--The Reid Technique of interviewing and …See Interrogation and confession law need for privacy,...

451

INDEX

AAbbreviations for behavior

symptoms, 60Absolute declarations, 281Abuse, 37–38Access

opportunity question, 158–159

people with unusual, 27–28Accidents

intent issues, 39–40representing crimes as, 219

Accomplicescomplicity in crime, 26–27determining identity with

assumptive question, 177

playing one co-offender against the other, 246–250

pointing out futility of lying, 245

sympathizing with suspect by condemning, 224–230

Accuracy of corroboration, 356–360

Accusations of guiltanonymous reports, 15direct, positive confrontation,

192–193false, 35–37in interrogation, 5justification for, 200–202misleading symptoms

following, 198–200stepping down, 268

Active persuasion, 5Adaptor behavior

defined, 128hand gestures, 130–134

Addiction, 215Addressing subjects

by first name, 193investigator demeanor, 61–62

Admissibility of confession. See also Interrogation and confession law

historical context for voluntariness, 415–421

questions for establishing, 391–393

Admissionsevaluating truthfulness, 237presenting alternative

question, 293–294seeking admission of lying,

240–241turning into confessions,

303–304Adolescent offenders, 254–255Adversarial court system,

382–383, 397Aggressive power crimes, 23Alcohol use

in coerced internalized confes-sions, 342

as guilt-diminishing factor, 214–215

Alibischecking, 18eliciting with open question,

86–87evaluating memory, 179–181investigative questions, 156using bait questions to

evaluate, 175–176Alter-ego defense, 251–252Alternative question, presenting.

See Presenting alternative question

Amnesia, 359Analyzing behavior. See Behavior

symptom analysisAnecdotal reports, 362–363Angry subjects

approach for interviewing, 63both truthful and deceptive,

143Anonymous reports, 15Anticipating denials, 258–260Antisocial personalities, 146–149Anxious behavior

analyzing, 109evaluating nonverbal behavior,

121–122evaluating verbal behavior,

111–112on the stand, 384

Apologetic denials, 269–271Appearance on the stand, 383–384Approval, 230Argument against objections, 279Argument against self-interest,

244Arizona v. Fulminante, 417, 437Armed officers, 68Arson

blaming anyone upon whom moral responsibility can be placed, 227–228

blaming insurance companies, 229

common distorted motives, 216

principles for investigation, 31suggesting more morally

acceptable motivation, 214

Ashcraft v. Tennessee, 416, 436Asking questions. See QuestionsAssaults

condemning victim, 222sexual. See Sexual offensesvictim interviews, 11–12

Assumptionsin alternative questions, 296assumptive questions,

176–178deceptive responses which rely

on, 91of guilt/innocence in interview

procedure, 57of offender non-emotionality,

186Attention, procuring and

retaining suspect’s. See Procurement and retention of suspect’s attention

Attitudeasking bait question, 172in emotional vs. non-

emotional offenders, 185–186

evaluating subject’s, 108–111during interrogation, 192of investigator as witness,

384–385

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452 n Index

Attitude (contd.)investigator conduct during

interrogation, 65–69investigator demeanor during

interview, 57–62investigator during theme

development, 206–207investigator personality,

55–56patience and persistence,

329–333Attitude question

actual case presentation, 164, 166

defined, 159Attorney, right to, 404–407Attributes of investigator, 55–56Audio monitoring of interviews,

47–51Auto theft, 216

BBackground information

in BAI, 155establishing rapport, 78specifically valuable for inves-

tigators, 15–18subject data sheet, 140–141

BAI (behavior analysis interview)actual case presentation,

163–167analyzing subject responses,

167–169bait question, 171–176footnotes, 169introduction, 153overview, 153–154response models for behavior-

provoking questions, 154–163

Baitingin cross-examination, 396to establish suspect’s presence

at crime scene, 242–243specialized questioning

techniques, 171–176Bargaining statements, 274–275Beckwith v. United States, 374, 432Bedau, A., 340, 341Behavior

abbreviations for symptoms, 60

behavioral pause, 195–198intent issues, 39monitoring interviews, 48–50

response to introductory statements, 79

suspect’s interview, 4–5victim truthfulness, 28–29

Behavior analysis interview (BAI). See BAI (behavior analysis interview)

Behavior symptom analysisevaluating nonverbal behavior.

See Nonverbal behaviorevaluating paralinguistic

behavior, 117–121evaluating subject’s attitudes,


111–117footnotes, 136–137identifying proper theme

through, 207–208of juvenile offenders, 250misleading symptoms

following confrontation, 198–200

overview, 101–104underlying principles, 104–108using responses in interroga-

tion, 188witness’s responses to

questions, 385–390Behavior symptom analysis

precautionsbehaviors common to both

truthful and deceptive subjects, 142–143

conclusion, 152factors leading to misinterpre-

tation, 144–152initial assessment of subject,

139–141overview, 139

Behavior-provoking questionsdefined, 154–155response models for, 154–163

Berghuis v. Thompkins, 409, 434, 435

Berkemer v. McCarty, 433, 435Biased information, 13–14Biological needs, 347–348Blakeney v. State, 433Blame

accomplice, 224–227themes for juvenile offenders,

250–251victim, 220–224

Bliss v. United States, 434

Bluffing, 246–250Bolstering phrases

defined, 116in denial from guilty, 265

Booking questions, 400Boredom, 250Boyer v. State, 377Break in custody, 404Breath odor, 65–66Brewer v. Williams, 400–401, 440Bribery, 216Broad denials

evaluating verbal behavior, 113–114

investigator testimony, 388–389

Burglaries. See also Robberiescommon distorted motives,

216evaluating crime characteris-

tics, 26–27

CCalifornia v. Beheler, 432California v. Prysock, 430Canadian Supreme Court,

422–423Carr v. State, 433Case facts

conclusion, 18fact analysis, 9–14footnotes, 19specific information for inves-

tigators, 15–18Case solution

conclusion, 32–33evaluating crime characteris-

tics, 24–30evaluating motives, 22–23footnotes, 33general suggestions, 30–32overview, 21–22

Chair proximity. See also Seatingarranging interview room,

47–48for getting suspect’s attention,

283–284Challenging questions, 96Channels of communication,

105–106Character

degrading victim’s, 222determining suspect, 196–198recognizing good in suspect,

68–69






















Index n 453

Charlton, Donald, 402Chavez v. Martinez, 402–403, 432Chicago Police Scientific Crime

Detection Laboratory, 102Child abuse


repressed memories of, 37–38Child subjects

behavior analysis in, 149–150interrogation law, 418–421precautions when dealing

with, 254–255Child victims

blaming, 221eyewitness identifications and

false accusations, 36–37interviewing, 15introductory statement for,

81–82Chronology of account, 91Circumstantial evidence

evaluating crime characteris-tics, 29

as likely indicator of guilt, 13protecting the innocent, 40–41

Clarificationasking follow-up questions,

97–99open account, 92–93of request for counsel,

405–406Classification of offenders,

185–189Closed posture, 125Closed questions, 86Clothing

investigator, 57–58on the stand, 383–384

Coerced compliant confessions, 340

Coerced internalized confessionsdefined, 341–342trustworthiness, 350–351

Coercionconfession voluntariness,

416–417defined, 343–344duress, 347–348interrogation law, 425–426statistics, 366

Cognitive interviewingdefined, 153reverse recall, 181

Collins v. Gaetz, 438

Colorado v. Spring, 427, 434Commonwealth v. DiGiambattista,

427Commonwealth v. Edwards, 440Commonwealth v. Fournier, 440Commonwealth v. Martinez, 435Commonwealth v. Novo, 440Commonwealth v. Robinson, 371Commonwealth v. Williams, 437, 439Communication

interrogator qualifications, 65nonverbal, 122–123three levels of, 105through behavior, 101

Compassion for suspect, 67Competency issue, 418–421Complicity, 26–27Complimenting suspect, 230–232Compound questions, 95Concealing interview, 162–163Concerned attitude, 110Condemning accomplice, 224–227Condemning victim, 220–224Conduct during interrogation

investigator, 65–69professional, 192

Confessionsassumptive questions and, 178avoiding impression of

seeking, 67common distorted motives,

216–217converting oral into written.

See Converting oral confession into written confession

eliciting corroborated, 306–308

having suspect orally relate various details of offense, 303–310

intent issues, 39–40interrogator qualifications,

64–65law. See Interrogation and

confession lawneed for privacy, 43–45playing co-offenders against

each other, 246–250purpose of interrogation, 5–6recording, 50–51solving cases through, 32–33testifying on. See Testifying on

confessionin voluntary interviews, 76

Confessions, distinguishing between true and false

categories of false, 340–343corroboration, 354–362false confessions in court-

room, 367–372footnotes, 373–377interrogation research,

362–367overview, 339–340trustworthiness, 348–354voluntariness, 343–348

Confidenceassessing with results

question, 162investigator, 192, 206

Confrontation. See Direct, positive confrontation

Confrontation statement, 193–195

Connelly vs. U.S, 373Conscience

in emotional vs. non- emotional offenders, 185–186

voluntary false confessions and, 340–341

Consent for interrogation, 409–410

Consequencesin alternative questions, 295asking rhetorical questions,

287minimizing reminders in

interview room, 45–46overbearing subject’s free will,

343–344pointing out grave, 238–239punishment question,

160–161responding to requests about,

274–275Consistency

between channels of commu-nication, 106

evaluating nonverbal behavior, 136

Conspiracy by prosecutor, 394–395Constitutional rights. See Miranda

rightsContent of statements, 288–290Controlled environment, 5Converting oral confession into

written confessiondefined, 189






















454 n Index

Converting oral confession into written confession (contd.)

electronically recorded inter-views, 325

importance of documentation, 310–311

post-confession interviews, 323–324

preparation and form of written confession, 312–321

principles, 310safeguarding effectiveness of

confession, 321–323warning of constitutional

rights, 311–312Convictions, 67Co-offenders. See AccomplicesCooper v. Dupnik, 69, 405Cooperative attitude, 110–111Cooperative witnesses or infor-

mants, 334–335Corley v. United States, 411, 416Cornelison v. Motley, 433Correction of errors in confes-

sion, 317Corroboration

distinguishing between true and false confessions, 354–362

eliciting corroborated confes-sion, 306–308

evaluating voluntary confes-sions, 349–350

intent issues and, 40County of Riverside v. McLaughlin,

435Courage to Heal (Bass and Davis),

37Courtroom

decisions on expert witness testimony, 370–372

false confessions in, 367–372testifying on confession. See

Testifying on confessionview of witness, 382–385

Credibility of investigator as witness, 382–383

Credibility questionactual case presentation, 164,

166defined, 158

Crimesarson. See Arson

confining confession to single, 320

evaluating characteristics, 22–23

homicide. See Homicidepointing out futility of,

238–239sexual offenses. See Sexual

offensestheft. See Theft cases

Criminal intent, 217–218Criminal Investigation (Gross), 295Criminal responsibility, 205Crossed arms, 125, 126Cross-examination, 393–397Crying, 292–293Culombe v. Connecticut, 417Culture

eye contact and, 135misinterpretation of behavior,

150–151suspect language and, 333

Custodial suspectsinterview preparation, 74legally defined, 402–404preparing for interrogation,

191rights of. See Miranda rights

DDark glasses, 135–136Dassey, Brendan, 367Data sheet, 140–141Davis v. United States, 405Deception

behavior symptom analysis. See Behavior symptom analysis

false confessions and, 351–352independent detection, 79interrogation and confession

law, 426–429during interview, 4–5silence during interview, 60

Deceptive responsesevaluating open question,


112handling evasive, 97–98to open question, 86–87responding to, 274–276

Deceptive subjectsanger in, 63

behaviors common to both truthful subjects and, 142–143

catching in lie, 62response models for behavior-


Definitive responses, 114Degnan, Suzanne, 40–41, 43Delap v. State, 434Delay in presentment of arrestee

before judicial officer, 410–411

Delayed responsesevaluating paralinguistic

behavior, 117–118investigator testimony, 387

Delivery, 119Delusions, 145–146Demeanor

during interrogation, 192during interview, 57–62of investigator as witness,

383–384investigator in response to

passive mood, 290–291Denials

bait technique, 172evaluating verbal behavior,

113–114handling. See Handling denialsof incidentals, 360vs. objections, 276–277persistence in face of,

331–332Dependent corroboration,

354–355Depression, 145Derogatory labels, 62Despair, 143Details

absence of corroborating, 358in alternative questions, 297avoiding specificity in testi-

mony, 389of confession, 314having suspect orally relate

various details of offense, 303–310

indications of deception, 89–90

indications of truthfulness, 89–91

memory evaluation, 179–181






















Index n 455

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), 38

Dialoguecross-examination, 393–397elements in Step 3, 262elements in Step 4, 280

Dickerson v. United States, 416, 436Direct, positive confrontation

behavioral pause, 195–198defined, 188handling denials following,

257–258justification for, 200–202misleading behavior symp-

toms following, 198–200principles, 192–193procedures, 193–195

Direct questionsformulating, 93–96history/you question, 156–157

Direct testimony, 390–393Discrepancies in accounts

in cross-examination, 397memory evaluation, 180–181

Distinguishing between true and false confessions. See Confessions, distinguishing between true and false

Distorted motives in confessions, 216–217

Distractions in interview room, 47Documentation

converting oral confession into written confession, 310–311

interview sheet outline, 76–77note-taking, 60testimony preparation,

380–381Doyle v. Ohio, 435Dress

in interviews, 57–58on the stand, 383–384

Drug usecompetency issue, 421evaluating crime characteris-

tics, 24as guilt-diminishing factor, 215initial assessment of subject,

140misinterpretation of behavior

and, 144–145DSM-IV (Diagnostic and Statistical

Manual of Mental Disorders), 38

Duckworth v. Eagan, 408, 430Dunaway v. New York, 409–410Dunson v. State, 439Duress, 347–348Dynamic posture, 122

EEarly responses, 118Edwards v. Arizona, 404, 432Edwards v. State, 439Ekman, P., 104Electronic monitoring of inter-

viewsmaintaining privacy while,

47–51recording confessions, 325

Eliminating suspect from suspi-cion, 168

Embarrassment. See ShameEmbezzlement cases

blaming government, 230exaggerating crime details,

235–237responding to denials in, 266statistics, 213–214suggesting morally acceptable

motivation, 215–216using visual aid in, 285

Emotional impairment, 32Emotional involvement

interrogator qualifications, 64of investigator, 13–14

Emotional objections, 278Emotional offenders

defined, 185–186procedures for, 203–209

Emotionsabsence from confession,

358–360associated with deception,

106avoiding charged terminology,

304clarifying open account, 92common to both truthful

and deceptive subjects, 142–143

evaluating facial expressions, 134–135

illustrating behavior, 128indications of truthfulness/

deception, 90–91misinterpretation of behavior,

150

Employee theftevaluating crime characteris-

tics, 27–28principles for investigation, 31statistics, 213–214

Environmentblaming, 230, 251formal vs. informal interviews,

73–74for interrogation, 5for interview, 4interview room privacy. See

Interview room privacyErasure behavior, 120–121Escort, 58Estimated time of death, 12Estimation phrases, 115–116Evaluating behavior. See Behavior

symptom analysisEvaluating denials. See Handling

denialsEvasive responses

asking follow-up questions, 97–98

avoiding in testimony, 390evaluating verbal behavior, 112

Evidenceapproaches to be avoided,

205–206asking bait question, 174case folder, 191–192circumstantial. See

Circumstantial evidencedeception, 428eliciting corroborated confes-

sion, 306–308evaluating voluntary confes-

sions, 349–350in interviews vs. interroga-

tions, 6as likely indicator of guilt, 13misinterpretation of behavior

and, 144procuring after confession,

322–323responding to requests for,

274revealing to suspect, 244supplementing confession,

320–321use in handling denials from

guilty, 269–271using as visual aid, 285using fictitious, 352






















456 n Index

Exaggerated victim claimsevaluating crime characteris-

tics, 28pointing out possibility as

interrogation technique, 232–237

Exceptions to Miranda, 412–413Excuses

approaches to be avoided, 205–207

overcoming objections. See Overcoming objections

procedures for emotional offenders, 203–204

specific themes, 209–210Experience in assessing behavior

symptoms, 103Expert witnesses, 367–369Explanation for events, 92Extrinsic deception, 427–428Eye contact

in behavioral pause, 196cultural differences in, 151evaluating behavior, 134–136identifying proper theme

through analyzing, 208indications of upcoming

denial, 259investigator demeanor, 59procurement and retention

of suspect’s attention, 284–285

in response to passive mood, 291

withdrawal from interroga-tion, 282

Eyewitness identifications, 35–37

FFace-saving motives

presenting alternative ques-tion, 294

theme development, 214–219Facial expressions

evaluating nonverbal behavior, 134–136

signs of resignation, 292–293Fact analysis

accuracy of corroboration, 356–360

antisocial personalities and, 149

defined, 9interrogating non-emotional

offenders, 186

Fact-giversdefined, 9interviewing, 13–14

Factual objections, 278False accusations

of investigator misconduct, 48protecting the innocent, 35–37themes which utilize, 233–234

False confessionscategories of, 340–343in courtroom, 367–372cross-examination, 394distinguishing between true

and. See Confessions, dis-tinguishing between true and false

explanation for, 357–358statistics, 362–367

Family life, 250–251Fantasies, 159–160Fare v. Michael C., 418Faulty memory syndrome, 341,

350–351Fears

addressing in introductory statement, 80–82

in both truthful and deceptive subjects, 142

Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure 5(a), 410–411

Feelings. See EmotionsFeet


while testifying, 386Female stenographer, 313–314Fences, 228–229Fictitious evidence, 352Fight response, 121–122Fikes v. Alabama, 417First-person response, 161Fisher, R., 153Flamer v. Delaware, 436Flattery, 230–232Flight response, 121–122Florida v. Powell, 400, 430Focus test, 402Follow-up call for interrogation,

168Follow-up questions


formulating, 97–99Foot bouncing, 134Form of confessions, 312

Form of waiver, 408Form of written confession,

312–321Formal interviews

arranging, 74–76vs. informal interviews, 73–74note-taking, 4–5

Formulating interview questions. See Interview questions

Forward-leaning posture, 125, 127

Framed defendants, 394–395Fraud, 15, 26–27Frazier v. Cupp, 374, 440Frazier v. State, 438Free will, 343–344, 348Freeman v. State, 439Freeze response, 121–122Frequency of criminal behavior,

198Friendly-unfriendly act, 271–273Frontally aligned posture, 122,

124Frozen posture, 125Frumkin, Bruce, 372Fulero, Solomon, 371Functional equivalent test,

400–402, 405

GGallegos v. Colorado, 419–420Gallegos v. Nebraska, 416Gaze, 134–135Geiselman, Edward, 153Gender

crying and resignation, 293theft cases, 214

Generalization statement, 114Genetically inherited behavior

defined, 121grooming gestures, 130

Gestures. See Nonverbal behaviorGlory grabbers, 25–26Greed-motivated thefts, 22–23Grooming gestures, 130–132Gross, Hans, 295GSS (Gudjonsson Suggestibility

Scale), 372Guarded attitude, 109Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scale

(GSS), 372Guidelines for evaluating claims

of duress, 347–348Guidelines for evaluating suspect

behavior, 136






















Index n 457

Guidelines for evaluating volun-tary confessions, 349–350

Guidelines for using fictitious evidence, 352

Guiltaccusation in interrogation, 5assumptions in interview

procedure, 57assumptive questions and, 178certainty in interrogation, 5–6checking alibi, 18circumstantial and physical

evidence, 13defined, 73, 185developing general acknowl-

edgement of, 304–306handling denials. See Handling

denialsindicating certainty of,

192–193intent issues, 39–40investigator objectivity, 79–80memory evaluation, 179–181nonaccusatory nature of inter-

view, 3–4reducing by minimizing moral

seriousness of offense, 211–214

reporting crime to deflect, 24–25

Guilty partybehavior symptoms. See

Behavior symptom analysis

evaluating denials from, 264–266

influence of psychology on confession trustworthi-ness, 352–354

interview procedure, 11responding to stronger,

persistent denials from, 271–273

responding to weak, qualified or apologetic denials from, 269–271

Guns, 68

HHabitual criminal behavior, 147Haley v. Ohio, 416, 436Hallucinations, 145Hand gestures

discouraging weak denials from being voiced, 260


indications of upcoming denial, 259

shrug, 128–129while testifying, 386

Handcuffs, 67Handling denials

anticipating, 258–260attempt to leave interrogation

room, 273defined, 188discouraging from being

voiced, 260–263from guilty, 264–266from innocent, 264persistent denials of uncertain

origin, 266–268principles, 255–257from probably innocent

subject, 268–269procedures, 257–258specific, 271statements made by the decep-

tive, 274–276stronger, persistent denials

from guilty, 271–273that are voiced, 263–264weak, qualified or apologetic

denials from guilty, 269–271

Handling suspect’s passive mood

defined, 189principles, 287–288procedures, 288–293

Harris v. South Carolina, 436Harryman v. Estelle, 431Having suspect orally relate

various details of offensedefined, 189developing general acknowl-

edgement of guilt, 304–306

eliciting corroborated confes-sion, 306–308

having oral confession witnessed, 308–310

principles, 303statement of reinforcement,

303–304Health of subject, 140–141Heirens, William, 41, 43–44Helpfulness

attitude, 109–110

avoiding interrogations which center on, 331

vouch question, 158Henderson v. DeTella, 438High socioeconomic status, 61–64High-end inducements, 368–369Hillard v. State, 439Hinckley, John, 411Historical context for confession

voluntariness, 415–421History/you question


defined, 156–157Hit-and-run cases, 210–211, 216Homicide


motives, 22principles for investigation, 31using visual aid in, 285–286

Homosexualsinvestigator address to, 62minimizing offense’s moral

seriousness, 212Human behavior. See Normal

human behaviorHypothetical questions

in cross-examination, 395–396in interviews, 98

IIdentifications

assumptive question, 177fallibility of eyewitness, 35–37investigator, 58investigator to child victim, 81

Illinois v. Perkins, 402Illustrating behavior, 128–130Impatience, 329–330Impersonation, 148Impertinence, 142Implied action phrases, 91Implied messages, 344–347Impressionistic data, 365–366Impulsive criminal behavior, 147,

149“In custody”, 402–404. See also

Custodial suspectsIncentives for confession

cross-examination, 393–394duress, 347–348permissible, 344–347

Incriminating evidence, 6. See also Evidence






















458 n Index

Indecent exposure, 217Independent corroboration, 355Informal interviews, 73–74Informant interrogation, 333–337Information gathering

fact analysis, 9–14formulating questions. See

Interview questionsimportance of, 6in interview, 4–5specific information for inves-

tigators, 15–18Inherited behavior, 121Initial assessment of subject,

139–141Innocence

assumptions in interview procedure, 57

checking alibi, 18defined, 73discouraging weak denials

from being voiced, 263false confessions. See False

confessionssuspect attitude and, 32

Innocentbehavior symptoms. See

Behavior symptom analysis

evaluating denials from, 264introductory statement for

suspect, 79justification for accusatory

confrontation, 200–202protecting. See Protecting the

innocentresponding to denials from

probably, 268–269Inside knowledge, 26–27Insincerity, 109Insurance fraud


evaluating crime characteris-tics, 26–27

Intelligencecompetency issue, 420–421initial assessment of subject,

140interrogating unintelligent

suspect, 332–333misinterpretation of behavior,

149

Intentdistorted motives and, 217–218exaggerating, 237protecting the innocent, 39–40

Internal thefts, 27–28Interpreters, 52–53Interrogation

confessions and, 339–340deception in, 351–352delaying on basis of BAI, 168getting background informa-

tion before, 17–18going ahead with on basis of

BAI, 169vs. interview, 3–7legally defined, 400–402principles for investigation,

31–32privacy. See Interview room

privacyThe Reid Nine Steps of

Interrogation. See The Reid Nine Steps of Interrogation

research, 362–367responding to subject’s

attempt to leave, 273Interrogation and confession law

confession voluntariness, 415–421

consent for interrogation, 409–410

deception, 426–429footnotes, 430–441interrogation defined,

400–402introduction, 399meaning of custody, 402–404Miranda rights, 400other Miranda considerations,

410–415promises of leniency, 421–425references to polygraph,

429–430right to attorney, 404–407right to remain silent, 409summary, 430threats, 425–426waiver of rights, 407–408

Interrogator recommendationspatience and persistence,

329–333qualifications, 64–65

for witnesses and prospective informants, 333–337

Interruptiongestures, 258–259response to questions, 88

Interview preparationarranging formal, 74–76conclusion, 82–83establishing rapport, 77–78footnotes, 83formal vs. informal interviews,

73–74introductory statements,

78–82overview, 76–77preparing room for interroga-

tion, 191Interview questions

clarifying open account, 92–93conclusion, 99direct questions, 93–96eliciting open question

response, 88evaluating open question

response, 88–91follow-up questions, 97–99footnotes, 99–100initial open question, 86–87investigator qualifications

and, 56–57outlining, 76–77overview, 85–86phrasing open question, 87–88for post-confession, 324response models for behavior-

provoking, 154–163specialized techniques. See

Specialized questioning techniques

Interview room privacyfootnotes, 53–54minimizing reminders of con-

sequences, 45–46overview, 43–45suggestions for setting up,

46–53Interview sheet outline, 76–77Interviews

approaches for difficult sub-jects, 62–64

behavior analysis. See BAI (behavior analysis interview)






















Index n 459

electronically recorded, 325gathering information prior

to, 10–11vs. interrogations, 3–7investigator demeanor during,

57–62investigator procedures, 57post-confession, 323–324procedure, 11solving cases through, 32–33victim, 11–12

Intimation tactic, 246–250Intoxication

in coerced internalized confes-sions, 342

evaluating crime characteris-tics, 24

as guilt-diminishing factor, 214–215

Intrinsic deception, 427–428Introductory statements, 78–82Investigations

confessions are not the end of, 322–323

interviews vs. interrogations, 3–7

Investigative questionsin BAI, 154examples of, 156

Investigatorsconclusion, 69conduct during interrogation,

65–69deception by, 426–429demeanor during interview,

57–62footnotes, 69interrogator qualifications,

64–65interview approaches for dif-

ficult subjects, 62–64interview procedures, 57overview, 55–56qualifications, 56–57specific information for, 15–18testimony. See Testifying on

confessionIrrelevant information, 30

JJ.D.B. v. North Carolina, 418, 437Jenkins v. Anderson, 435Jones, Keith, 163–167

Judgeaddressing, 385presentment requirement,

410–411Jury

effect of confessions on, 339need for expert witnesses, 372view of investigator witnesses,

382–385Justifications

blaming victim, 220–224for direct, positive confronta-

tion, 200–202theme development, 202–203

Juvenile offendersinterrogation law, 418–421pointing out consequences

and futility of criminal behavior, 238–239

themes for, 250–255

KKassin, S., 364–365Kassin, Saul, 372Kennedy v. Fairman, 434Kier v. State, 438Knowledge question

actual case presentation, 164defined, 157

Kohnken, G., 104Kraut, R.E., 104

LLaboratory studies

defined, 362interrogation research,

363–365Lamb v. State, 436Language

alternative question, 298asking direct questions, 93–96confessor, 316evaluating verbal behavior,

111–117investigator demeanor, 60–61investigator testimony,

387–388phrasing open questions,

87–88in taking confessions, 315

Larceny statistics, 213–214Laughing, 120–121

Law. See Interrogation and confes-sion law

Lawyer, right to, 404–407Leading questions

defined, 299–302in taking confessions, 315–316in witness interrogation, 335

Leads from seemingly irrelevant information, 30

Learned behaviorcultural differences in,

150–151defined, 121

Leaving interrogation room, 273Leg movements, 134Legal rules. See also Interrogation

and confession lawaround promises of leniency,

330–331investigator traits, 56justification for accusatory

confrontation, 200–202permissible incentives for

confession, 344–347in selecting alternative ques-

tions, 295–296Length of interrogation, 347–348Length of response, 118–119Leniency

in alternative questions, 296implying, 213interrogation and confession

law, 421–425making no promises, 330–331overbearing subject’s free will,

343–344pointing out benefits of truth

telling, 243responding to requests about,

274–275Leo, Richard

court decisions, 370–371on false confessions, 367interrogation research, 366

Lewis v. State, 437Liability issues, 140Lighting interview room, 47Listing, 117, 388Loan sharks, 229Locations for interview, 53Locks on interview room, 46–47Logical appeal, 245Low socioeconomic status, 61–62






















460 n Index

Low-end inducements, 368–369Lying

about crime details, 219about evidence, 270–271behavior symptom analysis.

See Behavior symptom analysis

catching suspect, 62in confession, 319in corroborated confession,

356–359evaluating response to open

questions, 88–91independent detection, 79psychopath’s motives for,

147seeking admission of, 240–241trapping subject, 178–179victims, 28–29by young children, 149–150

MMaking mountain out of a mole-

hill, 397Mallory v. United States, 411, 435Manipulative crying, 293Markley v. State, 440Maryland v. Shatzer, 404, 432–433Massey v. Indiana, 437Mata v. Martel, 428Maturity, 149Mayberry v. State, 431McNabb v. United States, 410, 435McNabb-Mallory Rule, 411, 415McNall, K., 364–365McNeil v. Wisconsin, 406, 414–415,

436Medical information

initial assessment of subject, 140–141

safeguarding effectiveness of confession, 322

Medications, 144–145Memory

absence of emotional details from confession, 358–360

avoiding themes around, 275–276

coerced internalized confes-sions, 341–342

evaluating coerced internalized confessions, 350–351

evaluation, 179–181Memory distrust syndrome, 341

Memory qualifiersavoiding in testimony,

389–390in direct questions, 95–96evaluating verbal behavior,

114–115Mental illness

influence on confession trust-worthiness, 353

misinterpretation of behavior and, 145–146

repressed memories and, 37–38

voluntary false confessions, 341

Mental impairmentcompetency issue, 420influence on confession trust-

worthiness, 353–354initial assessment of subject,

140–141interrogation of those with,

332–333principles for investigation, 32using fictitious evidence and,

352Michigan v. Harvey, 432Michigan v. Mosley, 433, 440Miller v. Fenton, 374, 441Minnesota v. Murphy, 413, 432Miranda rights, 7, 74–76

asking purpose questions, 156consent for interrogation,

409–410custodial suspects, 74deception and, 427historical context for, 415–421interrogation and confession

law, 400interrogation defined,

400–402of juvenile offenders, 254–255meaning of custody, 402–404Miranda considerations,

410–415note-taking, 322preparing for interrogation,

191repeating before confession,

311–312right to attorney, 404–407right to remain silent, 409testimony preparation,

380–381waiver of rights, 407–408

Miranda v. Arizona, 430confessions, 311custodial suspects, 74interrogation and confession

law, 399–400Misinterpretation of behavior

factors leading to, 144–152misleading symptoms,

198–200Missouri v. Siebert, 407–408, 433Moneylenders, 229Monitoring interviews, 47–51Mood-congruent retrieval, 360Moral condemnation

of accomplice, 220–224of anyone with some degree of

responsibility, 227–230of victim, 220–224

Morales v. United States, 431Morality

approaches to be avoided, 205–207

determining suspect character, 196–198

of emotional offenders, 185–186

moral objections, 278reducing suspect’s guilt by

minimizing offense’s moral seriousness, 211–214

suggesting more morally acceptable motivation, 214–219

theme development, 202–203

of unintelligent uneducated suspect, 332–333

Moran v. Burbine, 426–427, 441Motive

in anonymous reports, 15for antisocial behavior, 147asking in transition statement,

197for denials, 269evaluating, 22–23false accusations, 35–37interpreting evidence, 10–11lying about, 356of non-emotional offenders,

186permissible incentives for con-

fession, 344–347in selecting alternative ques-

tions, 297






















Index n 461

suggesting more morally acceptable, 214–219

for voluntary confession, 349Motive question


defined, 160Munoz v. State, 371Murder. See HomicideMurphy v. State, 433Mutual gaze, 134–135

NNarcissistic subjects, 63–64Narrative response

format of confession, 312–313having suspect orally relate


interrogating witnesses, 334to open question, 86

National Institute of Justice (NIJ), 50

National Labor Relations Act, 45National Labor Relations Board

(NLRB) v. Weingarten, 53–54National Security Agency (NSA),

102Need-motivated thefts, 22Negative questions, 96Negative supporting statements,

298–302Nervous subjects

approach for interviewing, 62–63

behavior symptoms, 109both truthful and deceptive,

142initial assessment of subject,

140Neurological disorders, 140Neutral position

in interviews, 57as witness, 382–383

New York v. Quarles, 412–413NIJ (National Institute of Justice),

50Nine Steps of Interrogation. See

The Reid Nine Steps of Interrogation

Noises in interview room, 46–47Nonaccusatory nature of interview

asking direct questions, 96bait question, 171defined, 3–4

investigator demeanor, 58–59Noncontracted denials, 117Noncustodial suspects

attempts to leave interroga-tion room, 273

consent for interrogation, 409–410

formal interview techniques, 74–76

interrogation law, 402–403interview preparation, 74passive mood, 289purpose questions, 156

Nondescriptive language, 93Non-emotional offenders

defined, 186procedures for, 239–240

Nonexistent confessionsabsence of corroborating

details, 358defined, 342–343trustworthiness, 354

Non-frontally aligned posture, 125, 127

Non-threatening questions, 154Nonverbal behavior

assessing in behavioral pause, 196

channels of communication, 105

in context of verbal message, 106–108

in denial from guilty, 265in denial from innocent, 264evaluating, 121–122evaluation guidelines, 136facial expressions and eye con-

tact, 134–136feet, 134hands, 128–134identifying proper theme

through analyzing, 208indications of upcoming

denial, 258–259posture, 122–128psychopath, 148signs of resignation, 291–293on the stand, 384, 385–386studies assessing, 103–104withdrawal from interroga-

tion, 282–283in witness interrogation, 335

Normal human behaviordiagrams that show, 286establishing subject’s, 108


looking for deviations, 136minimizing offense’s moral

seriousness, 211–212in victim accounts, 28–29

North Carolina v. Butler, 327, 408, 433

Note-takingavoiding during interroga-

tion, 67during confession, 306fact analysis, 14in interrogation, 6during interview, 4–5investigator demeanor, 59–60safeguarding effectiveness of

confession, 321–322testimony preparation,

380–381NSA (National Security Agency),

102

OObjection question

actual case presentation, 164–165, 167

defined, 161–162Objections, overcoming. See

Overcoming objectionsObjectivity of investigator

importance of, 56–57in introductory statement,

79–80Offenders. See also Suspects

breaking bond with witnesses, 336–337

classification of, 185–189themes for juvenile, 250–255

Offensive strategies, 276Ofshe, Richard

court decisions, 370interrogation research, 363

Omissionsasking follow-up questions,


111–112qualifiers, 115

One-on-one interviews, 43–45One-way mirrors, 47Open posture, 122–123Open questions

clarifying open account, 92–93eliciting full response, 88






















462 n Index

Open questions (contd.)evaluating response, 88–91forming initial, 86–87phrasing, 87–88

Opinion of guilt or innocence, 73, 185

Opportunity questionactual case presentation, 166defined, 158–159

Oral confessions, 303–310. See also Converting oral confession into written confession

Oregon v. Elstad, 408, 413–414Oregon v. Mathiason, 425, 431, 440Orozco v. Texas, 431O’Sullivan, M., 104Outlining interview questions,

76–77Overbearing subject’s free will,

343–344, 426Overcoming objections

defined, 188–189principles, 276procedures, 276–278recognizing objection, 278rewarding objection, 279turning objection around,

279–281Overtime interrogations, 330

PPacing, 66Paid informants, 15Paralinguistic behavior

causes of misinterpretation of behavior, 151–152

channels of communication, 105

in context of verbal message, 106–108

evaluating, 117–121in response to passive mood,

290–291Parents

interrogating juvenile offenders, 252–254

placing blame on, 250–251Passive mood

principles for handling, 287–288

procedures for handling, 288–293

Passive power crimes, 23Patience in interrogation, 329–333Patterson v. Illinois, 432

Pause, behavioral, 195–198PEACE (Planning and prepara-

tion, Engage and explain, Account, Clarification, Challenge, Closure, and Evaluation), 153–154

Pennsylvania v. Bruder, 431People v. Atencio, 423, 426People v. Benson, 374People v. Bernasco, 419People v. Bulger, 440People v. Cason, 377People v. Chutan, 428–430People v. Crews, 371People v. Deborah C., 436People v. Eckles, 439People v. Farnam, 429People v. Ferran, 434People v. Ferro, 431People v. Fuentes, 426People v. Garcia, 374, 423, 428People v. Gilliam, 437People v. Hammock, 412People v. Harris, 420People v. Havlin, 435People v. Hill, 438People v. Holloway, 374People v. Hubbard, 439People v. Jackson, 439People v. Johnson, 431People v. Klyaczek, 438People v. Lowe, 431People v. Manning, 436People v. Martinez, 371People v. Martorano, 439People v. Mays, 428People v. McGuire, 438People v. Moore, 421People v. Nelson, 372People v. Racklin, 436People v. Ramos, 439People v. Rivera, 433People v. Rosario, 370People v. Rubio, 428People v. Saiz, 437People v. Savage, 430–431People v. Smith, 429People v. Spencer, 439People v. Stadnick, 440People v. Vance, 423People v. Westmorland, 437People v. Williams, 434Perception of witness as adversary,

382–383Perkins, Lloyd, 402

Permission phrase, 260Persistence in interrogation,

329–333Persistent denials

responding to stronger from guilty, 271–273

of uncertain origin, 266–268Personal gestures, 130Personal history questions,

316–317Personality disorders, 146–149Personality traits

approaches for difficult sub-jects, 62–64

interrogator qualifications, 64–65

of investigators, 55–56recognizing good in suspect,

68–69Persuasion

evaluating coerced internalized confessions, 350–351

in interrogation, 5interrogator qualifications, 64in Nine Steps of Interrogation,

187permissible incentives for con-

fession, 346Photographs

safeguarding effectiveness of confession, 322

supplementing confession, 320–321

Phrasingalternative question, 298direct questions, 93–96open questions, 87–88

Physical abuse memories, 37–38Physical coercion, 347–348Physical evidence

as likely indicator of guilt, 13supplementing confession,

320–321using as visual aid, 285

Physical impairmentassessment of subject, 140–141principles for investigation,

32Physician’s estimated time of

death, 12Physiological response to decep-

tion, 106Planning and preparation, Engage

and explain, Account, Clarification, Challenge,






















Index n 463

Closure, and Evaluation (PEACE), 153–154

Playing co-offenders against each other, 246–250

Poe, D., 104Police interrogation, 366. See also

InterrogationPolice interview room privacy. See

Interview room privacyPolice interviews. See InterviewsPolice officer safety, 412–413Police-speak, 387–388Polygraphs

approaches to be avoided, 205behavior symptoms and, 102determining intent, 39–40development of BAI, 154Miranda rights, 401references to, 429–430responding to denials of

uncertain origin, 267Poor individuals, 61–62Positive confrontation. See Direct,

positive confrontationPositive supporting statements,

298–302Post-confession interviews,

323–324Posture of investigator

during interrogation, 65during interview, 58for procurement and retention

of suspect’s attention, 284

while testifying, 386Posture of suspect


identifying proper theme through analyzing, 208

shifting in chair, 134signs of resignation, 291–292withdrawal from interroga-

tion, 282–283Power-motivated crimes, 23Pratt v. State, 436Precautions in behavior symptom

analysis. See Behavior symptom analysis precau-tions

Precautions when dealing with juvenile offenders, 254–255

Prejudiced information, 13–14Premature Miranda warnings,

411

Preparationevaluating crime characteris-

tics, 26–27interrogation, 191–192interview. See Interview prepa-

rationtestimony, 380–382written confession, 312–321

Presenting alternative questionconclusion, 302–303defined, 189to elicit corroborated confes-

sion, 306–308presenting alternative ques-

tion, 298–302principles, 293–294selecting alternative question,

294–298Presentment requirement,

410–411Pretense for interrogation,

196–198Pride, 230–232Primary incentive for confession,

347Primary themes, 219Prime suspects, 74–75Principles

behavior symptom analysis, 104–108

converting oral confession into written confession, 310

of direct, positive confronta-tion, 192–193

handling denials, 255–257handling suspect’s passive

mood, 287–288having suspect orally relate

various details of offense, 303

investigation, 30–32overcoming objections, 276presenting alternative ques-

tion, 293–294procurement and retention


theme development, 202–203Privacy

informal interview, 74interview room. See Interview

room privacywitness, 335

Private security officers, 413

Probation officers, 413Procedures

direct, positive confrontation, 193–195

for emotional offenders, 203–209

handling denials, 257–258handling suspect’s passive

mood, 288–293interview, 57for non-emotional offenders,

239–240overcoming objections,

276–278procurement and retention


theme development. See Theme development

Procurement and retention of sus-pect’s attention

chair proximity, 283–284defined, 189eye contact, 284–285principles, 281–282procedures, 282–283rhetorical questions, 286–287use of visual aids in, 285–286

Promises of leniencydeception in false confessions,

352interrogation and confession

law, 421–425making no, 330–331overbearing subject’s free will,

343–344permissible incentives for con-

fession, 345–346in portrayal of interrogation,

368–369Promises of secrecy, 424–425Props, 192Prosecutor

implying conspiracy, 394–395meeting with, 382

Prospective informants, 333–337Protecting the innocent

circumstantial evidence, 40–41eyewitnesses and false accusa-

tions, 35–37footnotes, 42intent issues, 39–40repressed memories, 37–38witnesses, 336

Protective gestures, 132–134






















464 n Index

Psychiatric health. See also Mental illness


misinterpretation of behavior and, 145–146

Psychologyof condemning others, 220of confession, 295, 303of cooperative witness, 334of emotional offender,

203–209exaggerating intent, 237of friendly-unfriendly act, 272influence on confession trust-

worthiness, 352–354of juvenile offenders, 254–255of non-emotional offender,

239–240producing false confessions,

366–367of specific themes, 209–210of unintelligent uneducated

suspect, 332–333of withdrawing from interro-

gation, 282Psychopaths, 146–149Psychotherapy, 37–38Public Safety exception to

Miranda, 412–413Public welfare, 200–202Punishment question


defined, 160–161Purpose questions


defined, 155–156

QQualifications

interrogator, 64–65investigator, 56–57

Qualified responsesasking follow-up questions, 98evaluating verbal behavior,

114–116responding to denials from

guilty, 269–271Question-and-answer format of

confession, 312–313Questions

asking rhetorical, 286–287avoiding leading, 315–316

for establishing confession admissibility, 391–393

interrogation. See Interrogationinterview. See Interview ques-

tionspersonal history, 316–317presenting alternative. See

Presenting alternative question

witness’s behavioral responses to, 385–390

Quick v. State, 437

RR. v. Amos, 377, 422, 439R. v. Oickle, 326, 374, 377, 422–

423, 439Radelet, M., 340, 341Rape, 217. See also Sexual offensesRapport

establishing in interview, 77–78

interviewing nervous subjects, 62–63

Rational corroboration, 355–356Rationalizations, 202–203Reading confession, 317–318Realistic attitude

credibility question, 158in subject, 110

Recognitionobjection, 278signs of resignation, 291withdrawal from interroga-

tion, 282–283Recommendations for interroga-

tionpatience and persistence,

329–333for witnesses and prospective

informants, 333–337Recording interviews

converting oral confession into written confession, 325

purpose of, 50using devices during confes-

sion, 306Redd v. State, 424Rehearsed responses

avoiding in testimony, 387–389


memory evaluation, 180

Reid, JohnBAI, 154behavior symptom analysis,

102Nine Steps of Interrogation,

187The Reid Nine Steps of

Interrogationbrief analysis of, 189–190converting oral confession

into written confession. See Converting oral confession into written confession

footnotes, 325–327general classification of

offenders, 185–189handling denials. See Handling

denialshandling suspect’s passive

mood, 287–293having suspect orally relate


overcoming objections. See Overcoming objections

preliminary preparations, 191–192

presenting alternative ques-tion. See Presenting alter-native question

procurement and retention of suspect’s attention, 281–287

step 1. See Direct, positive con-frontation

theme development. See Theme development

The Reid Technique of Interviewing and Interrogation. See also Interrogation; Interviews

vs. defense portrayal of inter-rogation, 368

defined, 50survey data on, 366

Re-interviewing suspects, 267–268Relationship marked by confor-

mity, 78Relaxed posture, 122–123Reluctant witnesses or infor-

mants, 335–337Repeated denials, 332Repeated Miranda warnings,

411–412






















Index n 465

Repetitive hand behavior, 130Reporting crime

to deflect guilt, 24–25glory grabbers, 25–26

Repressed memories, 37–38Request for attorney, 404–407Research, interrogation, 362–367Resentment, 143Resignation

in both truthful and deceptive subjects, 143

recognizing signs of, 291Respect for suspect, 67Response latency, 117–118Response to questions

analyzing subject, 167–169asking follow-up questions,

97–99behavior symptoms and, 102eliciting full, 88evaluating, 88–91evaluating paralinguistic

behavior, 117–121evaluating subject’s bait ques-

tion, 174–175evaluating verbal behavior,

111–117investigator testimony,

387–390response models for behavior-


witness’s behavioral, 385–390Responsibility

blaming accomplice, 224–227blaming anyone upon whom

moral responsibility can be placed, 227–230

blaming victim, 220–224criminal, 205nonexistent confessions,

342–343social, 149

Results questionactual case presentation, 164,

166defined, 162

Retaining suspect’s attention. See Procurement and retention of suspect’s attention

Retaliation against witnesses, 336Reticence, 142Retracted confessions

accuracy of corroboration, 357–358

coerced internalized confes-sions, 340

importance of documentation, 310–311

witnessing, 308Retreated posture, 125, 126Reviewing testimony, 381–382Revis v. State, 426Rewarding objections, 279Rhetorical questions, 286–287Rhode Island v. Innis, 401, 430Right to attorney, 404–407Right to remain silent, 409Rights. See Miranda rightsRobberies

blaming fences, 228–229condemning accomplice,

225–226condemning victim, 222evaluating motives, 22–23suggesting morally acceptable

motivation, 215victim interviews, 11–12

Robinson v. Smith, 440Rogers v. Richmond, 417Role reversal, 290

SSawyer, Tom, 342Scene of the crime, 241–243Scott v. Epps, 433Scratching, 130–131Seating

arranging interview room, 47–48

distance from subject in inter-rogation, 65–66

distance from subject in inter-view, 58

for procurement and retention of suspect’s attention, 283–284

responding to attempts to leave interrogation room, 273

third parties in interview room, 52

Second chance questionactual case presentation, 165,

167defined, 161

Secrecy promises, 424–425Section 3501, 415–416Security codes, 24Security officers, 413

Selecting alternative question, 294–298

Self-esteem, 147Sequence of interrogation, 188Sexual offenses

asking assumptive questions, 175–177

blaming anyone upon whom moral responsibility can be placed, 228

blaming victim, 221–222common distorted motives,

216–217eyewitnesses and false accusa-

tions, 36–37interviewing child victims, 15introductory statement for

victims, 80–82minimizing offense’s moral

seriousness, 211–213power-motivated crimes, 23principles for investigation, 31repressed memories of, 37–38sympathizing with suspect,

211think question, 160using visual aid in, 285–286

Shackles, 67Shahzade v. Gregory, 42Shame

grooming gestures, 130–132minimizing offense’s moral

seriousness, 212misleading symptoms fol-

lowing confrontation, 199

psychopath victim’s feelings of, 147–148

theft cases, 214Sidestepping objections, 281Signing confessions, 314–315,

317–318Signing witness statements, 334Signs of resignation, 291Silence

behavioral pause, 195–196due to note-taking, 60forced, 88right to remain, 409

Sincerity, 109Sketches

by fact-giver, 14supplementing confession,

320–321Slouched posture, 126






















466 n Index

Smiling, 120Smith v. Duckworth, 420Smith v. Mullin, 438Smith v. State, 426, 439Smoking, 58Social responsibility, 149Social rules, 134–135Social space, 151Socioeconomic status

interrogating unintelligent uneducated suspect, 333

interviewing narcissistic sub-jects, 63–64

of subjects, 61–62Solving case. See Case solutionSpano v. New York, 417Specialized questioning techniques

assumptive questions, 176–178baiting, 171–176footnotes, 181memory evaluation, 179–181trapping subject in lie, 178–179

Specific denialsevaluating verbal behavior,

113–114in guilty, 265–266responding to, 271

Spontaneous attitude, 109Spontaneous responses


investigator testimony, 388–389Stansbury v. California, 432Staring, 135State v. Aguirre, 441State v. Alston, 433State v. Biron, 440State v. Branch, 431State v. Cayward, 325, 428State v. C.D., 437State v. Chirokovskcic, 441State v. Clark, 434State v. Dassey, 376State v. Edwards, 432State v. Evans, 425State v. Featherhat, 439State v. F.G.H., 437State v. Finehout, 431, 439State v. Griffin, 420State v. Grisby, 431State v. Guzman-Gomez, 431State v. Hunt, 437State v. Johnson, 441State v. Kelekolio, 427State v. Kenney, 420

State v. Ladd, 431State v. Lamonica, 370State v. Linn., 438State v. McLean, 431State v. Mitchell, 433State v. Moses, 420State v. Moulds, 433State v. Murphy, 433–434State v. Nunn, 438State v. Parker, 374, 423State v. Patton, 441State v. Perez, 373State v. Pies, 426State v. Quick, 431State v. Roadenbaugh, 436State v. Shifflett, 434State v. Stoddard, 433State v. Tapke, 376State v. Tardiff, 439State v. Weinacht, 434State v. Wooden, 371Statement of reinforcement,

303–304Statements against self-interest,

116Static posture, 125Statistics

false confession, 340, 341interrogation research,

362–367memory of crime, 359theft cases, 213–214

Stenographerspreserving notes, 321recording confession, 313–314

Stepping down, 268Steps of Interrogation. See

The Reid Nine Steps of Interrogation

“Stop” hand gesture, 260“Stop-and-start” behavior, 120Stroble v. California, 416Strong denials, 257–258Studies of interrogation, 362–366Subject data sheet, 140–141Subject responses. See Response to

questionsSubjects. See SuspectsSupporting gestures, 132–134Supporting statements, 298–302Suppression of confession, 391–

393. See also Interrogation and confession law

Supreme Court. See U.S. Supreme Court

Surveysdefined, 362interrogation research,

365–366Suspects

analyzing responses, 167–169approaches for difficult, 62–64behavior. See Behaviorcustodial. See Custodial suspectsestablishing rapport, 77–78evaluating crime characteris-

tics, 24–30evaluating motives, 22–23getting information about, 16interrogation. See Interrogationinterview procedure, 11interviews vs. interrogations,

3–7introductory statement for,

79–80need for privacy, 43–45noncustodial. See Noncustodial

suspectsprinciples for investigation,

30–32recognizing good in, 68–69socioeconomic status, 61–62

Suspicioneliminating suspect from, 168as investigator attribute, 56

Suspicion questionactual case presentation, 164,

166defined, 157–158

Sweet v. State, 438Sympathizing with suspect

in alternative questions, 297–298

by condemning accomplice, 224–230

by condemning victim, 220–224

in friendly-unfriendly act, 271–273

during interrogation, 67in response to passive mood,

289by saying anyone else would

do same thing, 210–211Systemic inducements, 368–369

TTagging direct question, 95Tasmanian Police Department,

50–51






















Index n 467

Tatum v. State, 439Telling loved ones

about interview, 162–163actual case presentation, 165,

167evaluating voluntary confes-

sions, 349Telling the truth. See Truth tellingTells, 130Terminology

avoiding emotionally charged, 304

minimizing offense’s moral seriousness, 212

in taking confessions, 315using incriminating words, 305

Testifying on confessionconclusion, 397–398court’s view of witness, 382–385cross-examination, 393–397direct testimony, 390–393overview, 379–380preparation, 380–382witness’s behavioral responses

to questions, 385–390Testimony of expert witnesses,

367–369Testing behavior, 148Theft cases

admissions of lying in, 241blaming anyone upon whom

moral responsibility can be placed, 228

common distorted motives, 216–217

condemning victim, 222–223evaluating motives, 22–23exaggerating crime details,

235–237minimizing moral seriousness,

213–214possibility of insurance fraud,

26–27principles for investigation, 31

Theme developmentin alternative questions,

296–297appeal to suspect’s pride with

flattery, 230–232conclusion, 302–303content of statements and, 288defined, 188discuss benefits of truth

telling, 243handling denials during, 258

have suspect place himself at scene of crime, 241–243

playing one co-offender against the other, 246–250

point out futility of resistance to truth telling, 243–245

point out grave consequences and futility of criminal behavior, 238–239

point out possibility of exaggeration on part of accuser or victim, 232–237

principles, 202–203procedures for emotional

offenders, 203–209procedures for non-emotional

offenders, 239–240reducing suspect’s guilt by min-

imizing offense’s moral seriousness, 211–214

seek admission of lying, 240–241

specific themes, 209–210suggesting more morally

acceptable motivation, 214–219

sympathizing with suspect by condemning accomplice, 224–230

sympathizing with suspect by condemning victim, 220–224

sympathizing with suspect saying anyone else would do same thing, 210–211

themes for juvenile offenders, 250–255

turning objection around, 279–281

Think questionactual case presentation, 164,

166defined, 159–160

Third parties in interview room, 51–53

Third-person responses, 161–162Third-person themes, 208–209Thoughts

asking rhetorical questions, 286–287

clarifying open account, 92indications of truthfulness/

deception, 90–91think question, 159–160

Threatsin alternative questions,

295deception in false confessions,

352duress, 348interrogation and confession

law, 425–426overbearing subject’s free will,

343–344permissible incentives for con-

fession, 345–346Threshold questions, 400Throat clearing, 120–121Time


eyewitness identifications and, 36

how long did crime take to commit?, 24

indications of truthfulness/deception, 90–91

for interrogation, 310Time of death estimation, 12Tompson v. Wainwright, 433Tone

discouraging weak denials from being voiced, 260

evaluating paralinguistic behavior, 119

interrogating unintelligent suspect, 333

investigator, 58–59in response to passive mood,

290Totality of circumstances

deception and, 426–427defined, 361interrogation law, 417–418use in juvenile cases, 418–419

Training in behavior symptom analysis, 151–152

Transition statementsdefined, 188overview and examples,

196–198Trapping subject in lie, 178–179Troubled conscience, 185–186True confessions. See Confessions,

distinguishing between true and false

Trustworthinessconfession voluntariness,

416–417




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