A Late Roman ceramic production from Pompeii (in Journal of Archaeological Science 40, 2013, pp....

Research paper

A Late Roman ceramic production from Pompeii

Celestino Grifa a,*, Alberto De Bonis b, Alessio Langella a, Mariano Mercurio a, Gianluca Soricelli c,Vincenzo Morra b

aDipartimento di Scienze per la Biologia, la Geologia e lAmbiente, Universit del Sannio, Via dei Mulini 59/A, 82100 Benevento, ItalybDipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Universit Federico II, Via Mezzocannone 8, 80134 Napoli, ItalycDipartimento di Scienze Umane, Storiche e Sociali, Universit del Molise, Via Mazzini 8, 86170 Isernia, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:

Received 12 September 2011

Received in revised form

27 August 2012

Accepted 28 August 2012

Keywords:

Pompeii

Pottery

Clayey deposits

Volcanic temper

a b s t r a c t

The Via Lepanto site is one of the best examples showing how the Vesuvian region was partially

reconstructed and earlier re-occupied after Vesuviuss eruption in the year 79 AD. The large amount of

ceramic nds illustrates the typology in use in this area during the IV and V century AD. Analyses were

focused on table and cooking ware productions. Archaeometric data were obtained using chemical and

minero-petrographical methods (OM, XRD, XRF and SEM). Grain size measurements using Image Anal-

yses on thin sections and a geochemical comparison with clayey deposits outcropping in the Campania

region permitted the identication of the rawmaterials used for these pottery productions. XRD and SEM

completed the data set, establishing the protocols used for pottery production in the Pompeii area during

Late Roman period. The Via Lepanto site was part of an exchange network of markets with a periodic

frequency, where locally produced and imported pottery was sold, indicating a ourishing network of

exchanges spanning short, medium and long distances.

2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

The so-called Agro Nocerino-Sarnese, in the southern part of the

Campanian Plain, had been an optimum for human settlements

since pre-historic times, due to its fertile soils and propitious

climate (Soricelli, 2001; Marturano et al., 2009). However, the

scenario commonly proposed for this land immediately after the 79

AD eruption, which destroyed Pompeii, Ercolano and Stabia, is that

of a bare and abandoned land. In fact, several authors hypothesise

an abrupt interruption of all human activities immediately after the

eruption and only a late and sporadic reoccupation of the area, up

until III century AD (Soricelli, 2002). However, such reconstructions

suffer a lack of interest on the part of archaeologists for the post-79

AD levels which consequently, were only summarily investigated or

simply removed, in order to reach the pre-eruption layers.

According to ancient sources (Suet. Tit. 8,4; Cass. Dio LXVI.24, 3e

4 in Gazzetti, 1976), the reconstruction process immediately after

the disaster, which focused on agricultural infrastructures, public

buildings and road networks, was managed by two imperial of-

cers, the curatores restituendae Campaniae, and was funded by

the imperial treasury (Soricelli, 2001, 2002). Several sites and

settlements, in particular along the NuceriaePompei road (Fig. 1)

(De Carolis and Soricelli, 2005), conrm a reoccupation of the area,

such as the Porta-Vesuvio necropolis and the Moregine complex.

The Via Lepanto site is one of the best examples of a reoccupa-

tion of the Vesuvius area after the 79 AD eruption (Fig. 1). It dates

back to the rst half of II century AD (as shown by the African Red

Slip Ware, forms Hayes 7A, 8A). The site is located on the Nuceriae

Pompei road, at approximately 1 km from the SEwalls of the ancient

city of Pompeii. It was abandoned after the 472 AD eruption, as

shown by the Pollena pyroclastic deposits that covered the whole

settlement (De Carolis and Soricelli, 2005). Some ceramic dumps,

dating back to the late IVeearly V century AD by the African Red Slip

Ware forms Hayes 59, 60, 61, 73 and 91, brought to light a large

amount of pottery, among which samples of table and cooking

ware. These were collected and analysed from a mineralogical and

petrographical point of view.

This research study aims at dening the technological features of

some selected ceramic productions that werewidespread in the Via

Lepanto site, by means of an exhaustive mineralogical, petrograph-

ical and chemical characterisation, focussing on the identication of

the clays and tempers used, as well as the ring technologies.

Moreover, the whole data set aims at providing a useful archaeo-

metric database on the ceramic productions from this area. An

attempt of hypothesis on the provenance of the shards was also

carried out in order to conrm the presence of active ceramic

workshops in Pompeii and the surrounding area during the Late* Corresponding author. Tel.: 39 (0)824 363649; fax: 39 (0)824 323623.

E-mail address: [email protected] (C. Grifa).

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Journal of Archaeological Science

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http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2012.08.043

Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) 810e826

Roman period. This would provide a useful indicator of a retrieved

socialeeconomic activity. Mineralogical, petrographical and

geochemical analyses may also provide information on the prove-

nance of the pottery. This is particularly true for coarse-grained

common ware and amphorae productions in which inclusions can

be easily correlated to the rocks cropping out in the surrounding

area.

The relationship between the minero-petrographical composi-

tionof thecoarse-temper isparticularlyeffective involcanic contexts,

as reported for some ceramic productions of the Circum-Mediterra-

nean volcanic area, such as those from Sicily (Barone et al., 2010), the

Aeolian islands (Williams et al., 2008) and Pantelleria (Grifa et al.,

2005a). With regards to ceramic productions from the Bay of

Naples, the occurrence of well sorted, rounded volcanic temper,

mainlycomposedof sanidine, Ca-richpyroxene, plagioclase, pumices

and scoriae, is largely attested in both fabrics of commonwares and

amphorae (Grifa et al., 2005b, 2006, 2009a). To complete the char-

acterization of the potsherds, clayey raw materials located close to

the Pompeii area and along the Late Roman period main roads (e.g.

Appia and Traiana roads) were also sampled and compared with the

investigated ceramic products, from a mineralogical and geochem-

ical point of view (De Bonis, 2011; De Bonis et al., 2012).

2. Volcanological remarks

Located not far from the Southern-eastern part of the city of

Naples and within one of the most densely inhabited areas of the

world, this typical stratovolcano has always conditioned human

behaviour in this portion of the Campania region. Mount Somma

represents the oldest volcano that concluded its activities with

a caldera formation. Within this caldera, the Vesuvius volcano

successively formed (Cioni et al., 1999). The volcanic history of the

SommaeVesuvius complex is still debated. After a rst phase,

which started circa 300e400 ka (Brocchini et al., 2001), it was only

after the Phlegraean Campanian Ignimbrite eruption that activity

was recorded (39 ka; Fedele et al., 2008). It was upon this eruption

that the present volcanic complex was formed (Di Vito et al., 1998).

Since its last eruption in 1944 AD, the SommaeVesuvius has

experienced a quiescent status.

From a petrological point of view, the volcanic products belong

to the HK series and they are typical leucite-bearing rocks

(Conticelli et al., 2004). The rst historical Plinian eruption, recor-

ded in the archaeological layers and largely used as a stratigraphic

marker for the Bronze Age, is the Pomici di Avellino eruption

(4.365 ka; Santacroce et al., 2008) which deposited large volumes

of pyroclastic falls and ows, causing the migration of the pre-

historical population to the surrounding areas. However, the most

important Plinian event, also from a historical point of view, is the

79 AD Pompei eruption (Lanphere et al., 2007) directly observed

and carefully described by Plinius the Younger. Successively, the

472 AD Pollena eruption (Santacroce et al., 2008) also had a strong

impact on the Vesuvius area. These latter two eruptions represent

important events for the Via Lepanto site, as they mark the

beginning and the end of occupancy.

Fig. 1. Simplied geological map of Campania region (modied from Bonardi et al., 2009). Main roads (Shepherd, 1911) and clay sampling sites are also reported.

C. Grifa et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) 810e826 811

3. Materials

3.1. Pottery

Some Late Roman potsherd dumps, sealed by Pollena products

(472 AD), brought to light several thousands of ceramic fragments,

mainly represented by common ware (table and cooking ware).

Fifty-two fragments from these ceramic classes (Table 1) were

sampled for minero-petrographical analyses. From an archaeolog-

ical point of view, the pottery from Via Lepanto can be compared to

similar products circulating in the region between the end of IV

century AD and the beginning of the V century AD (De Carolis and

Soricelli, 2005).

Three different types of table were investigated: Red Painted

Ware (RPW), Painted Ware (PW) and Burnished Ware (BW). The Red

Painted Ware (17 samples), mainly represented by open shapes

(Fig. 2a), can be easily identied by a light reddish slip that covers

the entire internal surface and partially overlaps the external rim of

the artefact. Macroscopic observations permit the recognition of

two different groups of fragments. The rst is characterised by

a ne and very hard paste. The colour of the paint is red/red-orange

(2.5YR 4/8). A second group of samples shows a coarser and softer

paste. The thin paint is red in colour (2.5YR 5/6). In both groups, the

ceramic body has a redebrown colour (2.5YR 5/8) but some sand-

wich structures can be observed (sample PVL 39 and 41, Table 1).

Examples of RPW have been found in late IVeearly V century AD

contexts from Somma Vesuviana (Aoyagi et al., 2007) and Mer-

cato S. Severino (Fiorillo, 2003). These can be compared with

pottery from other Southern Italy sites: Naples (Arthur, 1994),

Pratola Serra (Alfano, 1992), Ordona (Annese, 2000) and Calle (Di

Giuseppe, 1998).

A second tableware ceramic class is represented by 5 samples of

the Painted Ware (Whitehouse, 1966) showing a greyish ne paste

(5YR 6/3) with a redebrown decoration applied by a paintbrush or

a cloth. These vessels (Fig. 2b) can be compared with analogous

products from other Campanian sites: Cuma, Miseno (Grifa et al.,

2005b, 2009a), Benevento (Lupia, 1998) and Caudium (Perrone,

2005; De Bonis et al., 2010). The last three samples of tableware

are represented by small closed shapes with a ne red paste (2.5YR

5/8) and with a shiny red cover (2.5YR 4/8) on the external surface:

the Burnished Ware (inset of Fig. 2b). Well represented in Vesuvius

area, this ware is common in Naples and in other Campanian sites

(De Carolis and Soricelli, 2005).

The Cooking Ware samples (CW, 27 samples) show a very coarse

paste. In general, the matrix shows a red/brown colour (5YR 6/3e

5YR 6/6) but in several samples, sandwich zoning of the ceramic

body can be observed. Main attested shapes (Fig. 2c) are the

casseroles that can be found in other Campanian contexts, in

particular in Benevento (Lupia, 1998), Caudium (De Bonis et al.,

2010), Neapolis (Carsana, 1994) and the Phlegraean area (Soricelli,

2000). Saucepans and lids also occur. Only one sample (Fig. 2c)

can be referred to the PantellerianWare, a cooking warewidespread

in the Mediterranean area between IV and VI century (Grifa et al.,

2005a).

3.2. Clayey raw materials

Ten samples of clayey raw materials (Table 2, Fig.1) were

collected in order to compare their mineralogical and geochemical

composition with that of the ceramic nds. Samples were chosen

according to their proximity to both possible ancient sites of

production and the main Roman roads of the Campania region

(Fig. 1). They are mainly represented by basinal sediments, subor-

dinate alluvial deposits and strongly weathered pyroclastic soils

(Table 2). Basinal sediments mainly outcrop along the Apennine

chain located in the eastern part of the Campania Region and are

ubiquitously ascribed to different units such as the Sicilide Unit

(samples BS1, BS2, GS1) or the Fortore Unit (sample MLV1), which

all date from the Upper Cretaceous to the Lower Miocene (Table 2;

Fig. 1) (Bonardi et al., 2009). Sample MLV1 was collected in the area

surrounding the mud volcano known as the Bolle della Malvizza in

the Miscano river valley, very close to the Traiana Roman Road

(Fig. 1), which crossed the Apennine chain to the Adriatic coast. The

GS1 sample crops out close to the town of Gioia Sannitica (Caserta

province). Other basinal samples (SQ1 and TRE1), ascribed to

Caiazzo Sandstones (Bonardi et al., 2009), come from the Northern

Campania area, which is well-known for the presence of several

Roman settlements. The SQ1 sample was collected near the town of

Caiazzo (Caserta province). The TRE1 sample comes from the

village of Treglia (Caserta province), a Roman settlement (Trebula),

Table 1

Archaeological information of 52 common ware ceramic samples from Via Lepanto.

The colour code form Munsell Soil Colour Chart.

Sample Class Body Zoning Heart Rim Slip

PVL 1 BW 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 4/8

PVL 2 BW 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 4/8

PVL 3* BW 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 4/8

PVL 4* PW 5YR 6/3

PVL 5* PW 5YR 6/3

PVL 6 PW 5YR 6/3

PVL 7* PW 5YR 6/3

PVL 8 PW 5YR 5/6

PVL 9* CW 5YR 6/3

PVL 10* CW 5YR 6/6

PVL 11 CW 5YR 6/6

PVL 12* CW faded 5YR 6/3 2.5YR 5/8

PVL 13 CW faded 5YR 6/3 2.5YR 5/8



PVL 16 CW 5YR 6/3

PVL 17 CW 5YR 6/3


PVL 19* CW 5YR 6/3


PVL 21* CW 5YR 6/3


PVL 23 CW 5YR 5/6

PVL 24 CW sharp 5YR 6/3 2.5YR 5/8

PVL 25 CW 5YR 6/6


PVL 27* CW 5YR 6/6

PVL 28 CW 5YR 6/6


PVL 30 CW 5YR 6/6


PVL 32 RPW 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 4/8

PVL 33 RPW 2.5YR 5/6

PVL 34* RPW 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 5/6

PVL 35* RPW 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 4/8



PVL 38* RPW 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 4/8

PVL 39* RPW sharp 5YR 6/3 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 4/8

PVL 40 RPW 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 4/8

PVL 41 RPW sharp 5YR 6/3 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 4/8

PVL 42 RPW 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 4/8

PVL 43 RPW 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 4/8

PVL 44 RPW* 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 5/6

PVL 45 CW 2.5YR 5/8

PVL 46 RPW* 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 4/8

PVL 47 RPW 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 4/8

PVL 48 RPW 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 4/8

PVL 49 RPW 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 4/8

PVL 50 RPW 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 5/6

PVL 51 RPW 2.5YR 5/8 2.5YR 5/6

PVL 52 CW 5YR 4/3

BW Burnished Ware; PW Painted Ware; CW Cooking Ware; RPW Red Painted

Ware, * Samples studied by image and modal analyses.

C. Grifa et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (2013) 810e826812

where an ancient ceramic workshop is reported to have existed

(Livadie, 1994).

The PMV2 alluvial clayey sediment (Piana di Monte Verna,

Caserta province) of the Volturno River plain is a holocenic clay

collected two meters below the ground level, in which bricks of

Roman age were also found. VEL1 is an Alento River sediment

(PleistoceneeHolocene), sampled in a former clay quarry in the

area surrounding Velia, the ancient Greek colony of Elea. Other

clayey raw materials derive from strongly weathered pyroclastic

deposits that were widespread in the volcanic areas of the region.

Such materials were most likely exploited in the past for pottery

productions, especially in the Bay of Naples area, and are still used

for the manufacturing of bricks for wood-burning ovens or cooking

wares, following ancient techniques and taking advantage of their

refractory properties. One sample (SO1) comes from a brownish

lahar-like deposit of the Sorrento Peninsula, deriving from the

activity of SommaeVesuvius. The other sample (CSC1) comes from

the pyroclastic soils of the Roccamonna volcano (De Bonis, 2011).

4. Analytical techniques

The mineralogical and textural properties of the pottery frag-

ments were investigated on thin sections with a Leitz Laborlux

12POL polarising microscope. On selected representative samples

of each ceramic class, accurate measurements of the non-plastic

inclusions were carried out with an image analysis software

(Leica Q-Win). Point-to-point modal analyses were carried out on

Fig. 2. The variegated repertoire of the common ware ceramic from Via Lepanto; a) the Red Paint Ware (RPW), bowls and dishes; b) the Painted Ware (PW), bowls and dishes, in the

inset the shape representative of the Burnished Ware (BW); c) The Cooking Ware (CW), pans, pots, saucepan and lids, in the inset a typical saucepan of Pantellerian Ware.

Table 2

Clayey deposits description.

Sample Locality Geological origin Description

BS1 Bisaccia (AV) Basinal sediment Blue-greenish

clayey silt

BS2 Bisaccia (AV) Basinal sediment Reddish clayey silt

GS1 Gioia Sannitica (CE) Basinal sediment Reworked brown-

yellowish sediment

MLV1 Montecalvo

Irpino (AV)

Basinal sediment Greyish clayey

sediment

SQ1 Castel Campagnano

(CE)

Basinal sediment Reworked brownish

silty sediment

TRE1 Pontelatone (CE) Basinal sediment Reworked brownish

silty sediment

PMV2 Piana di Monte

Verna (CE)

Alluvial sediment Yellowish clayey silt

VEL1 Velina di Castelnuovo

Cilento (SA)

Alluvial sediment Yellowish sandy silt

CSC1 Cascano di Sessa

Aurunca (CE)

Pyroclastic deposit Reddish clayey silt

SO1 SantAgnello (NA) Pyroclastic deposit Brownish sandy silt


ca. 3000 points for each sample, evaluating the abundance of paste

constituents (grains, matrix and pores). Using a manual procedure,

image analyses also permitted measuring some shape parameters

of the inclusions, such as the minimum (Am) and maximum (AM)

axis of single grains, assuming the grain inscribed in an ellipse. The

two axes were used to calculate the Krumbein f size (f!log2 AM;

Krumbein and Sloss, 1963) and the Am/AM axis ratio that was

assumed, in this study, as a shape factor (SF). As SF values range

from nearly 1.0 for circular grains to nearly 0.0 for elongated grains,

a logit transformation, Logit (SF) Ln(SF/(1 ! SF)), was applied

(Prakongkep et al., 2010). Optical conditions for particles

measurements varied as a function of the inclusion grain size.

Image resolution was 1280 " 1024 pixel, for ner grains captured

with 40" magnication (1 mm 480 pixel) and for coarser grains

captured using 25" magnication (1 mm 320 pixel). All images

were captured in parallel-polarized light in order to avoid extinc-

tion problems.

Bulk chemical compositions of the shards and the reference clay

samples were evaluated by XRF (Philips PW 1400): ten major

elements (Si, Ti, Al, Fe, Mn, Mg, Ca, Na, K, P as oxide %) and 9 trace

elements (Ni, Rb, Sr, Zr, Nb, Sc, V, Cr, Ba in ppm)were determined on

pressed pellets. Analytical procedureswere carried out according to

Melluso et al. (2005). Volatile content (LOI) was determined

measuring mass lost (1 g of powdered sample) heated at 1000 #C.

XRF analyses were not performed for sample PVL 28 and 41 due to

a lack of sufcient material. A statistical multivariate approach was

carried out on the XRF data set to better evaluate the chemical

behaviour of the ceramic fragments in a multidimensional space

and to verify homogeneity in the different data populations.

Statistical treatment of the Grain-Size Distribution (hereafter GSD)

and the XRF data was carried out using the R version 2.10.0 soft-

ware (R Development Team, 2005).

Two analytical approaches were united in order to evaluate the

ring temperatures of the ceramic shards. X-ray diffraction (XRD)

permitted the identication of the mineralogical composition of

the potsherds, which depends on the base-clay and possible sub-

microscopic phases related to the ring dynamics (Philips PW

1730/3710 diffractometer, CuKa radiation 40 kV, 30 mA, curved

graphite monochromator, scanning interval 3e80#, step

size 0.020# 2q, counting time 5 s per step). Scanning Electron

Microscopy (SEM Jeol JSM 5310) observations, carried out on gold-

coated fresh-fractured fragments, provided information in terms of

microstructures and the sintering degree of the clay matrix

(Maniatis and Tite, 1981). Bulk mineralogy of clay-rich sediments

was investigated by XRD on randomly oriented powders; clay

minerals were identied on the

red slip (Fig. 3a). The modal analysis carried out on the PVL 3

sample evidenced a low porosity (5.63%), tiny particles of quartz

and feldspars (28.6%) and subordinate volcanic grains such as:

obsidians (4.13%), clinopyroxene (pale green Fe-rich diopside and

colourless diopside, 3.62%), scoriae (3.38%), sanidine (2.23%),

pumices (1.63%) and plagioclase (1.00%) attesting a high total

inclusions content (Fig. 4a).

For all the samples, a theoretical skew-t (Azzalini and Genton,

2008; Azzalini, 2006) Probability Density Function (PDF, dashed

curves in Fig. 5) was plotted (using the same mean and standard

deviation values) in order to compare the real and the theoretical

curves. The density GSD histogram (Fig. 5a) showed a skewed f size

curve from main coarse silt/ne sand particle sizes (median value

3.93; z0.70 mm, mean value 3.88) to subordinate coarse/very

coarse sand (weak negative spread). The standard deviation value

(sf 0.61) expressed a moderately well sorted distribution of

the inclusions (Folk, 1974). Moreover, the logit (SF) histogram

highlighted moderately to poorly elongated shapes of grains as

illustrated by the tail toward positive values of the PDF curve

(Fig. 5b).

The PW pasteswere formed bypredominant grey (PVL 4, 6, 7 and

8) to red-brown isotropic matrixes (PVL 5), ranging from 62.4 to

65.2% in PVL 4 and PVL 5, respectively, and subordinate inclusions

(from 27.2 in PVL 5e30.7% in PVL 7). This ceramic class is

characterised by the highest matrix/inclusions ratio (>2) and

lowest volcanics and inclusions content when compared to the

others (Fig. 4a, Table 3). Furthermore optical properties of the clay

matrix (Fig. 3b), PVL 5 also showed a different GSD, namely,

a skewed PDF curve (main medium silt/medium sand, Fig. 5c) with

a tail toward coarser grains (coarse sand), due to a higher volcanic

grains content (6.00%) and the moderate sorting (sf 0.75). The

inclusions are mainly constituted by microcrystalline quartz and

feldspars (21.2%) and subordinate volcanic elements, such as clino-

pyroxene (2.20%), sanidine (1.4%), scoriae (1.2%), plagioclase (0.8%),

Fig. 3. Micrographs showing some optical properties of the analysed samples. a) paste and cover, sample PVL 1, parallel polars; b) matrix and inclusions, sample PVL 5, parallel

polars; c) matrix and inclusions, sample PVL 4, parallel polars; d) grain and matrix of RPW group 1 representative sample, sample PVL 34, parallel polars, e) grain and matrix of RPW

group 2 representative sample, sample PVL 44, crossed polars; f) coarse-grained CW sample, sample PVL 9, crossed polars; g) coarse-grained CW sample, sample PVL 15, crossed

polars; h) anorthoclase crystal, sample PVL 52, crossed polars.

Fig. 4. Diagrams showing some modal parameters.


leucite-bearing scoriae (0.2%) and obsidian fragments (0.2%). The

grain shape varies from subrounded to poorly elongated (Fig. 5d).

In contrast, samples PVL 4 and PVL 7 (Fig. 3c) showed approx-

imately normal GSD diagrams (Fig. 5e), ranging frommedium silt to

ne sand, and moderately well sorted grains (sf 0.50 and 0.67,

respectively) composed of quartz and feldspar particles and very

subordinate volcanic grains (Table 3). Logit (SF) curves evidenced,

for each sample, a moderately elongated shape of the grains

(Fig. 5f). Porosity ranged from 6.00% in PVL 7 up to 10.1% in PVL 4.

The RPW samples can be grouped in accordance with their

different textures, despite their similar stylistic character. All the

samples generally showed a red-to-red-orange coloured isotropic

matrix. Occasional colour zoning can be related to a different

optical activity of the clay matrix. Group 1 (PVL 32, 34, 35, 38, 39,

40, 41, 42, 47, 48 and 49, Fig. 3d) showed a slight lower matrix (50%

vs. 54%, on average), volcanic grains (14% vs. 23%, on average) and

a higher quartz-feldspar fraction (23% vs. 14%, on average; Figs. 3d

and 4b and Table 3), when compared to the samples of group 2 (PVL

33, 44, 46, 50 and 51, Fig. 3e). Volcanic grains were constituted by

scoriae (2.20e4.29%, average values), obsidians (1.72e3.42%),

plagioclase (1.20e2.78%), pumices (1.12e4.67%), sanidine (1.43e

2.76%), biotite (0.60e2.64%) and clinopyroxene (0.12e0.80%). A

skewed GSD from medium silt to medium sands, with the tail

towards coarser grains up to coarse sand (Fig. 5g) was evidenced

for the group 1 samples. The inclusions varied from moderately

well (PVL 34) tomoderately sorted (PVL 35, 38, 39), as illustrated by

the sf values (Table 3). The logit (SF) evidenced a mainly elongated

shape of inclusions (Fig. 5h).

The samples of group 2, on the other hand, show higher sfvalues, indicating a moderate (PVL 44) to poor (PVL 46) sorting. In

Fig. 5. f size and logit (SF) frequence diagrams for some representative samples of the studied potsherds. a), b) PVL 3, BW sample; c), d) PVL 5, PW sample; e), f) PVL 4, PW sample;

g), h) PVL 39, RPW sample; i), l) PVL 44, RPW sample; m), n) PVL 10, CW sample; o), p) PVL 15, CW sample.


Fig. 5. (continued).


reference to this group, the GSD diagrams (Fig. 5i) showed a skewed

distribution (medium silt to coarse sand) with a more pronounced

tail (higher density) toward coarser grains. Non-crystalline

elements, such as scoriae (leucite-bearing scoriae in PVL 44),

pumices and obsidians still represent the most abundant volcanic

component. Subordinate sanidine, plagioclase, clinopyroxene and

biotite were also observed (Table 3). RPW group 1 showed a higher

porosity than group 2 (12% vs. 6%, on average). The logit (SF) again

evidenced a mainly elongated shape of inclusions (Fig. 5j).

TheCW samples (PVL9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19, 20, 21, 22,

23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 36, 37, 43, 45 and 52) showed wider

differences in textures namely, GSD and inclusions content and

optical characters of the matrix (Fig. 3f, g). The inclusions range

between 35.6% (PVL 9) and 46.0% (PVL 10), dened matrix/inclu-

sions ratios from 1.02 (PVL 10) to 1.79 (PVL 15) (Fig. 4a). GSD

diagrams varied from slightly positive skewed (PVL 10, Fig. 5k) to

bimodal textures (PVL 15, Fig. 5m). The sorting rate ranged from

moderately well sorted (sf 0.67 in PVL 19) to moderately sorted

(sf 0.95 in PVL 21). In comparison to the other ceramic classes, the

GSD curve of the CW samples evidenced a shift toward larger grain

size and ahigherdensity of coarse grains, fromcoarse silt tomedium

sand (Fig. 5k, m). The shape of the grains is generally elongatedwith

a weak tail toward more rounded grains (Fig. 5l, n). Along with the

quartzefeldspar component (ranging from 7.98% up to 29.1% in PVL

15 and PVL 26, respectively), volcanic grains always occur and are

mainly constituted by sanidine (4.04e12.17%), plagioclase (2.43e

4.50%), scoriae (1.13e7.71%), clinopyroxene (0.52e2.67%), obsidian

(0.38e4.75%), biotite (0.30e2.76%) and pumices (0.22e1.25%).

Garnet (0.11%) was observed in samples PVL 10, 15 and 21; leucite-

bearing scoriae were only recorded in PVL 19. The presence of

secondary calcite was noticed in PVL 9, 10, 12, 15, 19, 21, 26 and 46.

Some relevant exceptions should also be noted: samples PVL 24, 25,

26 lack volcanics, whereas the PVL 52 sample showed distinctive

exotic volcanic grains such as quartz, anorthoclase (Fig. 3h), green

clinopyroxene, subordinate aenigmatite.

5.2. XRF

All the ceramic fragments are characterised by a low CaO

content (3.50 wt

%). The low CaO samples, excluding silica (58.3 wt% in PVL 44 up to

67.2 wt% in PVL 2), are all characterised by a good chemical

homogeneity, as illustrated in diagram Fig. 6. A higher Na2O content

(3.2 wt%) was recorded for sample PVL 52. North America Shale

Composition (NASC)-normalized (Gromet et al., 1984) spider

diagrams permitted a simultaneous comparison of the trace

elements abundance. Similar patterns (Fig. 7a and b) were recog-

nised for samples from the BW and RPW classes, which only differ

from the NASC by a slight Rb enrichment. The high CaO samples

(PVL 4, 6, 7 and 8) of the PW group (Fig. 7c) have similar patterns,

withmarked positive Sr and Nb peaks when compared to the NASC;

Rb, Zr and Nb are denitely enriched in sample PVL 5.

With regards to trace elements, the CW group identied similar

patterns for a large number of samples (shaded elde Fig. 7d). Only

Nb and subordinately Sc experienced a wider variation. However,

within this group few samples can be distinguished: PVL 52

showed a bell-shaped pattern attesting very low content in the Nie

Cr pair and enrichment with respect to the NASC in ZreNb. Samples

PVL 24 and 25 differ by way of the lowest Nb content. PVL 26

showed a marked Sr and Sc enrichment. LOI values (Table 5) range

from 0.15 wt% in PVL 35 up to 9.80 wt% in PVL 46.

All clayey samples show low CaO contents, ranging from 0.28 to

4.3 wt%. Silica ranges from 55.2 wt% (GS1) to 69 wt% (SQ1). These

values are negatively correlated with Al2O3 (from 16.3 wt% in SQ1

to 27.1 wt% in GS1) and these are likely due to different contents of

quartz/feldspar and clay minerals as evidenced in XRD analyses

(see Section 5.3). Fe2O3 content ranges from 5.2 wt% (GS1) to

10.5 wt% (BS2).

With regards to alkali elements, K2O shows an average content

of 3.27% in basinal and alluvial sediments (BS1, BS2, GS1, MLV1, SQ1,

TRE1, PMV2, VEL1). Samples of weathered pyroclastics evidenced

higher values (SO1 4.04%; CSC1 6.11%); basinal sample MLV1

shows a very high sodium oxide content (4.43 wt%), which most

probably is due to the peculiar conditions of the outcrop located in

a mud volcano environment, where gas emission and highly saline

(NaeCl) thermal springs exist (Duchi et al., 1995).

Major oxides of clayey sediments and potsherds were plotted in

a binary variation diagram, using CaO as a differentiation index

(Fig. 6). Despite a wide chemical afnity, some raw materials differ

from the artefacts for some oxides content. Strong differences were

noticed for MLV1 that can be distinguished for its higher Na2O

(4.43 wt%) and CaO (4.57 wt%) values. GS1 shows the highest Al2O3(27.12 wt%) and the lowest SiO2 content (55.21wt%). CSC1 differs by

way of a high alkali content (Na2O 2.32 wt%; K2O 6.11 wt%).

Sample SO1 is marked byminor differences (slight higher alumina).

Samples BS1 and BS2 show higher MgO contents (4.34 wt% and

3.42 wt%, respectively); sample TRE1 is characterized by a higher

CaO value (4.09 wt%); PMV2, VEL1, and SQ1 show slightly lower

Fe2O3 contents (6.18, 6.47 and 5.26 wt%).

Trace elements of clayey sediments in NASC-normalised

diagrams (Fig. 7e, f and g) permitted the identication of a group

of three samples (SQ1, VEL1, and TRE1) which showed similar

patterns comparablewith the low CaO potsherds group.Weathered

pyroclastics (CSC1 and SO1) clearly differ for their lower Cr and Ni

values and higher Rb, Sr, Zr contents. These chemical features are

quite far from those of the ceramic potshards. Concerning the trace

elements of the four basinal samples (BS1, BS2, MLV1, and GS1),

they also show substantial differences with the investigated

potsherds. In particular, they are characterised by a higher Cr

content, more pronounced in BS1 and BS2, and by a variable Sr

content (higher in MLV1 and lower in GS1).

Multivariate statistical analysis (Hierarchical Cluster Analysis,

HCA, Fig. 8) on the XRF data of the potsherds and clayey deposits

were carried out. Raw data was log-10 transformed (Aruga, 2003;

Hall, 2004). MnO, P2O5 and Ba were omitted from the dataset, as

they could be affected by post-earthen alteration (Fabbri et al.,

1994; Maggetti, 2001). Statistical data treatment largely conrms

the homogeneities of the low CaO main group, namely all the

potsherds, the BW, RPW and CW classes, as well as one PW sample

(PVL 5). The alluvial deposits (VEL1 and PMV2) and two marine

(basinal TRE1 and SQ1) sediments can be closely associated to this

main group.

The high CaO PW samples (PVL 4, 6, 7, 8) and one RPW sample

(PVL 40) belong to a different group. All the other potsherds (CW:

PVL 24, 25, 26, 52; RPW: PVL 43) as well as the other clay samples

scatter from the above reported groups.

5.3. XRD

The XRD data (Table 6) on the pottery samples, generally

conrmed the optical microscope observations, evidencing the

abundance of quartz and feldspar and subordinate sanidine and

pyroxene. In contrast, the occurrence of pyroxene, not documented

by optical microscopy, was reported for most of the PW group

samples (PVL 4, 6 and 8). Consequently, in these samples the Ca-

pyroxene was interpreted as a high-temperature phase (Grifa


Fig. 6. Major elements binary diagrams.


et al., 2009b) due to the calcareous character of the raw materials.

An almost ubiquitous occurrence of illite was detected (except for

PVL 3, 4, 6, 8, 11, 25, 29 and 41), with the highest content for the

RPW samples PVL 32, 38, 50 and 51. Hematite was recorded in

samples PVL 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 19, 25, 41, 47, 48, 49 and 52. Fe-

hydroxide (goethite) in samples PVL 2, 6, 10, 11, 15, 17, 25 and 32

was most likely formed after hematite hydroxylation during post-

earthen processes (Secco et al., 2011).

All the basinal and the alluvial clayey sediments are mainly

composed of quartz and feldspar with subordinate illite/mica group

minerals (Table 6). Minor calcite was noticed in TRE1 and MLV1;

hematite in BS2 accounts for its reddish colour. Among the clay

minerals, kaolinite, illite/smectite mixed layer and chlorite were

ubiquitous; the only exceptions are for the GS1, PMV2 and VEL1

samples in which chlorite was absent. Weathered pyroclastics are

mainly constituted by feldspar (sanidine) and illite/mica (biotite).

Fig. 7. NASC normalized spider diagram.


Clinopyroxene is abundant in SO1. Quartz occurs only in traces

along with hematite in CSC1. Kaolinite and/or halloysite are the

main occurring clay minerals.

5.4. Firing temperature estimation

Based on mineralogical data, 14 samples were selected for

Scanning Electron Microscope analyses in order to investigate the

sintering degree of the clay matrix in order to obtain information

on ring temperatures (Maniatis and Tite, 1981). The estimated

ring temperatures are reported in Table 4. The evaluation of this

parameter, in addition tomineralogical andmicrotextural data, also

takes into accounts the CaO content of the raw material and the

redox conditions in the kiln. All the samples were red in oxidative

conditions of the kiln, as conrmed by OM and macroscopic

observations. Furthermore, the raw material did not contain

important amounts of carbonates, except for the PW sample PVL 4.

The presence of illite along with a low sintered matrix (NV, Fig. 9a)

in the BW samples (PVL 1 and 2) permits hypothesizing a ring

temperature lower than 800 #C.

Regarding the PW ceramic class, sample PVL 4 showed a higher

sintering stage of the matrix as testied by the complete loss of the

crystalline structure of the clay minerals and the ne pore size

(CVFB, Fig. 9b). The ring temperature of this sample ranged

between 950 and 1050 #C; the low sintering stage of sample PVL 5

accounts for lower ring temperatures (NV, T < 800 #C).

The illite-bearing RPW samples (PVL 35, 50 and 51) showed

a vitrication of the ceramic body (V, Fig. 9c), indicating ring

temperatures ranging between 850 and 950 #C. The advanced

sintering degree (CVFB, Fig. 9d) of a hematite-bearing sample (PVL

41) conrms higher ring temperatures (>950 #C) coherent with

the type of original clay (low CaO).

A wider variability in microtextures was observed for the CW

samples, which except for sample PVL 11, always showed the

presence of illite along with a low sintering stage (NV), leading to

the possibility to hypothesize ring temperatures lower than

800 #C. Samples PVL 16,17 and 18 showed an Initial Vitrication (IV,

Fig. 9e) with clear evidence of the sintering of phyllosilicates that

tend to clump in homogeneous aggregates. The presence of illite

and the observed microtextures permitted estimating ring

Fig. 7. (continued).


temperatures ranging from 800 to 850 #C. Higher ring tempera-

tureswere estimated (between 850 and 950 #C) for the CW samples

PVL 36 and 37, for which a sintered paste (V) was observed (Fig. 9f).

6. Discussion

A careful investigation on fragments of table and cooking ware

selected among thousands of shards from some pottery dumps of

Via Lepanto site (Pompeii) provided relevant information on the

role of ceramics as a possible socialeeconomic indicator of a deeply

proven land after the 79 AD Pompeii eruption and up to 472 AD (the

Pollena eruption). However, it should be noted, that neither kiln

wastes nor furnace structures have been identied in this archae-

ological site. Hence, in the rst instance, the provenance of the

pottery can only be hypothesized via the comparison of mineral-

ogical and geochemical data on ceramics and raw materials.

Microscopical observations on a thin section indicated the

presence of a volcanic component characterised by sanidine, pale

green Fe-rich diopside and colourless diopside, plagioclase, biotite

crystals along with obsidians, pumices and scoriae. This volcanic

body, common to all the ceramic classes with the exception of a few

scattered samples (see below), shows a paragenesis that can be

related not only to the differentiated products of SommaeVesuvius

but also to that of the Campi Flegrei magmatic activity or Ischia too.

From a rst approximation, a provenance from the so-called Bay of

Naples can be asserted. In effect, the presence of some minor

components of the paste, such as garnet crystals or leucite-bearing

scoriae, suggests a temper supply area located close to the Sommae

Vesuvius, including sand beach deposits (Morra et al., 2012).

Leucite, in fact, is the typical feldspathoid, almost ubiquitous in the

activity of SommaeVesuvius and completely lacking in the prod-

ucts from Campi Flegrei and Ischia, whereas garnet only appears in

the sialic products (phonolite) of SommaeVesuvius (Santacroce

et al., 2008). Moreover, the entire volcanic inclusions observed in

the samples are well consistent with those usually found in

production indicators (kiln wastes, spacers and bricks from the

furnace structures) from the Pompeii area (Cavassa, 2009; Grifa and

Morra, 2009). These production indicators come from a Roman

furnace (then re-adapted to a tannery) in the insula 5/Regio I, rep-

resenting so far, the second nd of a pottery furnace, after the well-

known lamp furnace (Cerulli Irelli, 1977).

Following these assumptions and taking into account the

compositional homogeneity of the BW, RPW and CW samples,

a local production for these ceramic classes could be hypothesized.

However, some exceptions in the CW group were noticed. For

example, samples PVL 24, 25, 26 showed quartzefeldspars temper

grains, phases almost absent among the inclusions of the potsherds

from the Bay of Naples and reasonably compatible with sandy-like

deposits from the inland Apennine chain. The lack of specic

comparisons does not permit attributing these samples to a reliable

production centre. On the contrary, the PVL 52 CW sample can be

easily attributed to the Late Roman Pantellerianware ceramic class,

widespread in the Mediterranean area and conrmed in other

Campanian sites (e.g. Sacello degli Augustali, Grifa et al., 2005a).

This is due to its very distinctive volcanic temper composed of

differentiated peralkaline rock grains (quartz, anorthoclase, green

pyroxene and brown amphibole).

The PW group showed a quite different chemical composition,

namely a higher Ca and Sr content along with lower silica and

alumina. The only exception is sample PVL 5 that can be denitely

attributed to the PW group due to its similar typological character

although it presents a different texture and chemical composition.

The high-CaO PW group can be related to the Phlegraean broad-

line production (Whitehouse, 1966) from Cuma. Those samples

showed wide homogeneity, both from a chemical and minero-

petrographical point of view, with the reference group dened by

Grifa et al. (2009a). Nevertheless, sample PVL 5, which showed

typological afnities with the Phlegraean broad-line production but

technological properties very similar to the BW, RPW and CW,

suggests a local production of the PW. Investigation on a larger

number of samples could provide further support to this hypothesis.

Fig. 8. Hierarchical Cluster Analysis of potsherds and clayey materials.

Table 4

Evaluation of ring temperatures after SEM observation.

Sample Clay

type

Residual/newly

formed phases

Atmosphere Vitrication Temperature #C

BW PVL 1 NC illite Ox NV

While the mineralogy of grains inferred the provenance of

potsherds, the way those grains are arranged in the clay matrix

highlighted important aspects of ceramic technology. The GSD

curve of the pottery (Fig. 5) showed that ner particles (skeleton)

are mainly composed of quartz, feldspars and sometimes micas,

with a normal distribution due to the natural selection of grains

during clayey sediment deposition (Boggs, 2009). A tail towards

coarser grains turning to a bimodal distribution was observed as

the volcanic content increases to about 18% (Fig.10a), modifying the

samples with a skewed distribution and lower sorting (e.g. PVL 4) in

samples with a bimodal GSD and higher sorting (e.g. PVL 15). The

CW, RPW and BW samples (Fig. 10b) share the same ranges of

volcanic content (from 8.64 to 25.51%) and sorting (from moder-

ately to poorly sorted). However, the CW samples can be clearly

distinguished due to a coarser grain size as showed by f median

values that reach coarse sand grain sizes (f 0.75e0.25). More-

over, median and mean logit (SF) values of the majority of the CW

samples (Fig. 11a, b) attested slightly elongated particles (Am/

AM ca. 1/2) in comparison with the other ceramic classes which

vary from strongly elongated to circular shapes.

Despite the presence of negative skewness (tail) and a bimodal

distribution of grain size ascribable to different sources of grains

during deposition of clays, all the data set (in particular the optical

and image analyses) permits hypothesizing the addition of

a selected volcanic temper to the clayey raw material in order to

achieve the best technological performances of the pottery. The

different amount of temper in a range not higher than 15%, does not

affect the bulk chemical composition of the potsherds, as showed

by XRF and HCA analyses (Figs. 6e8), in particular for themain low-

CaO group (except for sample PVL 26). This accords well with Grifa

et al. (2009b) and De Bonis (2011) that highlighted the slight

chemical changes in ceramic replicas with up to 30% of volcanic

temper addition.

Another fundamental aspect concerning ceramic technology is

the type and the properties of the clay raw materials used to

handcraft such ceramic productions. They can be inferred by the

chemical composition of the potsherds and the mineralogy of no-

plastic inclusions. Such information could permit identifying the

exploited source of the raw material or associate it to a specic

Fig. 9. SEM micrographs of some analysed samples. a) No Vitrication (NV), sample PVL 1; b) Continuous Vitrication-ne bloating pores (CVFB), sample PVL 4; c) Vitrication (V),

sample PVL 35; d) Continuous Vitrication-ne bloating pores (CVFB), sample PVL 41 e) Initial Vitrication (IV), sample PVL 16; f) Vitrication (V), sample PVL 37.

Fig. 10. Diagrams showing the relationship between volcanic content and grain size

parameters.


geological context (epivolcanic, marine or alluvial). The clays used

to craft the pottery studied (with the exception of samples PVL 4, 5,

6, 24, 25, 26 40 and 52) were characterized by low CaO and high

SiO2, Al2O3, Ni and Cr. Moreover, quartz and feldspar were always

recorded by the XRD and observed as ner skeleton particles by

optical microscopy investigations. Some investigated clayey

deposits (MLV1, GS1, and CSC1 e see Fig. 6 and Table 5) sensibly

differ from the main chemical composition of the pottery thus

permitting their exclusion as possible raw materials. Some other

clay samples show minor discrepancies only in their major oxides

content (BS1, BS2, SQ1, TRE1, PMV2, VEL1, SO1), which are not

sufcient to exclude them as potential rawmaterials. As a matter of

fact, only trace elements may likely provide information on the

original clay materials used for the production of the potsherds.

As far as the epivolcanic deposits are considered, SO1 displays

lower Ni, Cr and higher Rb, Sr, Zr, Nb contents with respect to the

ceramics. In general, both the epivolcanic deposits (SO1 and CSC1)

did not evidence quartz grains among the ner particles, as they are

the product of weakly to strongly undersaturated weathered

pyroclastics. However, these epivolcanic deposits are nowadays

used for traditional ceramic productions (De Bonis, 2011; De Bonis

et al., 2012). Local workshops in Sorrento exploit the SO1 deposits

to make refractory wood-oven bricks and a semi-traditional cook-

ing ware production is present in northern Campania using Roc-

camonna epivolcanic deposits (CSC1). The Varicolori clays (BS1,

BS2 and GS1) also differ from the potsherds for their higher Sc, V, Cr

and lower Ba contents.

An overall similar chemical and mineralogical composition with

the local pottery was observed for some alluvial (PMV2 and VEL1)

and marine deposits (SQ1 and TRE1). It should be noted that the

presence of alluvial type deposits from the Sarno River plain was

recognized in the area. In fact, the geomorphological setting of the

Vesuvius area was profoundly different from its current setting and

the pre-79 AD paleo-environmental reconstruction (Vogel and

Marker, 2011 and references therein) have evidenced large

uvial/lacustrine deposits partially covered by the 79 AD products

and by those of the following volcanic activities (e.g. 472 AD Pollena

eruption). The above reported data permits hypothesizing that

alluvial deposits are the most likely raw materials.

The whole data set evidenced a close relationship of the clay

type and temper (grain size, sorting and abundance of volcanic

inclusions) with the ceramic classes, which accounts for the precise

protocols, the material culture of the potters, followed in Pompeii

Late Roman workshops to produce table and cooking ware. Such

protocols also included the nal transformation process of raw

material and the ring process. On this account, the tableware

production attested different ring temperatures, showing lower

values for the BW rather than the RPW samples. Moreover, within

the RPW ceramic class, two different groups e group 1 red at

slightly higher temperatures than group 2 (>950# and 850e950 #C

respectively) e can be distinguished based on their sintering

structures and illite content. A well-developed pore system along

with diffused Ca-pyroxene formation in the PW CaO-rich samples

account for ring temperatures close to 1000 #C as veried for the

same Phlegraean production from Cuma (Grifa et al., 2009a).

Finally, as expected, CW shards experienced low ring treatments,

mainly ranging from 800# to 850 #C in order to minimize the

thermal shocks, thus preventing damage of the potsherds during

food cooking.

7. Conclusions

The whole archaeological and archaeometric data set on pottery

from the Via Lepanto site permitted identifying the production area

of the cooking ware and part of the ne ware in the Vesuvius

district, contributing to outline some important social and

economic aspects of this region between IV and V century AD,

when new settlements most probably formed (Soricelli, 2001).

First of all, it should be remarked that archaeologists, due to the

occurrence of African Red Slip Ware, dated the occupancy of this

rural settlement not later than the second half of the II century AD,

thus contradicting the historical sources that hypothesized a later

reoccupation of these lands (not before the III century AD). This

present research conrms the archaeological data on the basis of

the analytical investigation carried out on the potsherds of the Via

Lepanto site and the relative raw materials, bearing witness not

only to the activity of a rural settlement immediately before its

abandonment (472 AD) but also to the local production of these

potteries. The technology applied in the workshops followed

accurate choices in terms of raw materials, temper and ring

temperatures in order to produce performing pottery.

The most relevant aspects pointed out by the present research

are briey summarized as follows:

-) with regards to the ne ware, it is possible to hypothesize

a Vesuvius provenance of the BW pottery and a Phlegraean

origin for 4 samples of the PW out of 5. Mineralogical and

petrochemical data on one sample permitted hypothesizing

a local production of the PW pottery. The PW samples account for

medium-distance exchanges (approximately at a distance of

40 km from Pompeii) as well documented in Cuma and Miseno

(Grifa et al., 2005b, 2009a).

-) The RPW pottery was also crafted in Vesuvian workshops. Two

groups of fragments were distinguished and characterized by

a common repertoire. The existence of two different technolog-

ical protocols was inferred, one using low inclusions/high ring

temperatures yielding a ne and very hard paste and a second

Fig. 11. Diagrams showing the relationship between grain size parameters.


using high inclusions/low ring temperatures with a coarse and

softer paste. This information supported two hypotheses, the

presence of different workshops acting in the area, or the

parallel circulation of a low quality (group 1) along with a higher

quality (group 2) production, which only share typological

characters (shape and red decoration). The quality of the table-

ware was enhanced by selecting the raw materials and choosing

specic ring temperatures with consequent longer

manufacturing times and higher fuel consumption, thus inu-

encing the nal cost of the pottery.

-) Most of the CW samples also accounts for a production from

Pompeian workshops set in a local circuit of distribution (Bay of

Naples) as well as medium to long-distance exchanges (e.g.

Apenninic contexts).

-) Some samples of the CW such as PVL 23, 24 and 25 (likely

Apennine production) and PVL 52 (Pantellerian Ware) along

with African Red Slip Ware, Oriental and Iberian Amphorae (not

included in this study) inferred long-distance exchanges.

It is possible to hypothesize that the Via Lepanto site was part of

a well-developed exchange network and included in a periodic e

high frequency system of market (the nundinae), as supported by

epigraphic documents of the Northern Campania/Southern Lazio

region (Storchi Marino, 2000). The pottery, locally produced or

imported, was individually distributed in this network market. In

addition to these important aspects concerning the economic

activities and human relationships of the inhabitants of this Late

Roman site, this research also sheds new light on the technological

ability of the workers, who exploited local low-CaO alluvial clayey

deposits, mixed with selected volcanic grains (probably beach

sands, Morra et al., 2012), red at different temperatures, in order

to enhance the thermal or shock resistance of the potshards.

Acknowledgements

This research was funded by a Dipartimento di Scienze della

Terra (Universit Federico II di Napoli) grant (VM). The authors are

grateful to Germana Barone and three anonymous referees whose

suggestions considerably improved the paper. The authors also

thank Antonietta Longo for the last revision of the manuscript. The

authors would like to thank Leone Melluso and Vincenzo Monetti

for the XRF analyses, Stefano M. Pagnotta for his useful discussions

and support on statistics and Antonio Canzanella for the SEM

analyses. The authors kindly thank dr. E. de Carolis and Soprin-

tendenza Speciale per i Beni Archeologici di Napoli e Pompei.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http://

dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2012.08.043.

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