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UNIT I
PART A(2 Marks and answers)
1. What is mean by data cmm!nicatin"
Data communication is the ex change of data (in the form of 1s and 0s) between
two devices via some form of transmission medium (such as a wire cable).
2. What are the three criteria necessary #r an e##ecti$e and e# #icient netwrk"
The most important criteria are per formance, reliability and security.Per#rmance of the networ depends on number of users, type of transmission
medium, the capabilities of the connected h!w and the efficiency of the s!w.
Re%iabi%ity is measured by fre"uency of failure, the time it taes a lin to recover
from the failure and the networ#s robustness in a catastrophe.
&ec!rity issues include protecting data from unauthori$ed access and viruses.
'. What are the three #!ndamenta% charact eristics determine the e##ecti$eness
# the data cmm!nicatin system"
The effectiveness of the data communication system depends on three
fundamental characteristics%
e%i$ery Th e system must deliver data to the correct destination.
Acc!racy The system must deliver data accurately.
Time%inessThe system must deliver data in a timely manner.
*. What are the ad$anta+es # distrib!ted ,rcessin+"
&dvantages o f distributed processing include security!encapsulation, distributed
databases, faster problem solving, security through redundancy and collaborative
processing.
-. Why are ,rtc%s needed"
'n networs, communication occurs between the entities in different systems. Two
entities cannot ust send bit streams to each oth er and expect to be understood. or
communication, the entities must agree on a protocol. & protocol is a set of rules that
govern data communication.
. Why are standards needed"
*o+ordination across the nodes of a networ is necessar y for an efficient
communication. 'f there are no standards, difficulties arise. & standard provides a
model or basis for development to which everyone has agreed.
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/. 0r n de$ices in a netwrk what is the n!mber # cab%e %inks re!ired #r a
mesh and rin+ t,%+y"
esh topology - n (n+1)!
/ing topology - n
3. What is the di##erence between a ,assi$e and an acti$e h!b"
&n active hub contains a repeater that regenerates the received bit patterns beforesending th em out. & passive hub provides a simple physical connection between th e
attached devices.
4. istin+!ish between ,eer5t5,eer re%atinshi, and a ,rimary5secndary
re%atinshi,.
Peer5t5,eer re%atinshi, &ll the devices share the lin e"ually.
Primary5secndary re%atinshi, ne device co ntrols traffic and the others must
transmit through it.
16. Ass!me de$ices are arran+ed in a mesh t,%+y. 7w many cab%es are
needed" 7w many ,rts are needed #r each de$ice"umber of cables2n (n+1)!23(3+1)!214
umber of ports per device2n+123+124
11. 8r!, the 9&I %ayers by #!nctin.
The seven layers of the 5' model belonging to three subgroups. 6hysical, data
lin and networ layers are the networ support layers7 they deal with the physical
aspects of moving data from one device to another. 5ession, presentation and
application layers are the user support layers7 they allow interoperability among
unrelated software systems. The transport layer ensures end+to+end reliable data
transmission.
12. What are header and trai%ers and hw d they +et added and rem$ed"
8ach layer in the sending machine adds its own information to the message it
receives from the layer ust above it and passes the whole pacage to the layer ust
below it. This information is added in the form of headers or trailers. 9eaders are
added to the message at the layers 3,4,:,;, and . & trailer is added at layer. &t the
receiving machine, the headers or trailers attached to the data unit at the
corresponding sending layers are removed, and actions appropriate to that layer are
taen.
1'. The trans,rt %ayer creates a c mm!nicat in between the s!rce and
destinatin. What are the three e$ents in$%$ed in a cnnectin"*reating a connection involves three steps% connection establishment, data
transfer and connection release.
1*. What is the : cm,nent"
Direct current is a $ero+fre"uency signal with constant amplitude.
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1-. 7w des NR;5< di##er #rm NR;5I"
'n the /" What are the #!nctins # a :>"
Data terminal e"uipment is a device that is an information source or an
information sin. 't is connected to a networ through a D*8.
Data circuit+terminating e"uipment is a device used as an interface between a DT8
and a networ.
13. What des the e%ectrica% s,eci#icatin # >IA52'2 describe"
The electrical specification of 8'&+; defines that sign als other than d ata must
be sent using as less than +; volts and as greater than >; volts. The data
must be transmitted using /
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22. What are the disad$anta+es # ,tica% #iber as a transmissin medi!m"
The disadvantages of optical fiber are
A Bery expensive.
A 'nstallation and maintenance is difficult.
A ragility.
2'. What are the criteria !sed t e$a%!ate transmissin medi!m"
The criteria used to evaluate transmission medium areA Throughput
A 6ropagation speed
A 6ropagation time
A Cavelength
2*. 8i$e the re%atinshi, between ,r,a+atin s,eed and ,r,a+atin time"
6ropagation time 2 distance ! propagation speed
The time re"uired for a signal or a bit to travel f rom one point to another is
called Pr,a+atin time .
Pr,a+atin s,eed is the distance, a signal or a bit travel through a
medium in one second.
2-.>?,%ain crss ta%k and what is needed t red!ce it"
8ffect of one wire on another is called as cross tal. ne wire will be
the sending antenna and the other wire will be the receivin g antenna. Ce can use
the shielded twisted pair cable or coaxial cable for transmission, which contains
metal foil to reduce cross tal.
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UNIT5II
ATA
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se"uence of redundant bits, called the */* remainder is appended to the end of
data unit.
4. Write shrt ntes n :R: +enera tr.
& */* generator uses a modulo+ division.
a) 'n the first step, the : bit divisor is subtracted from the first
: bit of the dividend.
b) 8ach bit of the divisor is subtracted from the correspondingbit of the dividend without disturbing the next higher bit.
16. Write shrt ntes n :R: checker.
& */* checer functions exactly lie a generator. &fter receiving
the data appended with the */* it does the same modulo+ division. 'f the
remainder is all 0#s the */* is dropped and the data accepted. therwise, the
received stream o f bits is discarded and the dates are resent.
11. 8i$e the essentia% ,r,erties #r ,%ynmia%.
& polynomial should be selected to have at least the following properties.
a) 't should not beb) 't should be divisible by(x>1).
12. e#ine checks!m.
The error detection method used by the higher layer protocol is called checsum.
*hecsum is based on the concept of redundancy.
1'. What are the ste,s #%%wed in checks!m +eneratr"
The sender follows these steps
a) The units are divided into sections each of n bits.
b) &ll sections are added together using #s complement to get
the sum.c) The sum is complemented and become the checsum.
d) The checsum is sent with the data.
1*.
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1. Mentin the ty,es # errr crrectin+ methds.
There are error+correcting methods.
a) 5ingle bit error correction
b) urst error co rrection.
1/. What is the ,!r,se # hammin+ cde"
& hamming code can be designed to correct burst errors of certain lengths.
5o the simple strategy used by the hamming code to correct single bit errors mustbe redesigned to be applicable for multiple bit correction.
13. e#ine #%w cntr%.
low control refers to a set of procedures used to restrict the amount of
data. The send er can sen d before waiting for acnowledgment.
14. What is a b!##er"
8ach receiving device has a bloc of memory called a buffer, reserved for
storing incoming data until they are processed.
26. Mentin the cate+ries # #%w cntr%.There are methods have been developed to control flow of data across
communication lins.
a) 5top and wait+ send one from at a time.
b) 5liding window+ send several frames at a time.
21. What is the #!nctin # st, and wait #%w cntr%"
'n this method, the sender sends one frame and waits for an
acnowledgement before sending.
22. Mentin the ad$anta+e and disad$anta+e # st, and wait # %w cntr%.
&dvantage% simplicity
Disadvantage% inefficiency.
2'. e#ine ARC.
8rror control in the data lin layer is based on &utomatic repeat re"uest
(&/E), which means retransmission of data in ; cases.
a) Damaged frame
b) =ost frame
c) =ost acnowledgment.
2*. Mentin the #!nctin # +5back N5ARC.
't is the popular mechanism for continuous transmission error control. 'n the
method, if our frame is lost or damaged, all frames sent since the last frameacnowledged are retr ansmitted.
2-. What is se%ecti$e reDect ARC"
'n selective reect &/E only the specific damaged or lost frame is retransmitted.
'f a frame is corrupted in transit, a &F is retu rned and the frame is resent out of
se"uence.
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2. e#ine 7
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'*. What is meant by bit st!##in+"
it stuffing is the process of adding one extra 0 whenever th ere are 4 consecutive
in the data so that the receiver doesn#t mistae the data for a flag.
'-. e#ine
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frame received in one single frame.
6iggy bacing can save bandwidth because the overhead from a data
frame and an &*F frame can be combined in to ust one frame
*'. Na me the #!r ty,es # &5#rames"
The four types of 5+frames are
/eceive ready(//).Th e value of the code sub field is 00
/eceive not ready(//). The value of the code sub field is 10/eect(/8K). The value of the code sub field is 01
5elective reect(5/8K). The value of the code sub field is 11
**. Na me the #i$e cate+ries # U5#rames"
The five categories of @+frames are
ode setting
@nnumbered exchange
Disconnection.
'nitiali$ation mode.
iscellaneous mode
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UNIT III
N>TW9R@ R
1. What are the netwrk s!,,rt %ayers and the !ser s!,,rt %ayers"
Netwrk s!,,rt %ayers
The networ support layers are 6hysical layer, Data lin layer and
etwor layer. These deals with electrical specifications, physical connection,transport timing and reliability.
User s!,,rt %ayers
The user support layers are% 5ession layer, 6resentation layer,
&pplication layer. These allow interoperability among un related software system.
2. With a neat dia+ram e? ,%ain the re%atinshi, # I>>> PrDect t the 9&I mde%"
ther layers ther layers
etwor etwor
=ogical =in *ontrol Data lin
edia &ccess *ontrol
6hysical 6hysical
The '888 has subdivided the data lin layer into two sub layers%
L =ogical lin control (==*)
L edium access control (&*)
==* is non+architecture specific. The &* sub layer contains a number
of distinct modules ,each carries proprietary information specific to the
=& product being used.
'. What are the #!nctins #
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A *ontrol field
A 'nformation field
. What are headers and t rai%ers and hw d they +et added and rem$ed"
The control data added to the beginning of a data is called headers. The
control data added to the end of a data is called trailers. &t the sendin g machine, wh en
the message passes through the layers each layer adds the headers or trailers. &t the
receiving machine, each layer removes the data meant for it and passes the rest to thenext layer.
/. What are the res,nsibi%ities # netwrk %ayer"
The networ layer is responsible for the source+to+destination delivery of
pacet across multiple networ lins. The specific responsibilities of networ layer
include the following%
A =ogical addressing.
A /outing.
3. What is a $irt!a% circ!it"
& logical circuit made between the sendin g and receiving computer s. Theconnection is made after both computers do handshain g. &fter the connection, all
pacets follow the same route and arrive in se"uence.
4. What are data +rams"
'n datagram approach, each pacet is treated ind ependently from all others. 8ven
when one pacet represents ust a place of a multipacet transmission, the networ treats
it although it existed alone. 6acets in this technology are referred to as datagram.
16. What are the tw ty,es # im,%ementatin #rmats in $irt!a% circ!its"
Birtual circuit transmission is implemented in formats.
A 5witched virtual circuitA 6ermanent virtual circuit.
11. What is meant by switched $irt!a% circ!it"
5witched virtual circuit format is comparable conceptually to dial+up line in
circuit switching. 'n this method, a virtual circuit is created whenever it is needed and
exits only for the du ration of specific exchange.
12. What is meant by Permanent $irt!a% circ!it"
6ermanent virtual circuits are comparable to leased lines in circuit switching.
'n this method, the same virtual circuit is provided between two uses on a continuous
basis. The circuit is dedicated to the specific uses.
1'. e#ine R!ters.
/outers relay pacets among multiple interconnected networs. They /oute
pacets from one networ to any o f a number o f p otential destination networs on
internet routers operate in the physical, data lin and networ layer of 5' model.
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1*. What is meant by h, c!nt"
The pathway re"uiring the smallest number of relays, it is called hop+count
routing, in which ev ery lin is considered to be of e"ual length and given th e value one.
1-. 7w can the r!tin+ be c%assi#ied"
The routing can be classified as,
A &daptive routingA on+adaptive routing.
1. What is time5t5%i$e r ,acket %i#etime"
&s the time+to+live field is generated, each pacet is mared with a lifetime,
usually the number of h ops that are allowed before a pacet is considered lost and
accordingly, destroyed. The time+to+live determines the lifetime of a pacet.
1/. What is meant by br!ter"
& brouter is a single pr otocol or multiprotocol router that sometimes act as a
router and sometimes act as a bridge.
13. Write the keys #r !nderstandin+ the distance $ectr r!tin+.
The three eys for und erstanding the algorithm are
A Fnowledge about the whole networs
A /outing only to neighbors
A 'nformation sharing at regular intervals
14. Write the keys #r !nderstandin+ the %ink state r!tin+.
The three eys for und erstanding the algorithm are
A Fnowledge about the n eighborhood.
A /outing to all neighbors.
A 'nformation sharing when there is a range.
26. 7w the ,acket cst re#erred in distance $ectr and %ink state r!tin+"
'n distance vector routing, cost refer to hop count while in case o f lin state
routing, cost is a weighted value based on a variety of factors such as security levels, traffic
or the state of the lin.
21. 7w the r!ters +et the in# rmatin ab!t nei+hbr"
& router gets its information about its neighbors by periodically sending them a
short greeting pacets. 'f the neighborhood responds to the greeting as expected, it is
assumed to be alive and functioning. 'f it dose not, a change is assumed to have occurred
and the sending router then alerts the rest of the networ in its next =56.
22. What are the #!r internetwrkin+ de$ices"
The four intern etworing devices are,
A /epeaters
A ridges
A /outers
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A ?ateway
2'. e#ine IP address.
'6 address is the ;+bit number for representing a host or system in the networ.
ne portion of the '6 address indicates a networing and the other represents the host in
a networ.
2*. What is Tken =!s"Toen us is a physical bus that operates as a logical ring using toens.
9ere stations are logically organi$ed into a ring. & toen is passed among stations. 'f a
station wants to send data, it must wait and capture the toen. =ie 8thernet, station
communicates via a common bus.
2-. What is tken ,assin+"
5tations may attempt to send data multiple times before a transmission
maes it onto a lin. This redundancy may create delays of indeterminable length if the
traffic is heavy. Toen ring resolves this uncertainty by re"uiring that stations tae turns
sending data. 8ach station may transmit only during its turn and may send only one frame
during each turn. The mechanism that coordinates this rotation is called toen passing.
2. e#ine Maskin+"
asing is the process that extracts the address of the physical networ
from an '6 address.
2/. What are the r!%es # b!ndary5%e$e% maskin+"
The rules of boundary+level masing
A The b ytes in the '6 address that corresponds to 44 in the mas
will be repeated in the subnetwor address
A The b ytes in the '6 address that corresponds to 0 in the mas will
change to 0 in the subnetwor address
23. What are the r!%es # nnb!ndary5%e$e% maskin+"
A The b ytes in the '6 address that corresponds to 44 in the mas
will be repeated in the subnetwor address
A The b ytes in the '6 address that corresponds to 0 in the mas will
change to 0 in the subnetwor address
A or other bytes, use the bit+wise &D operator
24. e#ine 8ateway.
& device used to connect two separate networs that we different
communication protocols.
'6. What is
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UNIT IB
TRAN&P9RT R
1. What is #!nctin # trans,rt %ayer"
The protocol in the transport layer taes care in the delivery of data from
one application program on one device to an application program on another
device. They act as a lin between the upp er layer protocols and the services
provided by the lower layer.
2. What are the d!ties # the trans,rt %ayer"
The services provided by the transport layer
8nd+to+ end delivery
&ddressing
/eliable delivery
low control
ultiplexing
'. What is the di##erence between netwrk %ayer de%i$ery and the trans,rt
%ayer de%i$ery"
Netwrk %ayer de%i$ery Trans,rt %ayer de%i$ery
The networ layer is responsible for The transport layer is responsible for
the the source+to+destination source+to+destination delivery of the
delivery of pacet entire message.
across multiple networ lins.
*. What are the #!r as,ects re%ated t the re%iab%e de%i$ery # data"
The four asp ects are,
8rror control
5e"uence control
=oss control
Duplication control
-. What is meant by se+ment"
&t the sending and receiving end of the transmission, T*6 divides long
transmissions into smaller data units and pacages each into a frame called a
segment.
. What is meant by se+mentatin"
Chen the si$e of the data unit received from the upper layer is too long for
the networ layer datagram or data lin layer frame to handle, the transpo rt
protocol divides it into smaller usable blocs. Th e dividing process is called
segmentation.
/. What is meant by :ncatenatin"
The si$e of the data unit belonging to a single session are so small that
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several can fit together into a single datagram or frame, the transport protocol
combines them into a single data unit. The combining process is called
concaten ation.
3. What are the ty,es # m!%ti,%e?in+"
The types of multiplexing are,
@pward multiplexing
Downward multiplexing
4. What are the tw ,ssib%e trans,rt ser$ices"
Two basic types of transport services are,
*onnection service
*onnectionless services
16. The trans,rt %ayer creates the cnnectin between s!rce and destinatin.
What are the three e$ents in$%$ed in the cnnectin"
or security , the transport layer may create a connection between the two
end ports. & connection is a single logical path between the source and
destination that is associated with all pacets in a message. *reating a connectioninvolves three steps%
A *onnection establishment
A Data transfer M *onnection release.
11. What are the techni!es !sed in m!%ti,%e?in+"
The three b asic techni"u es of multiplexing are,
re"uency+division multiplexing
Time+division multiplexing
Cave+division multiplexing
12. What is meant by cn+estin"*ongestion in a networ occur if user send d ata into the networ at a rate
greater than that allowed by networ resources.
1'. Why the cn+estin cc!r in netwrk"
*ongestion occur because the switches in a networ have a limited buffer
si$e to store arrived pacets.
1*. 7w wi%% the cn+estin be a$ided"
The congestion may be avoided by two bits
8* + acward 8xplicit *ongestion otification
8* + orward 8xplicit *ongestion otification
1-. What is the #!nctin # =>:N =IT"
The 8* bit warns the sender of congestion in networ. The sender can
respond to this warning by simply reducing the data rate.
1. What is the #!nctin # 0>:N"
The 8* bit is used to warn the receiver of congestion in the networ.
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The sender and receiv er are communicating with each other and are using some
types of flow control at a higher level.
1/. What is meant by !a%ity # ser$ice"
The "uality of service defines a set of attributes related to the performance
of the connection. or each connection, the user can re"uest a particular attribute
each service class is associated with a set of attributes.
13. What are the tw cate+ries # C& attrib!tes"
The two main categories are
@ser riented
etwor riented
14.
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which maes a data delivery destination systems. The header, which defines the
from a specific process on networ layer adds a source machine#s address
one computer to a specific header, which indicate the and the destination
process on another logical address of th e sender machine#s address.
computer. and receiver.
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UNIT B
APP enhance &MTP"
'8 is a supplementary protocol that allows non+&5*'' data to be sent through5T6. '8 transforms non+&5*'' data at the sender site to BT &5*'' data and
deliverers it to the client 5T6 to be sent through the 'nternet. The server 5T6 at
the receiving side receives the BT &5*'' data and delivers it to '8 to be
transformed bac to the original data.
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3. Why is an a,,%icatin s!ch as P9P needed #r e%ectrnic messa+in+"
Corstations interact with the 5T6 host which receives the mail on b ehalf of
every host in the organi$ation, to retrieve messages b y using a client+server protocol
such as 6ost ffice 6rotocol , version ;(66;). <hough 66; is used to download
messages from the server, the 5T6 client still needed on the destop to forward
messages from the worstation user to its 5T6 mail server.
4. 8i$e the #rmat # 7TTP re!est messa+ e.
/e"uest =ine
9eaders
& lan =ine
ody
(present only in
some messages)
16. 8i$e the #rmat # 7TTP res,nse messa+e.
5tatus =ine
9eaders
& lan =ine
ody(present only in
some messages)
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11. Write dwn the three ty,es # WWW dc!ments.
The documents in the CCC can be grouped into three broad categories% static,
dynamic and active.
&tatic ixed+content documents that are created and stored in a server.
ynamic *reated by web server whenever a b ro wser re"uests the document.
Acti$e & program to be run at the client side.
12. What is the ,!r,se # 7TM
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isad$anta+e
'f you use lar ge numbers the method to be effective. *alculating the cipher text using
the long eys ta es a lot of time. 5o it is not recommended for large amounts of text.
1G. Chat are the adv antages M disadvantages of secret ey encryptionN
Ad$anta+e
5ecret Fey algorithms are efficient% it taes less time to encrypt a message. The
reason is that the ey is usually smaller. 5o it is used to encrypt or decrypt long
messages.isad$anta+es
a) 8ach pair of users must have a secret ey. 'f people in world want to use this
method, there needs to be (+1)! secret eys. or one million people to
communicate, a half+billion secret eys are needed .
b) The distribution of the eys between two parties can be difficult.
14. e#ine ,erm!tatin.
6ermutation is transposition in bit level.
&trai+ht ,erm!tatin The no. of bits in the input and output are preserved.
:m,ressed ,erm!tatin The no. of bits is reduced (some of the bits are dropped).
>?,anded ,erm!tatin The no. of bits is increased (some bits are repeated).
0. e#ine s!bstit!tina% E trans,sitina% encry,tin .
&!bstit!tina% & character level encryption in which each character is replaced by
another character in the set.
Trans,sitina% & *haracter level encryption in which the characters retain their
plaintext but the position of the character ch anges.
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PART =
UNIT I
ata cmm!nicatins
1. >?,%ain I&9F9&I re#erence mde%.
6hysical layer
Data lin layer
etwor layerTransport layer
5ession layer
6resentation layer
&pplication layer
2. >?,%ain the t,%+ies # the netwrk.
esh topology
5tar topology
Tree topology
us topology
/ing topology
'. >?,%ain the cate+ries # netwrks.
=ocal &rea etwor(=&)
etropolitan &rea etwor(&)
Cide &rea etwor(C&)
*. >?,%ain ca?ia% cab%e E #iber ,tics.
*oaxial cable
*oaxial cable standards
*oaxial cable connectors
iber optics6ropagation modes
iber si$es
*able composition
=ight sources for optical cable
iber optic conn ectors
&dvantages M disadvantages of optical fiber
-. >?,%ain %ine cdin+ (di+ita% t di+ita% cn$ersin).
@nipolar
D* component
5ynchroni$ation6olar
on return to $ero(/
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Differential anchester
ipolar
<ernate ar 'nversion(&')
ipolar G+$ero substitution(G?,%ain errr detectin and errr crrectin techni!es.
Types of errors
5ingle bit error
urst error
8rror detection
Bertical redundancy chec(B/*)
=ongitudinal redundancy chec(=/*)
*yclic redundancy chec(*/*)
*hecsum
8rror co rrection5ingle+bit erro r correction
9amming code
urst error co rrection
2. >?,%ain errr cntr% mechanism.
5top and wait &/E
5liding window &/E
?o bac+n
5elective+reect
'. >?,%ain the #%w cntr% mechanism
5top and wait5liding window.
*. >?,%ain the timers and time re+isters in 0I.
Time registers
5ynchronous allocation(5&)
Target toen rotation time(TT/T)
&bsolute maximum time(&T)
Timers
Toen rotation timer(T/T)
Toen holding timer(T9T)
-. >?,%ain ab!t >thernet.
&ccess method %*5&!*D
&ddressing
8lectrical specification
rame format
'mplementation%
10 base 4 %Thic 8thern et
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10 base %Thin 8thernet
10 base T %Twisted+pair 8thernet
1 base 4 %5tar =&
. >?,%ain the #rame #rmat #r tken rin+ and tken b!s.
&ccess method% Toen passing
6riority and reservation
Time limitsonitor stations
/. >?,%ain ab!t 7
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& sample internet
'. e#ine r!tin+ E e?,%ain distance $ectr r!tin+ and %ink state r!tin+.
Distance vector routing
5haring information
/outing table
*reating the table
@pdating the table@pdating algorithm
=in state routing
'nformation sharing
6acet cost
=in state pacet
?etting information about neighbors
'nitiali$ation
=in state database
*. e#ine brid+e and e?,%ain the ty,e # brid+es.
ridgesTypes of bridges
5imple bridge
ultiport bridge
Transparent bridge
-. >?,%ain s!bnettin+
5ubnetting
Three lev els of hierarchy
asing
ass without subnetting
ass with subnettinginding the subnetwor address
oundary level masing
on+boundary lev el masing
. Write shrt ntes ab!t re,eaters r!ters and +ateways.
/epeaters
/outers
/outing concepts
=east+cost routing
on adaptive routing
&daptive routing6acet lifetime
?ateways
UNIT IB
Trans,rt %ayer
1. >?,%ain the d!ties # trans,rt %ayer.
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8nd to end delivery
&ddressing
/eliable delivery
A 8rror control
A 5e"uence control
A =oss control
A Duplication control
low controlultiplexing
2. >?,%ain scket in detai%.
A 'ntroduction
A 8xplanation
A program
'. >?,%ain UP E T:P.
@ser Datagram 6rotocol(@D6)
5ource port address
Destination port address
Total length
*hecsum
Transmission *ontrol 6rotocol(T*6)
5ource port address
Destination port address
5e"uence number
&cnowledgement number
9eader length
/eserved
*ontrol
Cindow si$e
*hec sum
@rgent pointer
ptions and padding
*. >?,%ain ab!t cn+estin cntr%.
*ongestion avoidance
8*
8*
our situations
Discarding
-. >?,%ain %eaky b!cket and tken b!cket a%+rithm
=eay bucet algorithm
=eay bucet
5witch controlling the output rate
lowchart
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UNIT B
A,,%icatin ?,%ain the #!nctins # &MTP.
A 5ystem for sending messages to other computer u sers based on e+mail
addresses. 5T6 provides mail exchange between users on the same
or different computers.A @ser &gent
A ail Transfer &gent
A ultipurpose 'nternet ail 8xtensions
A 6ost ffice 6rotocol
. Write shrt ntes n 0TP.
A Transfer a file from one system to another.
A T*6 connections
A asic model of T6
'. >?,%ain ab!t 7TTP.
A 9TT6 transactions
A 9TT6 messages
A @/=
*. >?,%ain the WWW in detai%.
A 9ypertext M 9ypermedia
A rowser &rchitecture
A *ategories of Ceb Documents
A 9T=
A *?'
A Kava
-. >?,%ain the ty,e # encry,tinFdecry,tin methd.
:n$entina% Methds
A *haracter+=evel 8ncr yption% 5ubstitutional M Transpositional
A it+=evel 8ncryption% 8ncoding!Decoding, 6ermutation, 5ubstitution,
6roduct, 8xclusive+r M /otation
P!b%ic key Methds
. >?,%ain ab!t R&A a%+rithm.
A 6ublic ey 8ncryption techni"ue.
A 8ncryption algorithm
A Decryption algorithmA 5ecurity in /5&
J. >?,%ain ab!t secret key encry,tin a%+rithm .
A Data 8ncryption 5tandard
A &lgorithm
A 5ub ey generation