.3 wt% in SQ1
to 27.1 wt% in GS1) and these are likely due to different contents of
quartz/feldspar and clay minerals as evidenced in XRD analyses
(see Section 5.3). Fe2O3 content ranges from 5.2 wt% (GS1) to
10.5 wt% (BS2).
With regards to alkali elements, K2O shows an average content
of 3.27% in basinal and alluvial sediments (BS1, BS2, GS1, MLV1, SQ1,
TRE1, PMV2, VEL1). Samples of weathered pyroclastics evidenced
higher values (SO1 4.04%; CSC1 6.11%); basinal sample MLV1
shows a very high sodium oxide content (4.43 wt%), which most
probably is due to the peculiar conditions of the outcrop located in
a mud volcano environment, where gas emission and highly saline
(NaeCl) thermal springs exist (Duchi et al., 1995).
Major oxides of clayey sediments and potsherds were plotted in
a binary variation diagram, using CaO as a differentiation index
(Fig. 6). Despite a wide chemical afnity, some raw materials differ
from the artefacts for some oxides content. Strong differences were
noticed for MLV1 that can be distinguished for its higher Na2O
(4.43 wt%) and CaO (4.57 wt%) values. GS1 shows the highest Al2O3(27.12 wt%) and the lowest SiO2 content (55.21wt%). CSC1 differs by
way of a high alkali content (Na2O 2.32 wt%; K2O 6.11 wt%).
Sample SO1 is marked byminor differences (slight higher alumina).
Samples BS1 and BS2 show higher MgO contents (4.34 wt% and
3.42 wt%, respectively); sample TRE1 is characterized by a higher
CaO value (4.09 wt%); PMV2, VEL1, and SQ1 show slightly lower
Fe2O3 contents (6.18, 6.47 and 5.26 wt%).
Trace elements of clayey sediments in NASC-normalised
diagrams (Fig. 7e, f and g) permitted the identication of a group
of three samples (SQ1, VEL1, and TRE1) which showed similar
patterns comparablewith the low CaO potsherds group.Weathered
pyroclastics (CSC1 and SO1) clearly differ for their lower Cr and Ni
values and higher Rb, Sr, Zr contents. These chemical features are
quite far from those of the ceramic potshards. Concerning the trace
elements of the four basinal samples (BS1, BS2, MLV1, and GS1),
they also show substantial differences with the investigated
potsherds. In particular, they are characterised by a higher Cr
content, more pronounced in BS1 and BS2, and by a variable Sr
content (higher in MLV1 and lower in GS1).
Multivariate statistical analysis (Hierarchical Cluster Analysis,
HCA, Fig. 8) on the XRF data of the potsherds and clayey deposits
were carried out. Raw data was log-10 transformed (Aruga, 2003;
Hall, 2004). MnO, P2O5 and Ba were omitted from the dataset, as
they could be affected by post-earthen alteration (Fabbri et al.,
1994; Maggetti, 2001). Statistical data treatment largely conrms
the homogeneities of the low CaO main group, namely all the
potsherds, the BW, RPW and CW classes, as well as one PW sample
(PVL 5). The alluvial deposits (VEL1 and PMV2) and two marine
(basinal TRE1 and SQ1) sediments can be closely associated to this
main group.
The high CaO PW samples (PVL 4, 6, 7, 8) and one RPW sample
(PVL 40) belong to a different group. All the other potsherds (CW:
PVL 24, 25, 26, 52; RPW: PVL 43) as well as the other clay samples
scatter from the above reported groups.
5.3. XRD
The XRD data (Table 6) on the pottery samples, generally
conrmed the optical microscope observations, evidencing the
abundance of quartz and feldspar and subordinate sanidine and
pyroxene. In contrast, the occurrence of pyroxene, not documented
by optical microscopy, was reported for most of the PW group
samples (PVL 4, 6 and 8). Consequently, in these samples the Ca-
pyroxene was interpreted as a high-temperature phase (Grifa
C. Grifa et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) 810e826818
Fig. 6. Major elements binary diagrams.
C. Grifa et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) 810e826 819
et al., 2009b) due to the calcareous character of the raw materials.
An almost ubiquitous occurrence of illite was detected (except for
PVL 3, 4, 6, 8, 11, 25, 29 and 41), with the highest content for the
RPW samples PVL 32, 38, 50 and 51. Hematite was recorded in
samples PVL 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 19, 25, 41, 47, 48, 49 and 52. Fe-
hydroxide (goethite) in samples PVL 2, 6, 10, 11, 15, 17, 25 and 32
was most likely formed after hematite hydroxylation during post-
earthen processes (Secco et al., 2011).
All the basinal and the alluvial clayey sediments are mainly
composed of quartz and feldspar with subordinate illite/mica group
minerals (Table 6). Minor calcite was noticed in TRE1 and MLV1;
hematite in BS2 accounts for its reddish colour. Among the clay
minerals, kaolinite, illite/smectite mixed layer and chlorite were
ubiquitous; the only exceptions are for the GS1, PMV2 and VEL1
samples in which chlorite was absent. Weathered pyroclastics are
mainly constituted by feldspar (sanidine) and illite/mica (biotite).
Fig. 7. NASC normalized spider diagram.
C. Grifa et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) 810e826820
Clinopyroxene is abundant in SO1. Quartz occurs only in traces
along with hematite in CSC1. Kaolinite and/or halloysite are the
main occurring clay minerals.
5.4. Firing temperature estimation
Based on mineralogical data, 14 samples were selected for
Scanning Electron Microscope analyses in order to investigate the
sintering degree of the clay matrix in order to obtain information
on ring temperatures (Maniatis and Tite, 1981). The estimated
ring temperatures are reported in Table 4. The evaluation of this
parameter, in addition tomineralogical andmicrotextural data, also
takes into accounts the CaO content of the raw material and the
redox conditions in the kiln. All the samples were red in oxidative
conditions of the kiln, as conrmed by OM and macroscopic
observations. Furthermore, the raw material did not contain
important amounts of carbonates, except for the PW sample PVL 4.
The presence of illite along with a low sintered matrix (NV, Fig. 9a)
in the BW samples (PVL 1 and 2) permits hypothesizing a ring
temperature lower than 800 #C.
Regarding the PW ceramic class, sample PVL 4 showed a higher
sintering stage of the matrix as testied by the complete loss of the
crystalline structure of the clay minerals and the ne pore size
(CVFB, Fig. 9b). The ring temperature of this sample ranged
between 950 and 1050 #C; the low sintering stage of sample PVL 5
accounts for lower ring temperatures (NV, T < 800 #C).
The illite-bearing RPW samples (PVL 35, 50 and 51) showed
a vitrication of the ceramic body (V, Fig. 9c), indicating ring
temperatures ranging between 850 and 950 #C. The advanced
sintering degree (CVFB, Fig. 9d) of a hematite-bearing sample (PVL
41) conrms higher ring temperatures (>950 #C) coherent with
the type of original clay (low CaO).
A wider variability in microtextures was observed for the CW
samples, which except for sample PVL 11, always showed the
presence of illite along with a low sintering stage (NV), leading to
the possibility to hypothesize ring temperatures lower than
800 #C. Samples PVL 16,17 and 18 showed an Initial Vitrication (IV,
Fig. 9e) with clear evidence of the sintering of phyllosilicates that
tend to clump in homogeneous aggregates. The presence of illite
and the observed microtextures permitted estimating ring
Fig. 7. (continued).
C. Grifa et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) 810e826 821
temperatures ranging from 800 to 850 #C. Higher ring tempera-
tureswere estimated (between 850 and 950 #C) for the CW samples
PVL 36 and 37, for which a sintered paste (V) was observed (Fig. 9f).
6. Discussion
A careful investigation on fragments of table and cooking ware
selected among thousands of shards from some pottery dumps of
Via Lepanto site (Pompeii) provided relevant information on the
role of ceramics as a possible socialeeconomic indicator of a deeply
proven land after the 79 AD Pompeii eruption and up to 472 AD (the
Pollena eruption). However, it should be noted, that neither kiln
wastes nor furnace structures have been identied in this archae-
ological site. Hence, in the rst instance, the provenance of the
pottery can only be hypothesized via the comparison of mineral-
ogical and geochemical data on ceramics and raw materials.
Microscopical observations on a thin section indicated the
presence of a volcanic component characterised by sanidine, pale
green Fe-rich diopside and colourless diopside, plagioclase, biotite
crystals along with obsidians, pumices and scoriae. This volcanic
body, common to all the ceramic classes with the exception of a few
scattered samples (see below), shows a paragenesis that can be
related not only to the differentiated products of SommaeVesuvius
but also to that of the Campi Flegrei magmatic activity or Ischia too.
From a rst approximation, a provenance from the so-called Bay of
Naples can be asserted. In effect, the presence of some minor
components of the paste, such as garnet crystals or leucite-bearing
scoriae, suggests a temper supply area located close to the Sommae
Vesuvius, including sand beach deposits (Morra et al., 2012).
Leucite, in fact, is the typical feldspathoid, almost ubiquitous in the
activity of SommaeVesuvius and completely lacking in the prod-
ucts from Campi Flegrei and Ischia, whereas garnet only appears in
the sialic products (phonolite) of SommaeVesuvius (Santacroce
et al., 2008). Moreover, the entire volcanic inclusions observed in
the samples are well consistent with those usually found in
production indicators (kiln wastes, spacers and bricks from the
furnace structures) from the Pompeii area (Cavassa, 2009; Grifa and
Morra, 2009). These production indicators come from a Roman
furnace (then re-adapted to a tannery) in the insula 5/Regio I, rep-
resenting so far, the second nd of a pottery furnace, after the well-
known lamp furnace (Cerulli Irelli, 1977).
Following these assumptions and taking into account the
compositional homogeneity of the BW, RPW and CW samples,
a local production for these ceramic classes could be hypothesized.
However, some exceptions in the CW group were noticed. For
example, samples PVL 24, 25, 26 showed quartzefeldspars temper
grains, phases almost absent among the inclusions of the potsherds
from the Bay of Naples and reasonably compatible with sandy-like
deposits from the inland Apennine chain. The lack of specic
comparisons does not permit attributing these samples to a reliable
production centre. On the contrary, the PVL 52 CW sample can be
easily attributed to the Late Roman Pantellerianware ceramic class,
widespread in the Mediterranean area and conrmed in other
Campanian sites (e.g. Sacello degli Augustali, Grifa et al., 2005a).
This is due to its very distinctive volcanic temper composed of
differentiated peralkaline rock grains (quartz, anorthoclase, green
pyroxene and brown amphibole).
The PW group showed a quite different chemical composition,
namely a higher Ca and Sr content along with lower silica and
alumina. The only exception is sample PVL 5 that can be denitely
attributed to the PW group due to its similar typological character
although it presents a different texture and chemical composition.
The high-CaO PW group can be related to the Phlegraean broad-
line production (Whitehouse, 1966) from Cuma. Those samples
showed wide homogeneity, both from a chemical and minero-
petrographical point of view, with the reference group dened by
Grifa et al. (2009a). Nevertheless, sample PVL 5, which showed
typological afnities with the Phlegraean broad-line production but
technological properties very similar to the BW, RPW and CW,
suggests a local production of the PW. Investigation on a larger
number of samples could provide further support to this hypothesis.
Fig. 8. Hierarchical Cluster Analysis of potsherds and clayey materials.
Table 4
Evaluation of ring temperatures after SEM observation.
Sample Clay
type
Residual/newly
formed phases
Atmosphere Vitrication Temperature #C
BW PVL 1 NC illite Ox NV
While the mineralogy of grains inferred the provenance of
potsherds, the way those grains are arranged in the clay matrix
highlighted important aspects of ceramic technology. The GSD
curve of the pottery (Fig. 5) showed that ner particles (skeleton)
are mainly composed of quartz, feldspars and sometimes micas,
with a normal distribution due to the natural selection of grains
during clayey sediment deposition (Boggs, 2009). A tail towards
coarser grains turning to a bimodal distribution was observed as
the volcanic content increases to about 18% (Fig.10a), modifying the
samples with a skewed distribution and lower sorting (e.g. PVL 4) in
samples with a bimodal GSD and higher sorting (e.g. PVL 15). The
CW, RPW and BW samples (Fig. 10b) share the same ranges of
volcanic content (from 8.64 to 25.51%) and sorting (from moder-
ately to poorly sorted). However, the CW samples can be clearly
distinguished due to a coarser grain size as showed by f median
values that reach coarse sand grain sizes (f 0.75e0.25). More-
over, median and mean logit (SF) values of the majority of the CW
samples (Fig. 11a, b) attested slightly elongated particles (Am/
AM ca. 1/2) in comparison with the other ceramic classes which
vary from strongly elongated to circular shapes.
Despite the presence of negative skewness (tail) and a bimodal
distribution of grain size ascribable to different sources of grains
during deposition of clays, all the data set (in particular the optical
and image analyses) permits hypothesizing the addition of
a selected volcanic temper to the clayey raw material in order to
achieve the best technological performances of the pottery. The
different amount of temper in a range not higher than 15%, does not
affect the bulk chemical composition of the potsherds, as showed
by XRF and HCA analyses (Figs. 6e8), in particular for themain low-
CaO group (except for sample PVL 26). This accords well with Grifa
et al. (2009b) and De Bonis (2011) that highlighted the slight
chemical changes in ceramic replicas with up to 30% of volcanic
temper addition.
Another fundamental aspect concerning ceramic technology is
the type and the properties of the clay raw materials used to
handcraft such ceramic productions. They can be inferred by the
chemical composition of the potsherds and the mineralogy of no-
plastic inclusions. Such information could permit identifying the
exploited source of the raw material or associate it to a specic
Fig. 9. SEM micrographs of some analysed samples. a) No Vitrication (NV), sample PVL 1; b) Continuous Vitrication-ne bloating pores (CVFB), sample PVL 4; c) Vitrication (V),
sample PVL 35; d) Continuous Vitrication-ne bloating pores (CVFB), sample PVL 41 e) Initial Vitrication (IV), sample PVL 16; f) Vitrication (V), sample PVL 37.
Fig. 10. Diagrams showing the relationship between volcanic content and grain size
parameters.
C. Grifa et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) 810e826 823
geological context (epivolcanic, marine or alluvial). The clays used
to craft the pottery studied (with the exception of samples PVL 4, 5,
6, 24, 25, 26 40 and 52) were characterized by low CaO and high
SiO2, Al2O3, Ni and Cr. Moreover, quartz and feldspar were always
recorded by the XRD and observed as ner skeleton particles by
optical microscopy investigations. Some investigated clayey
deposits (MLV1, GS1, and CSC1 e see Fig. 6 and Table 5) sensibly
differ from the main chemical composition of the pottery thus
permitting their exclusion as possible raw materials. Some other
clay samples show minor discrepancies only in their major oxides
content (BS1, BS2, SQ1, TRE1, PMV2, VEL1, SO1), which are not
sufcient to exclude them as potential rawmaterials. As a matter of
fact, only trace elements may likely provide information on the
original clay materials used for the production of the potsherds.
As far as the epivolcanic deposits are considered, SO1 displays
lower Ni, Cr and higher Rb, Sr, Zr, Nb contents with respect to the
ceramics. In general, both the epivolcanic deposits (SO1 and CSC1)
did not evidence quartz grains among the ner particles, as they are
the product of weakly to strongly undersaturated weathered
pyroclastics. However, these epivolcanic deposits are nowadays
used for traditional ceramic productions (De Bonis, 2011; De Bonis
et al., 2012). Local workshops in Sorrento exploit the SO1 deposits
to make refractory wood-oven bricks and a semi-traditional cook-
ing ware production is present in northern Campania using Roc-
camonna epivolcanic deposits (CSC1). The Varicolori clays (BS1,
BS2 and GS1) also differ from the potsherds for their higher Sc, V, Cr
and lower Ba contents.
An overall similar chemical and mineralogical composition with
the local pottery was observed for some alluvial (PMV2 and VEL1)
and marine deposits (SQ1 and TRE1). It should be noted that the
presence of alluvial type deposits from the Sarno River plain was
recognized in the area. In fact, the geomorphological setting of the
Vesuvius area was profoundly different from its current setting and
the pre-79 AD paleo-environmental reconstruction (Vogel and
Marker, 2011 and references therein) have evidenced large
uvial/lacustrine deposits partially covered by the 79 AD products
and by those of the following volcanic activities (e.g. 472 AD Pollena
eruption). The above reported data permits hypothesizing that
alluvial deposits are the most likely raw materials.
The whole data set evidenced a close relationship of the clay
type and temper (grain size, sorting and abundance of volcanic
inclusions) with the ceramic classes, which accounts for the precise
protocols, the material culture of the potters, followed in Pompeii
Late Roman workshops to produce table and cooking ware. Such
protocols also included the nal transformation process of raw
material and the ring process. On this account, the tableware
production attested different ring temperatures, showing lower
values for the BW rather than the RPW samples. Moreover, within
the RPW ceramic class, two different groups e group 1 red at
slightly higher temperatures than group 2 (>950# and 850e950 #C
respectively) e can be distinguished based on their sintering
structures and illite content. A well-developed pore system along
with diffused Ca-pyroxene formation in the PW CaO-rich samples
account for ring temperatures close to 1000 #C as veried for the
same Phlegraean production from Cuma (Grifa et al., 2009a).
Finally, as expected, CW shards experienced low ring treatments,
mainly ranging from 800# to 850 #C in order to minimize the
thermal shocks, thus preventing damage of the potsherds during
food cooking.
7. Conclusions
The whole archaeological and archaeometric data set on pottery
from the Via Lepanto site permitted identifying the production area
of the cooking ware and part of the ne ware in the Vesuvius
district, contributing to outline some important social and
economic aspects of this region between IV and V century AD,
when new settlements most probably formed (Soricelli, 2001).
First of all, it should be remarked that archaeologists, due to the
occurrence of African Red Slip Ware, dated the occupancy of this
rural settlement not later than the second half of the II century AD,
thus contradicting the historical sources that hypothesized a later
reoccupation of these lands (not before the III century AD). This
present research conrms the archaeological data on the basis of
the analytical investigation carried out on the potsherds of the Via
Lepanto site and the relative raw materials, bearing witness not
only to the activity of a rural settlement immediately before its
abandonment (472 AD) but also to the local production of these
potteries. The technology applied in the workshops followed
accurate choices in terms of raw materials, temper and ring
temperatures in order to produce performing pottery.
The most relevant aspects pointed out by the present research
are briey summarized as follows:
-) with regards to the ne ware, it is possible to hypothesize
a Vesuvius provenance of the BW pottery and a Phlegraean
origin for 4 samples of the PW out of 5. Mineralogical and
petrochemical data on one sample permitted hypothesizing
a local production of the PW pottery. The PW samples account for
medium-distance exchanges (approximately at a distance of
40 km from Pompeii) as well documented in Cuma and Miseno
(Grifa et al., 2005b, 2009a).
-) The RPW pottery was also crafted in Vesuvian workshops. Two
groups of fragments were distinguished and characterized by
a common repertoire. The existence of two different technolog-
ical protocols was inferred, one using low inclusions/high ring
temperatures yielding a ne and very hard paste and a second
Fig. 11. Diagrams showing the relationship between grain size parameters.
C. Grifa et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) 810e826824
using high inclusions/low ring temperatures with a coarse and
softer paste. This information supported two hypotheses, the
presence of different workshops acting in the area, or the
parallel circulation of a low quality (group 1) along with a higher
quality (group 2) production, which only share typological
characters (shape and red decoration). The quality of the table-
ware was enhanced by selecting the raw materials and choosing
specic ring temperatures with consequent longer
manufacturing times and higher fuel consumption, thus inu-
encing the nal cost of the pottery.
-) Most of the CW samples also accounts for a production from
Pompeian workshops set in a local circuit of distribution (Bay of
Naples) as well as medium to long-distance exchanges (e.g.
Apenninic contexts).
-) Some samples of the CW such as PVL 23, 24 and 25 (likely
Apennine production) and PVL 52 (Pantellerian Ware) along
with African Red Slip Ware, Oriental and Iberian Amphorae (not
included in this study) inferred long-distance exchanges.
It is possible to hypothesize that the Via Lepanto site was part of
a well-developed exchange network and included in a periodic e
high frequency system of market (the nundinae), as supported by
epigraphic documents of the Northern Campania/Southern Lazio
region (Storchi Marino, 2000). The pottery, locally produced or
imported, was individually distributed in this network market. In
addition to these important aspects concerning the economic
activities and human relationships of the inhabitants of this Late
Roman site, this research also sheds new light on the technological
ability of the workers, who exploited local low-CaO alluvial clayey
deposits, mixed with selected volcanic grains (probably beach
sands, Morra et al., 2012), red at different temperatures, in order
to enhance the thermal or shock resistance of the potshards.
Acknowledgements
This research was funded by a Dipartimento di Scienze della
Terra (Universit Federico II di Napoli) grant (VM). The authors are
grateful to Germana Barone and three anonymous referees whose
suggestions considerably improved the paper. The authors also
thank Antonietta Longo for the last revision of the manuscript. The
authors would like to thank Leone Melluso and Vincenzo Monetti
for the XRF analyses, Stefano M. Pagnotta for his useful discussions
and support on statistics and Antonio Canzanella for the SEM
analyses. The authors kindly thank dr. E. de Carolis and Soprin-
tendenza Speciale per i Beni Archeologici di Napoli e Pompei.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2012.08.043.
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