451
INDEX
AAbbreviations for behavior
symptoms, 60Absolute declarations, 281Abuse, 37–38Access
opportunity question, 158–159
people with unusual, 27–28Accidents
intent issues, 39–40representing crimes as, 219
Accomplicescomplicity in crime, 26–27determining identity with
assumptive question, 177
playing one co-offender against the other, 246–250
pointing out futility of lying, 245
sympathizing with suspect by condemning, 224–230
Accuracy of corroboration, 356–360
Accusations of guiltanonymous reports, 15direct, positive confrontation,
192–193false, 35–37in interrogation, 5justification for, 200–202misleading symptoms
following, 198–200stepping down, 268
Active persuasion, 5Adaptor behavior
defined, 128hand gestures, 130–134
Addiction, 215Addressing subjects
by first name, 193investigator demeanor, 61–62
Admissibility of confession. See also Interrogation and confession law
historical context for voluntariness, 415–421
questions for establishing, 391–393
Admissionsevaluating truthfulness, 237presenting alternative
question, 293–294seeking admission of lying,
240–241turning into confessions,
303–304Adolescent offenders, 254–255Adversarial court system,
382–383, 397Aggressive power crimes, 23Alcohol use
in coerced internalized confes-sions, 342
as guilt-diminishing factor, 214–215
Alibischecking, 18eliciting with open question,
86–87evaluating memory, 179–181investigative questions, 156using bait questions to
evaluate, 175–176Alter-ego defense, 251–252Alternative question, presenting.
See Presenting alternative question
Amnesia, 359Analyzing behavior. See Behavior
symptom analysisAnecdotal reports, 362–363Angry subjects
approach for interviewing, 63both truthful and deceptive,
143Anonymous reports, 15Anticipating denials, 258–260Antisocial personalities, 146–149Anxious behavior
analyzing, 109evaluating nonverbal behavior,
121–122evaluating verbal behavior,
111–112on the stand, 384
Apologetic denials, 269–271Appearance on the stand, 383–384Approval, 230Argument against objections, 279Argument against self-interest,
244Arizona v. Fulminante, 417, 437Armed officers, 68Arson
blaming anyone upon whom moral responsibility can be placed, 227–228
blaming insurance companies, 229
common distorted motives, 216
principles for investigation, 31suggesting more morally
acceptable motivation, 214
Ashcraft v. Tennessee, 416, 436Asking questions. See QuestionsAssaults
condemning victim, 222sexual. See Sexual offensesvictim interviews, 11–12
Assumptionsin alternative questions, 296assumptive questions,
176–178deceptive responses which rely
on, 91of guilt/innocence in interview
procedure, 57of offender non-emotionality,
186Attention, procuring and
retaining suspect’s. See Procurement and retention of suspect’s attention
Attitudeasking bait question, 172in emotional vs. non-
emotional offenders, 185–186
evaluating subject’s, 108–111during interrogation, 192of investigator as witness,
384–385
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452 n Index
Attitude (contd.)investigator conduct during
interrogation, 65–69investigator demeanor during
interview, 57–62investigator during theme
development, 206–207investigator personality,
55–56patience and persistence,
329–333Attitude question
actual case presentation, 164, 166
defined, 159Attorney, right to, 404–407Attributes of investigator, 55–56Audio monitoring of interviews,
47–51Auto theft, 216
BBackground information
in BAI, 155establishing rapport, 78specifically valuable for inves-
tigators, 15–18subject data sheet, 140–141
BAI (behavior analysis interview)actual case presentation,
163–167analyzing subject responses,
167–169bait question, 171–176footnotes, 169introduction, 153overview, 153–154response models for behavior-
provoking questions, 154–163
Baitingin cross-examination, 396to establish suspect’s presence
at crime scene, 242–243specialized questioning
techniques, 171–176Bargaining statements, 274–275Beckwith v. United States, 374, 432Bedau, A., 340, 341Behavior
abbreviations for symptoms, 60
behavioral pause, 195–198intent issues, 39monitoring interviews, 48–50
response to introductory statements, 79
suspect’s interview, 4–5victim truthfulness, 28–29
Behavior analysis interview (BAI). See BAI (behavior analysis interview)
Behavior symptom analysisevaluating nonverbal behavior.
See Nonverbal behaviorevaluating paralinguistic
behavior, 117–121evaluating subject’s attitudes,
108–111evaluating verbal behavior,
111–117footnotes, 136–137identifying proper theme
through, 207–208of juvenile offenders, 250misleading symptoms
following confrontation, 198–200
overview, 101–104underlying principles, 104–108using responses in interroga-
tion, 188witness’s responses to
questions, 385–390Behavior symptom analysis
precautionsbehaviors common to both
truthful and deceptive subjects, 142–143
conclusion, 152factors leading to misinterpre-
tation, 144–152initial assessment of subject,
139–141overview, 139
Behavior-provoking questionsdefined, 154–155response models for, 154–163
Berghuis v. Thompkins, 409, 434, 435
Berkemer v. McCarty, 433, 435Biased information, 13–14Biological needs, 347–348Blakeney v. State, 433Blame
accomplice, 224–227themes for juvenile offenders,
250–251victim, 220–224
Bliss v. United States, 434
Bluffing, 246–250Bolstering phrases
defined, 116in denial from guilty, 265
Booking questions, 400Boredom, 250Boyer v. State, 377Break in custody, 404Breath odor, 65–66Brewer v. Williams, 400–401, 440Bribery, 216Broad denials
evaluating verbal behavior, 113–114
investigator testimony, 388–389
Burglaries. See also Robberiescommon distorted motives,
216evaluating crime characteris-
tics, 26–27
CCalifornia v. Beheler, 432California v. Prysock, 430Canadian Supreme Court,
422–423Carr v. State, 433Case facts
conclusion, 18fact analysis, 9–14footnotes, 19specific information for inves-
tigators, 15–18Case solution
conclusion, 32–33evaluating crime characteris-
tics, 24–30evaluating motives, 22–23footnotes, 33general suggestions, 30–32overview, 21–22
Chair proximity. See also Seatingarranging interview room,
47–48for getting suspect’s attention,
283–284Challenging questions, 96Channels of communication,
105–106Character
degrading victim’s, 222determining suspect, 196–198recognizing good in suspect,
68–69
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Index n 453
Charlton, Donald, 402Chavez v. Martinez, 402–403, 432Chicago Police Scientific Crime
Detection Laboratory, 102Child abuse
common distorted motives, 216
repressed memories of, 37–38Child subjects
behavior analysis in, 149–150interrogation law, 418–421precautions when dealing
with, 254–255Child victims
blaming, 221eyewitness identifications and
false accusations, 36–37interviewing, 15introductory statement for,
81–82Chronology of account, 91Circumstantial evidence
evaluating crime characteris-tics, 29
as likely indicator of guilt, 13protecting the innocent, 40–41
Clarificationasking follow-up questions,
97–99open account, 92–93of request for counsel,
405–406Classification of offenders,
185–189Closed posture, 125Closed questions, 86Clothing
investigator, 57–58on the stand, 383–384
Coerced compliant confessions, 340
Coerced internalized confessionsdefined, 341–342trustworthiness, 350–351
Coercionconfession voluntariness,
416–417defined, 343–344duress, 347–348interrogation law, 425–426statistics, 366
Cognitive interviewingdefined, 153reverse recall, 181
Collins v. Gaetz, 438
Colorado v. Spring, 427, 434Commonwealth v. DiGiambattista,
427Commonwealth v. Edwards, 440Commonwealth v. Fournier, 440Commonwealth v. Martinez, 435Commonwealth v. Novo, 440Commonwealth v. Robinson, 371Commonwealth v. Williams, 437, 439Communication
interrogator qualifications, 65nonverbal, 122–123three levels of, 105through behavior, 101
Compassion for suspect, 67Competency issue, 418–421Complicity, 26–27Complimenting suspect, 230–232Compound questions, 95Concealing interview, 162–163Concerned attitude, 110Condemning accomplice, 224–227Condemning victim, 220–224Conduct during interrogation
investigator, 65–69professional, 192
Confessionsassumptive questions and, 178avoiding impression of
seeking, 67common distorted motives,
216–217converting oral into written.
See Converting oral confession into written confession
eliciting corroborated, 306–308
having suspect orally relate various details of offense, 303–310
intent issues, 39–40interrogator qualifications,
64–65law. See Interrogation and
confession lawneed for privacy, 43–45playing co-offenders against
each other, 246–250purpose of interrogation, 5–6recording, 50–51solving cases through, 32–33testifying on. See Testifying on
confessionin voluntary interviews, 76
Confessions, distinguishing between true and false
categories of false, 340–343corroboration, 354–362false confessions in court-
room, 367–372footnotes, 373–377interrogation research,
362–367overview, 339–340trustworthiness, 348–354voluntariness, 343–348
Confidenceassessing with results
question, 162investigator, 192, 206
Confrontation. See Direct, positive confrontation
Confrontation statement, 193–195
Connelly vs. U.S, 373Conscience
in emotional vs. non- emotional offenders, 185–186
voluntary false confessions and, 340–341
Consent for interrogation, 409–410
Consequencesin alternative questions, 295asking rhetorical questions,
287minimizing reminders in
interview room, 45–46overbearing subject’s free will,
343–344pointing out grave, 238–239punishment question,
160–161responding to requests about,
274–275Consistency
between channels of commu-nication, 106
evaluating nonverbal behavior, 136
Conspiracy by prosecutor, 394–395Constitutional rights. See Miranda
rightsContent of statements, 288–290Controlled environment, 5Converting oral confession into
written confessiondefined, 189
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454 n Index
Converting oral confession into written confession (contd.)
electronically recorded inter-views, 325
importance of documentation, 310–311
post-confession interviews, 323–324
preparation and form of written confession, 312–321
principles, 310safeguarding effectiveness of
confession, 321–323warning of constitutional
rights, 311–312Convictions, 67Co-offenders. See AccomplicesCooper v. Dupnik, 69, 405Cooperative attitude, 110–111Cooperative witnesses or infor-
mants, 334–335Corley v. United States, 411, 416Cornelison v. Motley, 433Correction of errors in confes-
sion, 317Corroboration
distinguishing between true and false confessions, 354–362
eliciting corroborated confes-sion, 306–308
evaluating voluntary confes-sions, 349–350
intent issues and, 40County of Riverside v. McLaughlin,
435Courage to Heal (Bass and Davis),
37Courtroom
decisions on expert witness testimony, 370–372
false confessions in, 367–372testifying on confession. See
Testifying on confessionview of witness, 382–385
Credibility of investigator as witness, 382–383
Credibility questionactual case presentation, 164,
166defined, 158
Crimesarson. See Arson
confining confession to single, 320
evaluating characteristics, 22–23
homicide. See Homicidepointing out futility of,
238–239sexual offenses. See Sexual
offensestheft. See Theft cases
Criminal intent, 217–218Criminal Investigation (Gross), 295Criminal responsibility, 205Crossed arms, 125, 126Cross-examination, 393–397Crying, 292–293Culombe v. Connecticut, 417Culture
eye contact and, 135misinterpretation of behavior,
150–151suspect language and, 333
Custodial suspectsinterview preparation, 74legally defined, 402–404preparing for interrogation,
191rights of. See Miranda rights
DDark glasses, 135–136Dassey, Brendan, 367Data sheet, 140–141Davis v. United States, 405Deception
behavior symptom analysis. See Behavior symptom analysis
false confessions and, 351–352independent detection, 79interrogation and confession
law, 426–429during interview, 4–5silence during interview, 60
Deceptive responsesevaluating open question,
89–91evaluating verbal behavior,
112handling evasive, 97–98to open question, 86–87responding to, 274–276
Deceptive subjectsanger in, 63
behaviors common to both truthful subjects and, 142–143
catching in lie, 62response models for behavior-
provoking questions, 155–163
Definitive responses, 114Degnan, Suzanne, 40–41, 43Delap v. State, 434Delay in presentment of arrestee
before judicial officer, 410–411
Delayed responsesevaluating paralinguistic
behavior, 117–118investigator testimony, 387
Delivery, 119Delusions, 145–146Demeanor
during interrogation, 192during interview, 57–62of investigator as witness,
383–384investigator in response to
passive mood, 290–291Denials
bait technique, 172evaluating verbal behavior,
113–114handling. See Handling denialsof incidentals, 360vs. objections, 276–277persistence in face of,
331–332Dependent corroboration,
354–355Depression, 145Derogatory labels, 62Despair, 143Details
absence of corroborating, 358in alternative questions, 297avoiding specificity in testi-
mony, 389of confession, 314having suspect orally relate
various details of offense, 303–310
indications of deception, 89–90
indications of truthfulness, 89–91
memory evaluation, 179–181
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Index n 455
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), 38
Dialoguecross-examination, 393–397elements in Step 3, 262elements in Step 4, 280
Dickerson v. United States, 416, 436Direct, positive confrontation
behavioral pause, 195–198defined, 188handling denials following,
257–258justification for, 200–202misleading behavior symp-
toms following, 198–200principles, 192–193procedures, 193–195
Direct questionsformulating, 93–96history/you question, 156–157
Direct testimony, 390–393Discrepancies in accounts
in cross-examination, 397memory evaluation, 180–181
Distinguishing between true and false confessions. See Confessions, distinguishing between true and false
Distorted motives in confessions, 216–217
Distractions in interview room, 47Documentation
converting oral confession into written confession, 310–311
interview sheet outline, 76–77note-taking, 60testimony preparation,
380–381Doyle v. Ohio, 435Dress
in interviews, 57–58on the stand, 383–384
Drug usecompetency issue, 421evaluating crime characteris-
tics, 24as guilt-diminishing factor, 215initial assessment of subject,
140misinterpretation of behavior
and, 144–145DSM-IV (Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders), 38
Duckworth v. Eagan, 408, 430Dunaway v. New York, 409–410Dunson v. State, 439Duress, 347–348Dynamic posture, 122
EEarly responses, 118Edwards v. Arizona, 404, 432Edwards v. State, 439Ekman, P., 104Electronic monitoring of inter-
viewsmaintaining privacy while,
47–51recording confessions, 325
Eliminating suspect from suspi-cion, 168
Embarrassment. See ShameEmbezzlement cases
blaming government, 230exaggerating crime details,
235–237responding to denials in, 266statistics, 213–214suggesting morally acceptable
motivation, 215–216using visual aid in, 285
Emotional impairment, 32Emotional involvement
interrogator qualifications, 64of investigator, 13–14
Emotional objections, 278Emotional offenders
defined, 185–186procedures for, 203–209
Emotionsabsence from confession,
358–360associated with deception,
106avoiding charged terminology,
304clarifying open account, 92common to both truthful
and deceptive subjects, 142–143
evaluating facial expressions, 134–135
illustrating behavior, 128indications of truthfulness/
deception, 90–91misinterpretation of behavior,
150
Employee theftevaluating crime characteris-
tics, 27–28principles for investigation, 31statistics, 213–214
Environmentblaming, 230, 251formal vs. informal interviews,
73–74for interrogation, 5for interview, 4interview room privacy. See
Interview room privacyErasure behavior, 120–121Escort, 58Estimated time of death, 12Estimation phrases, 115–116Evaluating behavior. See Behavior
symptom analysisEvaluating denials. See Handling
denialsEvasive responses
asking follow-up questions, 97–98
avoiding in testimony, 390evaluating verbal behavior, 112
Evidenceapproaches to be avoided,
205–206asking bait question, 174case folder, 191–192circumstantial. See
Circumstantial evidencedeception, 428eliciting corroborated confes-
sion, 306–308evaluating voluntary confes-
sions, 349–350in interviews vs. interroga-
tions, 6as likely indicator of guilt, 13misinterpretation of behavior
and, 144procuring after confession,
322–323responding to requests for,
274revealing to suspect, 244supplementing confession,
320–321use in handling denials from
guilty, 269–271using as visual aid, 285using fictitious, 352
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456 n Index
Exaggerated victim claimsevaluating crime characteris-
tics, 28pointing out possibility as
interrogation technique, 232–237
Exceptions to Miranda, 412–413Excuses
approaches to be avoided, 205–207
overcoming objections. See Overcoming objections
procedures for emotional offenders, 203–204
specific themes, 209–210Experience in assessing behavior
symptoms, 103Expert witnesses, 367–369Explanation for events, 92Extrinsic deception, 427–428Eye contact
in behavioral pause, 196cultural differences in, 151evaluating behavior, 134–136identifying proper theme
through analyzing, 208indications of upcoming
denial, 259investigator demeanor, 59procurement and retention
of suspect’s attention, 284–285
in response to passive mood, 291
withdrawal from interroga-tion, 282
Eyewitness identifications, 35–37
FFace-saving motives
presenting alternative ques-tion, 294
theme development, 214–219Facial expressions
evaluating nonverbal behavior, 134–136
signs of resignation, 292–293Fact analysis
accuracy of corroboration, 356–360
antisocial personalities and, 149
defined, 9interrogating non-emotional
offenders, 186
Fact-giversdefined, 9interviewing, 13–14
Factual objections, 278False accusations
of investigator misconduct, 48protecting the innocent, 35–37themes which utilize, 233–234
False confessionscategories of, 340–343in courtroom, 367–372cross-examination, 394distinguishing between true
and. See Confessions, dis-tinguishing between true and false
explanation for, 357–358statistics, 362–367
Family life, 250–251Fantasies, 159–160Fare v. Michael C., 418Faulty memory syndrome, 341,
350–351Fears
addressing in introductory statement, 80–82
in both truthful and deceptive subjects, 142
Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure 5(a), 410–411
Feelings. See EmotionsFeet
evaluating nonverbal behavior, 134
while testifying, 386Female stenographer, 313–314Fences, 228–229Fictitious evidence, 352Fight response, 121–122Fikes v. Alabama, 417First-person response, 161Fisher, R., 153Flamer v. Delaware, 436Flattery, 230–232Flight response, 121–122Florida v. Powell, 400, 430Focus test, 402Follow-up call for interrogation,
168Follow-up questions
actual case presentation, 164, 165
formulating, 97–99Foot bouncing, 134Form of confessions, 312
Form of waiver, 408Form of written confession,
312–321Formal interviews
arranging, 74–76vs. informal interviews, 73–74note-taking, 4–5
Formulating interview questions. See Interview questions
Forward-leaning posture, 125, 127
Framed defendants, 394–395Fraud, 15, 26–27Frazier v. Cupp, 374, 440Frazier v. State, 438Free will, 343–344, 348Freeman v. State, 439Freeze response, 121–122Frequency of criminal behavior,
198Friendly-unfriendly act, 271–273Frontally aligned posture, 122,
124Frozen posture, 125Frumkin, Bruce, 372Fulero, Solomon, 371Functional equivalent test,
400–402, 405
GGallegos v. Colorado, 419–420Gallegos v. Nebraska, 416Gaze, 134–135Geiselman, Edward, 153Gender
crying and resignation, 293theft cases, 214
Generalization statement, 114Genetically inherited behavior
defined, 121grooming gestures, 130
Gestures. See Nonverbal behaviorGlory grabbers, 25–26Greed-motivated thefts, 22–23Grooming gestures, 130–132Gross, Hans, 295GSS (Gudjonsson Suggestibility
Scale), 372Guarded attitude, 109Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale
(GSS), 372Guidelines for evaluating claims
of duress, 347–348Guidelines for evaluating suspect
behavior, 136
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Index n 457
Guidelines for evaluating volun-tary confessions, 349–350
Guidelines for using fictitious evidence, 352
Guiltaccusation in interrogation, 5assumptions in interview
procedure, 57assumptive questions and, 178certainty in interrogation, 5–6checking alibi, 18circumstantial and physical
evidence, 13defined, 73, 185developing general acknowl-
edgement of, 304–306handling denials. See Handling
denialsindicating certainty of,
192–193intent issues, 39–40investigator objectivity, 79–80memory evaluation, 179–181nonaccusatory nature of inter-
view, 3–4reducing by minimizing moral
seriousness of offense, 211–214
reporting crime to deflect, 24–25
Guilty partybehavior symptoms. See
Behavior symptom analysis
evaluating denials from, 264–266
influence of psychology on confession trustworthi-ness, 352–354
interview procedure, 11responding to stronger,
persistent denials from, 271–273
responding to weak, qualified or apologetic denials from, 269–271
Guns, 68
HHabitual criminal behavior, 147Haley v. Ohio, 416, 436Hallucinations, 145Hand gestures
discouraging weak denials from being voiced, 260
evaluating nonverbal behavior, 130–134
indications of upcoming denial, 259
shrug, 128–129while testifying, 386
Handcuffs, 67Handling denials
anticipating, 258–260attempt to leave interrogation
room, 273defined, 188discouraging from being
voiced, 260–263from guilty, 264–266from innocent, 264persistent denials of uncertain
origin, 266–268principles, 255–257from probably innocent
subject, 268–269procedures, 257–258specific, 271statements made by the decep-
tive, 274–276stronger, persistent denials
from guilty, 271–273that are voiced, 263–264weak, qualified or apologetic
denials from guilty, 269–271
Handling suspect’s passive mood
defined, 189principles, 287–288procedures, 288–293
Harris v. South Carolina, 436Harryman v. Estelle, 431Having suspect orally relate
various details of offensedefined, 189developing general acknowl-
edgement of guilt, 304–306
eliciting corroborated confes-sion, 306–308
having oral confession witnessed, 308–310
principles, 303statement of reinforcement,
303–304Health of subject, 140–141Heirens, William, 41, 43–44Helpfulness
attitude, 109–110
avoiding interrogations which center on, 331
vouch question, 158Henderson v. DeTella, 438High socioeconomic status, 61–64High-end inducements, 368–369Hillard v. State, 439Hinckley, John, 411Historical context for confession
voluntariness, 415–421History/you question
actual case presentation, 163, 166
defined, 156–157Hit-and-run cases, 210–211, 216Homicide
common distorted motives, 217
motives, 22principles for investigation, 31using visual aid in, 285–286
Homosexualsinvestigator address to, 62minimizing offense’s moral
seriousness, 212Human behavior. See Normal
human behaviorHypothetical questions
in cross-examination, 395–396in interviews, 98
IIdentifications
assumptive question, 177fallibility of eyewitness, 35–37investigator, 58investigator to child victim, 81
Illinois v. Perkins, 402Illustrating behavior, 128–130Impatience, 329–330Impersonation, 148Impertinence, 142Implied action phrases, 91Implied messages, 344–347Impressionistic data, 365–366Impulsive criminal behavior, 147,
149“In custody”, 402–404. See also
Custodial suspectsIncentives for confession
cross-examination, 393–394duress, 347–348permissible, 344–347
Incriminating evidence, 6. See also Evidence
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458 n Index
Indecent exposure, 217Independent corroboration, 355Informal interviews, 73–74Informant interrogation, 333–337Information gathering
fact analysis, 9–14formulating questions. See
Interview questionsimportance of, 6in interview, 4–5specific information for inves-
tigators, 15–18Inherited behavior, 121Initial assessment of subject,
139–141Innocence
assumptions in interview procedure, 57
checking alibi, 18defined, 73discouraging weak denials
from being voiced, 263false confessions. See False
confessionssuspect attitude and, 32
Innocentbehavior symptoms. See
Behavior symptom analysis
evaluating denials from, 264introductory statement for
suspect, 79justification for accusatory
confrontation, 200–202protecting. See Protecting the
innocentresponding to denials from
probably, 268–269Inside knowledge, 26–27Insincerity, 109Insurance fraud
common distorted motives, 217
evaluating crime characteris-tics, 26–27
Intelligencecompetency issue, 420–421initial assessment of subject,
140interrogating unintelligent
suspect, 332–333misinterpretation of behavior,
149
Intentdistorted motives and, 217–218exaggerating, 237protecting the innocent, 39–40
Internal thefts, 27–28Interpreters, 52–53Interrogation
confessions and, 339–340deception in, 351–352delaying on basis of BAI, 168getting background informa-
tion before, 17–18going ahead with on basis of
BAI, 169vs. interview, 3–7legally defined, 400–402principles for investigation,
31–32privacy. See Interview room
privacyThe Reid Nine Steps of
Interrogation. See The Reid Nine Steps of Interrogation
research, 362–367responding to subject’s
attempt to leave, 273Interrogation and confession law
confession voluntariness, 415–421
consent for interrogation, 409–410
deception, 426–429footnotes, 430–441interrogation defined,
400–402introduction, 399meaning of custody, 402–404Miranda rights, 400other Miranda considerations,
410–415promises of leniency, 421–425references to polygraph,
429–430right to attorney, 404–407right to remain silent, 409summary, 430threats, 425–426waiver of rights, 407–408
Interrogator recommendationspatience and persistence,
329–333qualifications, 64–65
for witnesses and prospective informants, 333–337
Interruptiongestures, 258–259response to questions, 88
Interview preparationarranging formal, 74–76conclusion, 82–83establishing rapport, 77–78footnotes, 83formal vs. informal interviews,
73–74introductory statements,
78–82overview, 76–77preparing room for interroga-
tion, 191Interview questions
clarifying open account, 92–93conclusion, 99direct questions, 93–96eliciting open question
response, 88evaluating open question
response, 88–91follow-up questions, 97–99footnotes, 99–100initial open question, 86–87investigator qualifications
and, 56–57outlining, 76–77overview, 85–86phrasing open question, 87–88for post-confession, 324response models for behavior-
provoking, 154–163specialized techniques. See
Specialized questioning techniques
Interview room privacyfootnotes, 53–54minimizing reminders of con-
sequences, 45–46overview, 43–45suggestions for setting up,
46–53Interview sheet outline, 76–77Interviews
approaches for difficult sub-jects, 62–64
behavior analysis. See BAI (behavior analysis interview)
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Index n 459
electronically recorded, 325gathering information prior
to, 10–11vs. interrogations, 3–7investigator demeanor during,
57–62investigator procedures, 57post-confession, 323–324procedure, 11solving cases through, 32–33victim, 11–12
Intimation tactic, 246–250Intoxication
in coerced internalized confes-sions, 342
evaluating crime characteris-tics, 24
as guilt-diminishing factor, 214–215
Intrinsic deception, 427–428Introductory statements, 78–82Investigations
confessions are not the end of, 322–323
interviews vs. interrogations, 3–7
Investigative questionsin BAI, 154examples of, 156
Investigatorsconclusion, 69conduct during interrogation,
65–69deception by, 426–429demeanor during interview,
57–62footnotes, 69interrogator qualifications,
64–65interview approaches for dif-
ficult subjects, 62–64interview procedures, 57overview, 55–56qualifications, 56–57specific information for, 15–18testimony. See Testifying on
confessionIrrelevant information, 30
JJ.D.B. v. North Carolina, 418, 437Jenkins v. Anderson, 435Jones, Keith, 163–167
Judgeaddressing, 385presentment requirement,
410–411Jury
effect of confessions on, 339need for expert witnesses, 372view of investigator witnesses,
382–385Justifications
blaming victim, 220–224for direct, positive confronta-
tion, 200–202theme development, 202–203
Juvenile offendersinterrogation law, 418–421pointing out consequences
and futility of criminal behavior, 238–239
themes for, 250–255
KKassin, S., 364–365Kassin, Saul, 372Kennedy v. Fairman, 434Kier v. State, 438Knowledge question
actual case presentation, 164defined, 157
Kohnken, G., 104Kraut, R.E., 104
LLaboratory studies
defined, 362interrogation research,
363–365Lamb v. State, 436Language
alternative question, 298asking direct questions, 93–96confessor, 316evaluating verbal behavior,
111–117investigator demeanor, 60–61investigator testimony,
387–388phrasing open questions,
87–88in taking confessions, 315
Larceny statistics, 213–214Laughing, 120–121
Law. See Interrogation and confes-sion law
Lawyer, right to, 404–407Leading questions
defined, 299–302in taking confessions, 315–316in witness interrogation, 335
Leads from seemingly irrelevant information, 30
Learned behaviorcultural differences in,
150–151defined, 121
Leaving interrogation room, 273Leg movements, 134Legal rules. See also Interrogation
and confession lawaround promises of leniency,
330–331investigator traits, 56justification for accusatory
confrontation, 200–202permissible incentives for
confession, 344–347in selecting alternative ques-
tions, 295–296Length of interrogation, 347–348Length of response, 118–119Leniency
in alternative questions, 296implying, 213interrogation and confession
law, 421–425making no promises, 330–331overbearing subject’s free will,
343–344pointing out benefits of truth
telling, 243responding to requests about,
274–275Leo, Richard
court decisions, 370–371on false confessions, 367interrogation research, 366
Lewis v. State, 437Liability issues, 140Lighting interview room, 47Listing, 117, 388Loan sharks, 229Locations for interview, 53Locks on interview room, 46–47Logical appeal, 245Low socioeconomic status, 61–62
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460 n Index
Low-end inducements, 368–369Lying
about crime details, 219about evidence, 270–271behavior symptom analysis.
See Behavior symptom analysis
catching suspect, 62in confession, 319in corroborated confession,
356–359evaluating response to open
questions, 88–91independent detection, 79psychopath’s motives for,
147seeking admission of, 240–241trapping subject, 178–179victims, 28–29by young children, 149–150
MMaking mountain out of a mole-
hill, 397Mallory v. United States, 411, 435Manipulative crying, 293Markley v. State, 440Maryland v. Shatzer, 404, 432–433Massey v. Indiana, 437Mata v. Martel, 428Maturity, 149Mayberry v. State, 431McNabb v. United States, 410, 435McNabb-Mallory Rule, 411, 415McNall, K., 364–365McNeil v. Wisconsin, 406, 414–415,
436Medical information
initial assessment of subject, 140–141
safeguarding effectiveness of confession, 322
Medications, 144–145Memory
absence of emotional details from confession, 358–360
avoiding themes around, 275–276
coerced internalized confes-sions, 341–342
evaluating coerced internalized confessions, 350–351
evaluation, 179–181Memory distrust syndrome, 341
Memory qualifiersavoiding in testimony,
389–390in direct questions, 95–96evaluating verbal behavior,
114–115Mental illness
influence on confession trust-worthiness, 353
misinterpretation of behavior and, 145–146
repressed memories and, 37–38
voluntary false confessions, 341
Mental impairmentcompetency issue, 420influence on confession trust-
worthiness, 353–354initial assessment of subject,
140–141interrogation of those with,
332–333principles for investigation, 32using fictitious evidence and,
352Michigan v. Harvey, 432Michigan v. Mosley, 433, 440Miller v. Fenton, 374, 441Minnesota v. Murphy, 413, 432Miranda rights, 7, 74–76
asking purpose questions, 156consent for interrogation,
409–410custodial suspects, 74deception and, 427historical context for, 415–421interrogation and confession
law, 400interrogation defined,
400–402of juvenile offenders, 254–255meaning of custody, 402–404Miranda considerations,
410–415note-taking, 322preparing for interrogation,
191repeating before confession,
311–312right to attorney, 404–407right to remain silent, 409testimony preparation,
380–381waiver of rights, 407–408
Miranda v. Arizona, 430confessions, 311custodial suspects, 74interrogation and confession
law, 399–400Misinterpretation of behavior
factors leading to, 144–152misleading symptoms,
198–200Missouri v. Siebert, 407–408, 433Moneylenders, 229Monitoring interviews, 47–51Mood-congruent retrieval, 360Moral condemnation
of accomplice, 220–224of anyone with some degree of
responsibility, 227–230of victim, 220–224
Morales v. United States, 431Morality
approaches to be avoided, 205–207
determining suspect character, 196–198
of emotional offenders, 185–186
moral objections, 278reducing suspect’s guilt by
minimizing offense’s moral seriousness, 211–214
suggesting more morally acceptable motivation, 214–219
theme development, 202–203
of unintelligent uneducated suspect, 332–333
Moran v. Burbine, 426–427, 441Motive
in anonymous reports, 15for antisocial behavior, 147asking in transition statement,
197for denials, 269evaluating, 22–23false accusations, 35–37interpreting evidence, 10–11lying about, 356of non-emotional offenders,
186permissible incentives for con-
fession, 344–347in selecting alternative ques-
tions, 297
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Index n 461
suggesting more morally acceptable, 214–219
for voluntary confession, 349Motive question
actual case presentation, 164, 166
defined, 160Munoz v. State, 371Murder. See HomicideMurphy v. State, 433Mutual gaze, 134–135
NNarcissistic subjects, 63–64Narrative response
format of confession, 312–313having suspect orally relate
various details of offense, 303–310
interrogating witnesses, 334to open question, 86
National Institute of Justice (NIJ), 50
National Labor Relations Act, 45National Labor Relations Board
(NLRB) v. Weingarten, 53–54National Security Agency (NSA),
102Need-motivated thefts, 22Negative questions, 96Negative supporting statements,
298–302Nervous subjects
approach for interviewing, 62–63
behavior symptoms, 109both truthful and deceptive,
142initial assessment of subject,
140Neurological disorders, 140Neutral position
in interviews, 57as witness, 382–383
New York v. Quarles, 412–413NIJ (National Institute of Justice),
50Nine Steps of Interrogation. See
The Reid Nine Steps of Interrogation
Noises in interview room, 46–47Nonaccusatory nature of interview
asking direct questions, 96bait question, 171defined, 3–4
investigator demeanor, 58–59Noncontracted denials, 117Noncustodial suspects
attempts to leave interroga-tion room, 273
consent for interrogation, 409–410
formal interview techniques, 74–76
interrogation law, 402–403interview preparation, 74passive mood, 289purpose questions, 156
Nondescriptive language, 93Non-emotional offenders
defined, 186procedures for, 239–240
Nonexistent confessionsabsence of corroborating
details, 358defined, 342–343trustworthiness, 354
Non-frontally aligned posture, 125, 127
Non-threatening questions, 154Nonverbal behavior
assessing in behavioral pause, 196
channels of communication, 105
in context of verbal message, 106–108
in denial from guilty, 265in denial from innocent, 264evaluating, 121–122evaluation guidelines, 136facial expressions and eye con-
tact, 134–136feet, 134hands, 128–134identifying proper theme
through analyzing, 208indications of upcoming
denial, 258–259posture, 122–128psychopath, 148signs of resignation, 291–293on the stand, 384, 385–386studies assessing, 103–104withdrawal from interroga-
tion, 282–283in witness interrogation, 335
Normal human behaviordiagrams that show, 286establishing subject’s, 108
initial assessment of subject, 139–141
looking for deviations, 136minimizing offense’s moral
seriousness, 211–212in victim accounts, 28–29
North Carolina v. Butler, 327, 408, 433
Note-takingavoiding during interroga-
tion, 67during confession, 306fact analysis, 14in interrogation, 6during interview, 4–5investigator demeanor, 59–60safeguarding effectiveness of
confession, 321–322testimony preparation,
380–381NSA (National Security Agency),
102
OObjection question
actual case presentation, 164–165, 167
defined, 161–162Objections, overcoming. See
Overcoming objectionsObjectivity of investigator
importance of, 56–57in introductory statement,
79–80Offenders. See also Suspects
breaking bond with witnesses, 336–337
classification of, 185–189themes for juvenile, 250–255
Offensive strategies, 276Ofshe, Richard
court decisions, 370interrogation research, 363
Omissionsasking follow-up questions,
98–99evaluating verbal behavior,
111–112qualifiers, 115
One-on-one interviews, 43–45One-way mirrors, 47Open posture, 122–123Open questions
clarifying open account, 92–93eliciting full response, 88
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462 n Index
Open questions (contd.)evaluating response, 88–91forming initial, 86–87phrasing, 87–88
Opinion of guilt or innocence, 73, 185
Opportunity questionactual case presentation, 166defined, 158–159
Oral confessions, 303–310. See also Converting oral confession into written confession
Oregon v. Elstad, 408, 413–414Oregon v. Mathiason, 425, 431, 440Orozco v. Texas, 431O’Sullivan, M., 104Outlining interview questions,
76–77Overbearing subject’s free will,
343–344, 426Overcoming objections
defined, 188–189principles, 276procedures, 276–278recognizing objection, 278rewarding objection, 279turning objection around,
279–281Overtime interrogations, 330
PPacing, 66Paid informants, 15Paralinguistic behavior
causes of misinterpretation of behavior, 151–152
channels of communication, 105
in context of verbal message, 106–108
evaluating, 117–121in response to passive mood,
290–291Parents
interrogating juvenile offenders, 252–254
placing blame on, 250–251Passive mood
principles for handling, 287–288
procedures for handling, 288–293
Passive power crimes, 23Patience in interrogation, 329–333Patterson v. Illinois, 432
Pause, behavioral, 195–198PEACE (Planning and prepara-
tion, Engage and explain, Account, Clarification, Challenge, Closure, and Evaluation), 153–154
Pennsylvania v. Bruder, 431People v. Atencio, 423, 426People v. Benson, 374People v. Bernasco, 419People v. Bulger, 440People v. Cason, 377People v. Chutan, 428–430People v. Crews, 371People v. Deborah C., 436People v. Eckles, 439People v. Farnam, 429People v. Ferran, 434People v. Ferro, 431People v. Fuentes, 426People v. Garcia, 374, 423, 428People v. Gilliam, 437People v. Hammock, 412People v. Harris, 420People v. Havlin, 435People v. Hill, 438People v. Holloway, 374People v. Hubbard, 439People v. Jackson, 439People v. Johnson, 431People v. Klyaczek, 438People v. Lowe, 431People v. Manning, 436People v. Martinez, 371People v. Martorano, 439People v. Mays, 428People v. McGuire, 438People v. Moore, 421People v. Nelson, 372People v. Racklin, 436People v. Ramos, 439People v. Rivera, 433People v. Rosario, 370People v. Rubio, 428People v. Saiz, 437People v. Savage, 430–431People v. Smith, 429People v. Spencer, 439People v. Stadnick, 440People v. Vance, 423People v. Westmorland, 437People v. Williams, 434Perception of witness as adversary,
382–383Perkins, Lloyd, 402
Permission phrase, 260Persistence in interrogation,
329–333Persistent denials
responding to stronger from guilty, 271–273
of uncertain origin, 266–268Personal gestures, 130Personal history questions,
316–317Personality disorders, 146–149Personality traits
approaches for difficult sub-jects, 62–64
interrogator qualifications, 64–65
of investigators, 55–56recognizing good in suspect,
68–69Persuasion
evaluating coerced internalized confessions, 350–351
in interrogation, 5interrogator qualifications, 64in Nine Steps of Interrogation,
187permissible incentives for con-
fession, 346Photographs
safeguarding effectiveness of confession, 322
supplementing confession, 320–321
Phrasingalternative question, 298direct questions, 93–96open questions, 87–88
Physical abuse memories, 37–38Physical coercion, 347–348Physical evidence
as likely indicator of guilt, 13supplementing confession,
320–321using as visual aid, 285
Physical impairmentassessment of subject, 140–141principles for investigation,
32Physician’s estimated time of
death, 12Physiological response to decep-
tion, 106Planning and preparation, Engage
and explain, Account, Clarification, Challenge,
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Index n 463
Closure, and Evaluation (PEACE), 153–154
Playing co-offenders against each other, 246–250
Poe, D., 104Police interrogation, 366. See also
InterrogationPolice interview room privacy. See
Interview room privacyPolice interviews. See InterviewsPolice officer safety, 412–413Police-speak, 387–388Polygraphs
approaches to be avoided, 205behavior symptoms and, 102determining intent, 39–40development of BAI, 154Miranda rights, 401references to, 429–430responding to denials of
uncertain origin, 267Poor individuals, 61–62Positive confrontation. See Direct,
positive confrontationPositive supporting statements,
298–302Post-confession interviews,
323–324Posture of investigator
during interrogation, 65during interview, 58for procurement and retention
of suspect’s attention, 284
while testifying, 386Posture of suspect
evaluating nonverbal behavior, 122–128
identifying proper theme through analyzing, 208
shifting in chair, 134signs of resignation, 291–292withdrawal from interroga-
tion, 282–283Power-motivated crimes, 23Pratt v. State, 436Precautions in behavior symptom
analysis. See Behavior symptom analysis precau-tions
Precautions when dealing with juvenile offenders, 254–255
Prejudiced information, 13–14Premature Miranda warnings,
411
Preparationevaluating crime characteris-
tics, 26–27interrogation, 191–192interview. See Interview prepa-
rationtestimony, 380–382written confession, 312–321
Presenting alternative questionconclusion, 302–303defined, 189to elicit corroborated confes-
sion, 306–308presenting alternative ques-
tion, 298–302principles, 293–294selecting alternative question,
294–298Presentment requirement,
410–411Pretense for interrogation,
196–198Pride, 230–232Primary incentive for confession,
347Primary themes, 219Prime suspects, 74–75Principles
behavior symptom analysis, 104–108
converting oral confession into written confession, 310
of direct, positive confronta-tion, 192–193
handling denials, 255–257handling suspect’s passive
mood, 287–288having suspect orally relate
various details of offense, 303
investigation, 30–32overcoming objections, 276presenting alternative ques-
tion, 293–294procurement and retention
of suspect’s attention, 281–282
theme development, 202–203Privacy
informal interview, 74interview room. See Interview
room privacywitness, 335
Private security officers, 413
Probation officers, 413Procedures
direct, positive confrontation, 193–195
for emotional offenders, 203–209
handling denials, 257–258handling suspect’s passive
mood, 288–293interview, 57for non-emotional offenders,
239–240overcoming objections,
276–278procurement and retention
of suspect’s attention, 282–283
theme development. See Theme development
Procurement and retention of sus-pect’s attention
chair proximity, 283–284defined, 189eye contact, 284–285principles, 281–282procedures, 282–283rhetorical questions, 286–287use of visual aids in, 285–286
Promises of leniencydeception in false confessions,
352interrogation and confession
law, 421–425making no, 330–331overbearing subject’s free will,
343–344permissible incentives for con-
fession, 345–346in portrayal of interrogation,
368–369Promises of secrecy, 424–425Props, 192Prosecutor
implying conspiracy, 394–395meeting with, 382
Prospective informants, 333–337Protecting the innocent
circumstantial evidence, 40–41eyewitnesses and false accusa-
tions, 35–37footnotes, 42intent issues, 39–40repressed memories, 37–38witnesses, 336
Protective gestures, 132–134
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464 n Index
Psychiatric health. See also Mental illness
initial assessment of subject, 140–141
misinterpretation of behavior and, 145–146
Psychologyof condemning others, 220of confession, 295, 303of cooperative witness, 334of emotional offender,
203–209exaggerating intent, 237of friendly-unfriendly act, 272influence on confession trust-
worthiness, 352–354of juvenile offenders, 254–255of non-emotional offender,
239–240producing false confessions,
366–367of specific themes, 209–210of unintelligent uneducated
suspect, 332–333of withdrawing from interro-
gation, 282Psychopaths, 146–149Psychotherapy, 37–38Public Safety exception to
Miranda, 412–413Public welfare, 200–202Punishment question
actual case presentation, 165, 167
defined, 160–161Purpose questions
actual case presentation, 163, 165
defined, 155–156
QQualifications
interrogator, 64–65investigator, 56–57
Qualified responsesasking follow-up questions, 98evaluating verbal behavior,
114–116responding to denials from
guilty, 269–271Question-and-answer format of
confession, 312–313Questions
asking rhetorical, 286–287avoiding leading, 315–316
for establishing confession admissibility, 391–393
interrogation. See Interrogationinterview. See Interview ques-
tionspersonal history, 316–317presenting alternative. See
Presenting alternative question
witness’s behavioral responses to, 385–390
Quick v. State, 437
RR. v. Amos, 377, 422, 439R. v. Oickle, 326, 374, 377, 422–
423, 439Radelet, M., 340, 341Rape, 217. See also Sexual offensesRapport
establishing in interview, 77–78
interviewing nervous subjects, 62–63
Rational corroboration, 355–356Rationalizations, 202–203Reading confession, 317–318Realistic attitude
credibility question, 158in subject, 110
Recognitionobjection, 278signs of resignation, 291withdrawal from interroga-
tion, 282–283Recommendations for interroga-
tionpatience and persistence,
329–333for witnesses and prospective
informants, 333–337Recording interviews
converting oral confession into written confession, 325
purpose of, 50using devices during confes-
sion, 306Redd v. State, 424Rehearsed responses
avoiding in testimony, 387–389
evaluating verbal behavior, 116–117
memory evaluation, 180
Reid, JohnBAI, 154behavior symptom analysis,
102Nine Steps of Interrogation,
187The Reid Nine Steps of
Interrogationbrief analysis of, 189–190converting oral confession
into written confession. See Converting oral confession into written confession
footnotes, 325–327general classification of
offenders, 185–189handling denials. See Handling
denialshandling suspect’s passive
mood, 287–293having suspect orally relate
various details of offense, 303–310
overcoming objections. See Overcoming objections
preliminary preparations, 191–192
presenting alternative ques-tion. See Presenting alter-native question
procurement and retention of suspect’s attention, 281–287
step 1. See Direct, positive con-frontation
theme development. See Theme development
The Reid Technique of Interviewing and Interrogation. See also Interrogation; Interviews
vs. defense portrayal of inter-rogation, 368
defined, 50survey data on, 366
Re-interviewing suspects, 267–268Relationship marked by confor-
mity, 78Relaxed posture, 122–123Reluctant witnesses or infor-
mants, 335–337Repeated denials, 332Repeated Miranda warnings,
411–412
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Index n 465
Repetitive hand behavior, 130Reporting crime
to deflect guilt, 24–25glory grabbers, 25–26
Repressed memories, 37–38Request for attorney, 404–407Research, interrogation, 362–367Resentment, 143Resignation
in both truthful and deceptive subjects, 143
recognizing signs of, 291Respect for suspect, 67Response latency, 117–118Response to questions
analyzing subject, 167–169asking follow-up questions,
97–99behavior symptoms and, 102eliciting full, 88evaluating, 88–91evaluating paralinguistic
behavior, 117–121evaluating subject’s bait ques-
tion, 174–175evaluating verbal behavior,
111–117investigator testimony,
387–390response models for behavior-
provoking questions, 154–163
witness’s behavioral, 385–390Responsibility
blaming accomplice, 224–227blaming anyone upon whom
moral responsibility can be placed, 227–230
blaming victim, 220–224criminal, 205nonexistent confessions,
342–343social, 149
Results questionactual case presentation, 164,
166defined, 162
Retaining suspect’s attention. See Procurement and retention of suspect’s attention
Retaliation against witnesses, 336Reticence, 142Retracted confessions
accuracy of corroboration, 357–358
coerced internalized confes-sions, 340
importance of documentation, 310–311
witnessing, 308Retreated posture, 125, 126Reviewing testimony, 381–382Revis v. State, 426Rewarding objections, 279Rhetorical questions, 286–287Rhode Island v. Innis, 401, 430Right to attorney, 404–407Right to remain silent, 409Rights. See Miranda rightsRobberies
blaming fences, 228–229condemning accomplice,
225–226condemning victim, 222evaluating motives, 22–23suggesting morally acceptable
motivation, 215victim interviews, 11–12
Robinson v. Smith, 440Rogers v. Richmond, 417Role reversal, 290
SSawyer, Tom, 342Scene of the crime, 241–243Scott v. Epps, 433Scratching, 130–131Seating
arranging interview room, 47–48
distance from subject in inter-rogation, 65–66
distance from subject in inter-view, 58
for procurement and retention of suspect’s attention, 283–284
responding to attempts to leave interrogation room, 273
third parties in interview room, 52
Second chance questionactual case presentation, 165,
167defined, 161
Secrecy promises, 424–425Section 3501, 415–416Security codes, 24Security officers, 413
Selecting alternative question, 294–298
Self-esteem, 147Sequence of interrogation, 188Sexual offenses
asking assumptive questions, 175–177
blaming anyone upon whom moral responsibility can be placed, 228
blaming victim, 221–222common distorted motives,
216–217eyewitnesses and false accusa-
tions, 36–37interviewing child victims, 15introductory statement for
victims, 80–82minimizing offense’s moral
seriousness, 211–213power-motivated crimes, 23principles for investigation, 31repressed memories of, 37–38sympathizing with suspect,
211think question, 160using visual aid in, 285–286
Shackles, 67Shahzade v. Gregory, 42Shame
grooming gestures, 130–132minimizing offense’s moral
seriousness, 212misleading symptoms fol-
lowing confrontation, 199
psychopath victim’s feelings of, 147–148
theft cases, 214Sidestepping objections, 281Signing confessions, 314–315,
317–318Signing witness statements, 334Signs of resignation, 291Silence
behavioral pause, 195–196due to note-taking, 60forced, 88right to remain, 409
Sincerity, 109Sketches
by fact-giver, 14supplementing confession,
320–321Slouched posture, 126
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466 n Index
Smiling, 120Smith v. Duckworth, 420Smith v. Mullin, 438Smith v. State, 426, 439Smoking, 58Social responsibility, 149Social rules, 134–135Social space, 151Socioeconomic status
interrogating unintelligent uneducated suspect, 333
interviewing narcissistic sub-jects, 63–64
of subjects, 61–62Solving case. See Case solutionSpano v. New York, 417Specialized questioning techniques
assumptive questions, 176–178baiting, 171–176footnotes, 181memory evaluation, 179–181trapping subject in lie, 178–179
Specific denialsevaluating verbal behavior,
113–114in guilty, 265–266responding to, 271
Spontaneous attitude, 109Spontaneous responses
evaluating verbal behavior, 116–117
investigator testimony, 388–389Stansbury v. California, 432Staring, 135State v. Aguirre, 441State v. Alston, 433State v. Biron, 440State v. Branch, 431State v. Cayward, 325, 428State v. C.D., 437State v. Chirokovskcic, 441State v. Clark, 434State v. Dassey, 376State v. Edwards, 432State v. Evans, 425State v. Featherhat, 439State v. F.G.H., 437State v. Finehout, 431, 439State v. Griffin, 420State v. Grisby, 431State v. Guzman-Gomez, 431State v. Hunt, 437State v. Johnson, 441State v. Kelekolio, 427State v. Kenney, 420
State v. Ladd, 431State v. Lamonica, 370State v. Linn., 438State v. McLean, 431State v. Mitchell, 433State v. Moses, 420State v. Moulds, 433State v. Murphy, 433–434State v. Nunn, 438State v. Parker, 374, 423State v. Patton, 441State v. Perez, 373State v. Pies, 426State v. Quick, 431State v. Roadenbaugh, 436State v. Shifflett, 434State v. Stoddard, 433State v. Tapke, 376State v. Tardiff, 439State v. Weinacht, 434State v. Wooden, 371Statement of reinforcement,
303–304Statements against self-interest,
116Static posture, 125Statistics
false confession, 340, 341interrogation research,
362–367memory of crime, 359theft cases, 213–214
Stenographerspreserving notes, 321recording confession, 313–314
Stepping down, 268Steps of Interrogation. See
The Reid Nine Steps of Interrogation
“Stop” hand gesture, 260“Stop-and-start” behavior, 120Stroble v. California, 416Strong denials, 257–258Studies of interrogation, 362–366Subject data sheet, 140–141Subject responses. See Response to
questionsSubjects. See SuspectsSupporting gestures, 132–134Supporting statements, 298–302Suppression of confession, 391–
393. See also Interrogation and confession law
Supreme Court. See U.S. Supreme Court
Surveysdefined, 362interrogation research,
365–366Suspects
analyzing responses, 167–169approaches for difficult, 62–64behavior. See Behaviorcustodial. See Custodial suspectsestablishing rapport, 77–78evaluating crime characteris-
tics, 24–30evaluating motives, 22–23getting information about, 16interrogation. See Interrogationinterview procedure, 11interviews vs. interrogations,
3–7introductory statement for,
79–80need for privacy, 43–45noncustodial. See Noncustodial
suspectsprinciples for investigation,
30–32recognizing good in, 68–69socioeconomic status, 61–62
Suspicioneliminating suspect from, 168as investigator attribute, 56
Suspicion questionactual case presentation, 164,
166defined, 157–158
Sweet v. State, 438Sympathizing with suspect
in alternative questions, 297–298
by condemning accomplice, 224–230
by condemning victim, 220–224
in friendly-unfriendly act, 271–273
during interrogation, 67in response to passive mood,
289by saying anyone else would
do same thing, 210–211Systemic inducements, 368–369
TTagging direct question, 95Tasmanian Police Department,
50–51
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Index n 467
Tatum v. State, 439Telling loved ones
about interview, 162–163actual case presentation, 165,
167evaluating voluntary confes-
sions, 349Telling the truth. See Truth tellingTells, 130Terminology
avoiding emotionally charged, 304
minimizing offense’s moral seriousness, 212
in taking confessions, 315using incriminating words, 305
Testifying on confessionconclusion, 397–398court’s view of witness, 382–385cross-examination, 393–397direct testimony, 390–393overview, 379–380preparation, 380–382witness’s behavioral responses
to questions, 385–390Testimony of expert witnesses,
367–369Testing behavior, 148Theft cases
admissions of lying in, 241blaming anyone upon whom
moral responsibility can be placed, 228
common distorted motives, 216–217
condemning victim, 222–223evaluating motives, 22–23exaggerating crime details,
235–237minimizing moral seriousness,
213–214possibility of insurance fraud,
26–27principles for investigation, 31
Theme developmentin alternative questions,
296–297appeal to suspect’s pride with
flattery, 230–232conclusion, 302–303content of statements and, 288defined, 188discuss benefits of truth
telling, 243handling denials during, 258
have suspect place himself at scene of crime, 241–243
playing one co-offender against the other, 246–250
point out futility of resistance to truth telling, 243–245
point out grave consequences and futility of criminal behavior, 238–239
point out possibility of exaggeration on part of accuser or victim, 232–237
principles, 202–203procedures for emotional
offenders, 203–209procedures for non-emotional
offenders, 239–240reducing suspect’s guilt by min-
imizing offense’s moral seriousness, 211–214
seek admission of lying, 240–241
specific themes, 209–210suggesting more morally
acceptable motivation, 214–219
sympathizing with suspect by condemning accomplice, 224–230
sympathizing with suspect by condemning victim, 220–224
sympathizing with suspect saying anyone else would do same thing, 210–211
themes for juvenile offenders, 250–255
turning objection around, 279–281
Think questionactual case presentation, 164,
166defined, 159–160
Third parties in interview room, 51–53
Third-person responses, 161–162Third-person themes, 208–209Thoughts
asking rhetorical questions, 286–287
clarifying open account, 92indications of truthfulness/
deception, 90–91think question, 159–160
Threatsin alternative questions,
295deception in false confessions,
352duress, 348interrogation and confession
law, 425–426overbearing subject’s free will,
343–344permissible incentives for con-
fession, 345–346Threshold questions, 400Throat clearing, 120–121Time
evaluating nonverbal behavior, 136
eyewitness identifications and, 36
how long did crime take to commit?, 24
indications of truthfulness/deception, 90–91
for interrogation, 310Time of death estimation, 12Tompson v. Wainwright, 433Tone
discouraging weak denials from being voiced, 260
evaluating paralinguistic behavior, 119
interrogating unintelligent suspect, 333
investigator, 58–59in response to passive mood,
290Totality of circumstances
deception and, 426–427defined, 361interrogation law, 417–418use in juvenile cases, 418–419
Training in behavior symptom analysis, 151–152
Transition statementsdefined, 188overview and examples,
196–198Trapping subject in lie, 178–179Troubled conscience, 185–186True confessions. See Confessions,
distinguishing between true and false
Trustworthinessconfession voluntariness,
416–417
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