A Brief Overview of Scientific Progress in the Modern EraA group directed by Major Alexeyev of the Bakinskii orps of Mining Engineers hand!drilled an oil wellin the Baku region in 1848"rawford #illia$son %ong used ether for the first ti$e on March &'( )*+, to re$ove a tu$or fro$ the neck of a patient( -a$es M" .enable( in-efferson( /eorgia" %ong subse0uently re$oved a second tu$or fro$ .enable and used ether as an anesthetic in a$putations and childbirth" 1he results of these trials were published in1849inThe Southern Medical and Surgical Journal"1he world2s firstlarge refineryopenedat Ploie3ti( 4o$ania( in )*56!1857( with 7nited States invest$ent"1hefirst commercial oil wellin anada beca$e operational in1858at Oil Springs( Ontario 8then anada #est9" Business$an -a$es Miller #illia$s dug several wells between )*55 and )*5* before discoveringarichreserve of oil four $etres below ground" #illia$s extracted crude oil( refining $uch of it into kerosene la$p oil"Belgian -ean -oseph Etienne %enoir 8)*,,:);''9 produced agas-fired internal combustion engine si$ilar in appearance to a horiorest2s );'6 GaudionGwasalsodevelopedasaradiodetector( and soon led to the develop$ent of the triode tube" =n 1887( Prof" Aeinrich Aert< in a series of experi$ents provedthe actual existence ofelectric wa$es" 1he discovery of electric waves in space naturally led to the discovery and introduction in the closing years of the );th centuryofwireless telegrahy(various syste$s of which are nowin successful use on shipboard( lighthousesandshoreandinlandstationsthroughout the world( by $eans of which intelligence is trans$itted across the widest oceans and large parts of continents"=n1889(/ottlieb Cai$lerand#ilhel$ Maybachbuilttheirfirst automobilewhich was so$ewhat influencedby bicycle designs" 1here was no production in /er$any( but it was licensed to be built in >ranceandpresentedto the public in Paris in October )**; by both engineers"Aer$an Aollerith invented the recording of data on a medium that could then be read by a machine" Prior uses of $achine readable $edia had been for control( notdata"Afterso$einitialtrialswithpapertape( he settledonunchedcards(developingpunchedcard data processing technology for the 1890 +, census" Ae founded theTabulating Machine Company8)*;69 which was one of four co$panies that $erged to for$ o$puting 1abulating 4ecording o$pany 8149( later rena$ed =BM"=n1891( notableadditions toour knowledgeof the pheno$ena of electro$agnetic fre0uency and high potential current were contributed by Dikola 1esla" A$ongst theno$el e-erimentsperfor$edby1esla was to take in his hand a glass tube fro$ which the air had been exhausted( then bringing his body into contact with a wire carrying currents of high potential( the tube was suffused with a pleasing bright glow" Another experi$ent was tograspabulbthat was suspended fro$ a single wire attached to a high otential. high fre#uencycurrentcircuit( when a platinu$button within the bulb was brought to vivid incandescence( the experi$enter at this ti$e standingonaninsulating platfor$" 1he fre0uency and potential involved in the experi$ents$adeby1eslaat thisti$ewereof the order of one or $ore $illion cycles and volts" =n )*;&( #estinghouse won the bid to electrify the )*;& #orld2s olu$bian Exposition in hicago with alternating current" 1his #orld2s >air devoted a building to electrical exhibits" =t was a key event in the history of /'oweras #estinghouseand1eslade$onstrated thesafetyandreliabilityofalternatingcurrent tothe A$erican public"1he chloralkali rocess is an industrial process for the electrolysis of sodiu$ chloride solution 8brine9" Cependingonthe $ethod( several products besides hydrogen can be produced" =f the products are separated( chlorine and sodiu$hydroxide 8caustic soda9 are the productsF by $ixing( sodiu$ hypochlorite or sodiu$chlorate are produced( dependingonthe te$perature" Aigher te$peratures areneededfor the production of sodiu$ chlorate instead of sodiu$ hypochlorite"0ndustrial scale roductionbegan in 1892"Page & of )'A Brief Overview of Scientific Progress in the Modern EraAugust ?Jhler designed a new $ethod of illu$ination whichusesaperfectlydefocusedimageofthelight sourceto illu$inatethe sa$ple" 1his work was published in189"in the Keitschrift fLr wissenschaftliche 1ikroskoieand was soon followed by publication of an English translation in the -ournal of the 4oyal Microscopical Society" GMber eine neue Art von StrahlenN( was published on ,*Cece$ber)*;5" On5-anuary)*;6( an Austrian newspaper reported#ilhel$ onrad4Jntgen2s discoveryof a newtype of radiation" 4Jntgenwas awarded an honorary Coctor of Medicine degree fro$ the 7niversityof #Lrebruary he took the first radiograph to direct a surgical operation" Ae also took the firstO!ray of the hu$anspine" Aall!Edwards2 interest in O!rays cost hi$ his left ar$( which had to be a$putated in );'* as a conse0uence of O!ray der$atitis =n1897( che$istsworkingat BayerA/produceda syntheticallyalteredversionof salicin( derivedfro$ the species Filipendula ulmaria 8$eadowsweet9( which caused less digestive upset than pure salicylic acid" 1he identity of the lead che$ist on this project is a $atter of controversy" Bayer states the workwas done by >elix Aoff$ann( but the -ewish che$ist Arthur EichengrLn later clai$ed he was the lead investigator andrecordsofhiscontributionwereexpungedunder the Daair9 inParis using peanut oil fuel"=n1901?arl %andsteiner discoveredhumanblood grous" Mixing blood fro$ two inco$patible individualscanleadtoani$$uneresponse( andthe destruction of red blood cells releases free he$oglobin into the bloodstrea$( which can have fatal conse0uences" ?arl%andsteinerdiscoveredthatwhen inco$patible types are $ixed( the red blood cells clu$p( andthat this i$$unological reactionoccurs when the receiver of a blood transfusion has antibodies against the donor blood cells" Ais work $ade it possible to deter$ine blood type and allowed a way for blood transfusions to be carried out $uch $ore safely" >or this discovery he was awarded the Dobel Prile$ing recounted the discovery of enicillinonthe$orningof >riday( Septe$ber ,*( 1928" =t was a fortuitous accidentQ in his laboratory in the base$ent of St" Mary2s Aospital in %ondon( >le$ing noticed a Petri dish containing Staphylococcusplateculturehe$istakenlyleftopen( wasconta$inatedbyblue!green$ould"1herewasa haloofinhibitedbacterial growtharoundthe$ould" >le$ing concluded the $ould released a substance reressingthegrowthandlysingthebacteria" Ae grew a pure culture and discovered it was a %enicillium $ould( now known to be %enicillium notatum" harles 1ho$( an A$erican specialist working at the 7"S" Cepart$ent of Agriculture( was the acknowledged expert( and >le$ing referred the $atter to hi$" >le$ingcoinedtheter$GpenicillinGtodescribethe filtrateof abrothcultureof the%enicillium$ould" Even in these early stages( penicillin was found to be $osteffecti$eagainst )ram-ositi$ebacteria( and ineffective against /ra$!negative organis$s and fungi"=n the autu$n of1929( Aer$ann -ulius Oberth conducted a static firing of his firstli#uid-fueled rocket motor( whichhena$edthe'egeld(se" 1he engine was built in a workshop space provided by the 4eich =nstitution of he$ical 1echnology" Ae was helpedinthisexperi$ent byan)*yearoldstudent #ernher von Braun( who would later beco$e a giant in both/er$anand A$ericanrocket engineeringfro$ the );+'s onward"=n August1929L) *+, -rafZeppelindeparted for a daringenterpriseQ acircumna$igationof theglobe" 1he growing popularity of the Ggiant of the airG $ade it easyforCr" AugoEckenertofindsponsors" Oneof these was the A$erican press tycoon #illia$ 4andolph Aearst"-raf )eppelinflew to >riedrichshafen( then 1okyo( %os Angeles( and back to %akehurst( in ,) days 5 hours and &) $inutes"Page E of )'A Brief Overview of Scientific Progress in the Modern Era=n1929Britishmotor $ehicle roductionwas do$inatedbyMorris8foundedby #illia$Morrisin );)' in Oxford9 and Austin 8founded by Aerbert Austinin%ongbridgein);'5afterheleft #olseley9 which between the$ produced around 6'S of total 7? output" Singer 8oventry $otorcycle $anufacturer startedbuildingcarsin);'59followedinthirdplace that year with )5S of production"=n 19"1the ter$ GSuper o$puting MachineG is used bytheDewRork#orldnewspaper todescribe the ColumbiaDifference Tabulator( a one!of!a!kind special purpose tabulator!based $achine $ade for the olu$bia StatisticalBureau(a $achine so$assive it was nickna$ed GPackardG" Poly8$ethyl $ethacrylate9 is a transparent ther$oplastic( oftenusedasalightweight orshatter!resistant alternative to glass" he$ically( it is the synthetic poly$er of $ethyl $ethacrylate" 1he $aterial was developed in );,* in various laboratories( and was first brought to $arket in 19"" by the 4oh$ and Aaas o$pany( under the trade$ark 8le-iglas"1heBritishwerethefirsttofullyexploitradarasa defence against aircraft attack" 1his was spurred on by fears that the /er$ans were developing death rays" 1he Air Ministry asked British scientists in19"4to investigate the possibility of propagating electro$agnetic energy and the likely effect" >ollowing a study( they concluded thata death ray was imractical but that detection of aircraft aeared feasible" 4obert #atson #att2stea$de$onstratedto hissuperiorsthecapabilitiesof aworkingprototype and then patented the device" =t served as the basis for thehainAo$enetworkof radars todefend/reat Britain"A$pheta$ine was first synthesiired o$bustion Engine )*6, Micro Organis$s( Pasteuriirst 7nderground 4ailway)*6+ Electricity and Magnetis$(,' .ariables and E0uations )*65 4egenerative >urnace( heap Steel )*6E Antiseptic Surgery Cyna$ite )*6; Periodic 1able of the Ele$ents )*E6 Otto =nternal o$bustion Engine)**, S$okeless opper -acketed artridged Bullet )**+ /ra$ Staining Edison Effect )**E Electric #aves( #ireless 1elegraphy )**; Cai$ler!Maybach Auto$obile )*;' Punched ards Cata Storage )*;) 1esla Experi$entsW )*;& hicago #orld >air )*;, =ndustrial hloralkali Process )*;& Cefocused Microscope =llu$ination )*;6 4Jntgen Ciagnostic =$aging )*;E Aspirin );'' Marie urie >aculty Me$ber 4adioactivity Ciesel Engine );') Au$an Blood /roups( 1ransfusions );'& Ditrogen Based >ertiliarbenQManagerial =ndustrial Enterprise );)5 /eneral 4elativity >okker E"= );,) 4CO );,& A$ylobarbitone Anesthetic );,6 Aerodyna$ic 1heoryof 1urbine Cesign( 1urboprop );,E Studio Sound >il$ 7ncertainty Principle #avefunction of an Electron(Spin( Positron );,* Penicillin );,; ?egeldLse Keppelin circu$navigationof the globe Morris( Austin( Singer );&) Packard Cifference 1abulator );&& Plexiglass );&+ Ben