Yr10 Unit I Roman Britain

8/6/2019 Yr10 Unit I Roman Britain

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NEW PLYMOUTH BOYS HIGH SCHOOL

YEAR 10 LATIN COURSE

Unit I

You may use this book during the year. DO NOT write in it.

It must be returned in the same condition as you received it.

M. Atkinson

HOD Languages


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Unit IPage

Roman Conquest and the Army (early army, army reform, composition, gear) 4

Roman Conquest and the Army (system of command) 5

Roman Conquest and the Army (army under Augustus, jobs, legionary emblems) 6

How much English Do You Know 7

Grammar: there is/are; a certain; relative pronoun, uses of quam 8Translation: No Slave Should Possess a Weapon 9

Some Soccer Mottoes

Grammar: hic, haec, hoc; impersonals expressions; irregular verbs 10

Translation: An Officer Keeps His Discipline to the End 11

The Army in Camp (essentials, layout, guarding the camp) 12

The Army in Camp (breaking camp) 13

The Army on the March (marching order, battle, assault, blockade, siege)

The Roman Navy (classis, corvus, main job); The Wisdom of Rome 14

Latin Words & Phrases 15

Grammar(adjectives); British Coins

Periods of Roman History 16

Translation: The Death of Cicero 17Latin Diminutives

Translation: An Elephant Attack 18

Some Sharp Wit from Cicero

Grammar(other question words, negative commands, superlatives) 19

Did You Know?

Grammar(Cases _ nom, voc, acc, gen, dat, abl) 20

Venenum - Poison

Translation: Caesar is Captured by Pirates 21

Noun Families

Grammar(Parts of Speech on NCEA Word Lists) 22

Prepositions

Ten Steps and You can Translate 23Dona Militaria; Medicine (Hipporates, Alexandria & Herophilus, Martial) 24

Medicine (Fight against Gers, Medical Corps) 25

Medicine (Notable Doctors; Some Cures) 26

Pliny Comments; Medicinal Properties of Plants & Insects

Medicine (Surgeons Knew, They Could 27

Grammar(Pronouns; Possessive Adjectives)

Latin Today 28

Translation: Heal Yourself

Britain before Caesar 29

The Romans in Britain (Julius Caesars Invasions, Province of Britain 30

Caligula Did Not Like This

The Romans in Britain (Town and Villas) 31

Grammar(Reflexive Pronouns, Demonstratives)

A Little Bit of Humour

Translation: Caesar Lands in Britain 32

Gaius Julius Caesar (Way to Power)

Gaius Julius Caesar (the 1st

Triumvirate) 33

Crassus; Pompey the Man

Gaius Julius Caesar (Three Gain, Caesars Strength, Caesar & Pompey, Dictator) 34

The Death of Pompey (English and Latin) 35


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Conquering the Mediterranean; Latin Alive Today; Omens of the Night 36

Translation: Cleopatra andCaesar 37

David Beckhams Latin Tattoos

Translation: Cleopatra andMark Antony 38

Translation: The Death of Cleopatra andMark Antony 39

Omens of Caesars Death

Translation: A Soldiers Resolution Does Not Work 40

The Roman Legionary Revision

Caesar Assassination (Suetonius) 41

Translation: The Murder of Caesar

The Key Competencies; Pie Jesu; Values of Rome 42

Compare the Values of NZ Curriculum; Latin Used Today 43

Service to the State; Wilfred Owens Poem; Roman Law & 12 Tables 44

Ovid & Martial Comment 45

Grammar(Present Participle)

Charlotte Higgins the new Cicero 46

Translation: Verginius Pleads for His Daughter

Answers: How Much English Do You Know? 47

Verb Endings 48Irregular Verbs 49

Noun Endings

Adjectives 51

Comparative & Superlative Adjectives; Personal Pronouns 52

Possessive Adjectives; Relative Pronouns; is, ea id 53

hic, haec, hoc 54

ille, illa, illud 55


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Roman Conquest and the Army

The Early ArmyNo Roman institution could match the army for prestige. Rome owed its success to

its army and to its technological skills, which had turned it from a small city into a

world power. In early Roman times there was no professional army. Whenever there was a war

within the Italian peninsular in the 4th and 5th centuries BC, men of military age (between 17 and46) who owned their own property were conscripted as follows:

the patricians formed the officers legati,

the cavalry the knights equites,

and theplebs the infantrypedites.This had a severe impact on the majority of the men who were peasant farmers, and

filled the ranks of the infantry. They had to provide their own weapons and

equipment, and at first did not receive any pay, but eventually as the campaigns

grew longer they did. As Romes conquest grew, this conscription system broke

down and the number of available citizens decreased. Peasant farmers could no

longer serve in the army for months on end while trying to run their own small farm

or to advance their careers.

Army ReformThe uncle of Julius Caesar, the consul Gaius Marius, introduced radical reforms at the end of the first

century. He abolished the volunteer and the property qualification system, and made the army

exercitus professional. Recruits signed up as soldiers for a twenty year career. Weaponry, armour, pay

and equipment were now provided by the state, but the cost of food was deducted from a soldiers pay.

Marius and the EagleMarius got rid of the different standards the legions carried into battle, which covered a variety of

real and mythical beasts like wild boars, wolves and the Minotaur. He wanted the eagle to be the

great symbol of Romes power. From 104BC each legion carried a standard

with a silver eagle into battle. However they didnt last long legions laterwent back to their own symbols plus that of the eagle.

Marius MulesHaving professional soldiers meant keeping them busy when there was no

fighting, rather than sending them home. Marius therefore used his soldiers to

build roads and bridges. The soldiers became known as Marius mules.

Composition of the ArmyThe cohort of three maniples manipuli (two centuries - ordines) became the military unit. There

were ten cohorts cohortes in a legion; one cohort had 6 centuries centuriae, one century 10 tents

contubernia, and one tent 8 men. There were 80 men to a century not 100 as you might expect.

The legion was raised up from 5,000 to 6,000 men, called legionaries, though a legion rarely

attained its full strength of 6,000, being continually reduced by casualties of war as well as by

ordinary illness, natural death and military leaves of absence.

Gear and EquipmentEquipment was standardised. A Roman legionary typically carried around 27.2 to 36.3 kilograms

(60-80 lbs.) of equipment on the march. A t-shaped frame was used to carry the soldier's sarcinae

(load, bundle, pack). Bundles of rations, clothing, tools, etc., were tied to or hung from this frame.

I cannot fight anymore

I have a farm!

Come, fight

for Rome!


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When his gear couldn't be carried on mules or in wagons, the Roman legionary packed in addition

to his weapons:

shield and helmet covers

kit bag, a leather bag for carryingvarious items

cooking pots;

two stakes for the palisade;

dish ormess tin;

mattock or pick-axe;

turf-cutter;

sickle;

basket;

grinding mill, for grinding up corn

spare thongs,

gear for cleaning and polishingarmour;

bathing and shavingparaphernalia,

rations (grain, bacon, cheese, etc.)for a fortnight .

The legionary's ration is thought to have been 1-3 pecks of wheat a month, which was probably

supplemented with beef and such vegetables and fruit as could be found. The main drink of thearmy was acetum (sour-wine), which when watered down was referred to asposca. Legionaries

liked to combine dough with honey, the Roman source of sugar, and then bake the result on hot

stones surrounding their camp fires.

System ofCommandThe command of each legion was exercised by one of six tribunes commanding in turn. Under

these were 60 centurions, each commanding a century. This professional army trained in a system

of drill movements, giving it the advantages of simplicity and manoeuvrebility. The Roman army

marched in eight ranks or rows ordines. In battle the legions traditionally formed up in three lines:

the spearmen hastati at the front, theprincipes men in their prime behind them

and a reserve of veterans or third rankers triarii taking up the rear.

This new system created a precedent for later ambitious men. Under the

conscription system, men had fought for Rome, now under the Marian system

their allegiance was given to their military commander. Full-time soldiers relied

on military success for their advancement. Ambitious generals like Julius Caesar,

could gain the devotion of their men, not just by winning battles but also by

rewarding them he almost doubled their pay from 120 denarii a year to 225

denarii. This led to a century of military figures controlling Rome and to the

horrors of civil war.

Make sure

you have!


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6Mark Antonys Silver CoinsMark Antony issued vast numbers of silver coins to pay his

troops. Each coin had a picture of a war galley on one side

and a legionary standard on the other. To make the silver go

further the coins were debased with more than the usual

amount of copper, thus reducing the value of the coins.

Because Antonys coins were not that valuable, they

remained in circulation for years alter his death. Today they are relativelycheap to buy.

The Army under AugustusWhen Augustus restored peace and order he reduced the numbers of legions from about sixty to

twenty-eight. The Praetorian Guard (emperors personal bodyguard) also became a large permanent

fixture of elite troops, but was later disbanded by Constantine the Great, as it became too

destabilising a force.

The army of the empire was stationed almost entirely on the frontiers. Augustus replaced many

temporary military camps with well-protected headquarters, some of which were to form the nucleus

of important cities of the future. In addition to the legion there were the auxiliary troops auxilia of

cavalry and light-armed infantry. Auxiliary troops were recruited from the provincials who had alonger period of service and lower pay. On retirement they became eligible for Roman

citizenship, which they could pass on to their children. All soldiers on retirement were given an

allotment of land in a colonia.

The Armys Main Jobwas to:

make sure all the people of the provinces obeyed Roman orders,

guard the frontiers,

build and maintain the roads and forts intended for communication and defence,

take over new territories beyond the frontiers

Legionary EmblemsThe standards, signa were a recognition signal and a rallying point for

soldiers in the chaos of a battle field. Not merely did they represent the

honour of the unit, as with later regimental colours, but they represented

the honour of Rome herself.

To lose a standard was the worst thing that could happen. Crassus lost the

standards when he was fighting the Parthians in 53B.C. Varus lost his in

AD9 in the Teutoburger Forest. One of the reasons therefore for the Roman

campaign in Germania was to recover these lost standards.

The aquila

Aquila A gold eagle was carried when thewhole legion was on themarch

Imago An image of the emperor or a member of his family.

Signa A standard for an individual century. Pliny the Elder suggeststhe republican army had five different animal standards, the

eagle, the wolf, the Minotaur, the horse and the boar.

Vexilla The one standard that came close to resembling what werecognize as a flag today was the vexillum. It was a small

square piece of cloth attached to a cross-bar carried on a pole.

Generally Roman cavalry carried it but the infantry also made

use of it.


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7Answers: How Much English Do You Know?In the left hand column are 40 English words that are derived from Latin words in this unit. Choose and

write down the word or phrase from the other columns that best gives its English meaning.

1 decorous giving out decomposing dignified / decent addictive

2 laudable praiseworthy loud aggressive responsive

3 onerous burdensome easily borne distinctive decorative

4 necrosis death of a sister death of piece of

tissue

labelling instinct to kill

5 paucity upper class lack of money smallness of

number

mediocre

6 voluntary first -rate of a trumpet compulsory of ones own will

7 cognisant being wise thinking over being aware secretive

8 annihilate add up reduce to nothing consider write notes

9 fidelity loyalty precision insurance emission of light

10 odious poisonous proper smelly hateful

11 humility hill-top humbleness

12 fugitive runaway prisoner pensioner dependent

13 ventilate blow away causing air to

circulate

pump up causing rain

14 retain hold in place blow up win back put up15 pugnacious cowardly squashed in likes to fight likes sport

16 vulnerable remarkable like a baby weak easily wounded

17 dolorous smelly discoloured painful name of girl

18 audacious forgiven daring hard of hearing cheerful

19 corpulent bulky of body army officer capital type of guard

20 desperate robber hopeful with no hope calm

21 verbose full of humour full of words empty mischievous

22 juvenile of a youth in court sickly funny

23 sumptuous impoverished foul sparing no expense reserved

24 incipient ending never seen taken in beginning

25 punitive hostile giving punishment angry very small26 dismiss send away speak rudely long letter far away

27 plurality being only one lung infection large number corkscrew

28 pecuniary of cattle of the heart legal of money

29 insular taped up heat resistant of an island left alone

30 ridicule of a lion of a play despairing making fun of

31 vespers motorbike evening prayers cooking dish sermon

32 morbid unwholesome deadly happy not clever

33 oppress publish surround lift up overwhelm

34 brevity flying club shortness lack of breath meekness

35 vigil writers pen

name

keeping calm keeping awake short letter

36 auxiliary helpful to of the military reasonable sent off

37 simultaneous at the same time pretending loud useful

38 equestrian upper class questionable of horses of like mind

39 littoral legible of the shore of the alphabet planetary

40 aperture starter order clothing opening


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Be a Copy Cat and Copy TheseGram mar Notes!

There is/ there areThe third person from the verb esse is used with this meaning, particularly when the

est/sunt/erat/erant starts the sentence and is followed by the subject.e.g in this story: erant in Sicilia multi servi. = There were in Sicily many slaves.

non erat in Italia satis cibi. = There was not enough food in Italy

est nullo servo telum = There is to no slave a weapon (No slave

has a weapon!

est servo telum! = There is to the slave a weapon (The

slave has a weapon!

A certain/ a certain (one): quidam, quaedam, quoddamThis can be used as an adjective with a noun (or as a pronoun by itself see later)

e.g. in the story below it is used as an adjective pastor quidam = a certain shepherd

A Relative PronounThis joins two sentences together by the words, who / which / that e.g. He saw the boy

who was sitting behind the doorpuerum vidit qui post ianuam sedebat.

The relative pronoun ALWAYS refers back to the NOUN before it i.e. the boy.

Therefore in Latin the pronoun must be the same gender as the noun but its case comes

from its own sentence. The pronoun who = masculine, because boy is masculine, and =

nominative because it is the subject of the verb sitting.

In the story below:

res magnificas, quae invenerant = magnificent things which they had found

Uses of Quam quam + an adjective + an exclamation mark = How.!

e.g. in story below: quam splendidum est hic aper = How splendid this boar is!

quam after a comparative adjective (ends in ior, -ior, -ius) = than in a comparison.e.g. est stultior quam asinus = He is more stupid than a donkey!

puer est altior quam pater = The boy is taller than his father.

quam can also = whom / which as a relative pronoun object see above and chart onRelative Pronouns at the back of this booklet.

gratias! me

delectat


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9No Slave Should Possess a Weapon

Sicilia erat provincia Romana. erant in Sicilia multi servi. hi servi in agris

laborabant; frumentum civibus Romanis semper dabant quod non erat in Italia satis

cibi. servi Siciliaerebellioneminterdum fecerunt, sed Romani servos semper

superaverunt. deniquepraetor Romanus declaravit: est nullo servo telum!

saepe praetoresseverissimi erant, ante omnes Domitius. decorum est dominis res

magnificas, quae invenerant, ad praetorem ferre. olim itaque domini aprum ingens

tulerunt. quam splendidum est hic aper! exclamavit Domitius, quis eum

necavit? pastor quidam responderunt domini, hunc aprum necavit.

Domitius pastorem arcessivit. pastor ad praetorem statim accurrit, quod laudem

praemiumque sperabat. quo modo tu hunc magnificum aprum necavisti? inquit

Domitius. gladio, respondit pastor.

tum Domitius clamavit capite eum!; in crucem tollite! erat servo telum!

Sicilia, -ae (f) Sicily severus, -a,-um severe

frumentum, -i (n) grain Domitius, -i (m) Domitius

rebellio, -ionis (f) rebellion aper, -pri (m) boarinterdum (adv) sometimes accurro, -ere, to run up

denique (adv) finally crux, crucis (f) cross

praetor, -oris (m) praetor (man of law)

Some Soccer MottoesArsenal victoria concordia crescit(victory grows from agreement)

Manchester City superbia in proelio (with pride in battle)

Real Madrid AD Plus Ultra (for more beyond). This motto is closely associated

with the Pillars of Hercules, which according to Roman mythology

were built by Hercules, near the Straits of Gibraltar, marking the

edge of the then known world. According to mythology the pillars

bore the warning nec plus ultra (also non plus ultra, "nothing

further beyond"), serving as a warning to sailors and navigators to

go no further. It is the motto of Spain but which Real Madrid has

adapted.

Everton nil satis nisi optimum (nothing enough unless the best)

Sheffield Wednesday consilio et animis (with a plan and minds)

Tottenham Hotspur audere est facere (to dare is to do)


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hic, haec, hoc = thisThis is used mainly as an adjective but it is also a pronoun (by itself no noun) as in the

story below:

e.g. hi coniuratii = these conspiratorsne hoc quidem = not even this

ne + NOUN quidem = not evenE.g in the story below ne hoc quidem = not even this.

Impersonal expressions + InfinitiveThese expressions have no personal subject and the verb is always 3

rdperson ending

singular (it). The tense of the verb however can change. These expressions always take

an infinitive. Here are some with a neuter adjective + est:

necesse est..... it is necessary to ...

facile est... it is easy to ...

difficile est... it is difficult to ....meliusest... it is better ...

decorumest... it is proper/right ...

periculosumest... it is dangerous ...

tutumest... it is safe ...

tutiusest... it safer ...

AND somemore with other verbs in the 3rd person + infinitive:(mihi) placet it pleases (me) ....

(me) oportet I must (it is necessary that I ...)

(mihi) licet I am allowed (it is allowed to me ...)

Irregular Verbs (see chart at the back of this booklet)There are not very many irregular verbs in Latin (apart from sum, esse, fui) and they

are only irregular in the present tense. Most irregular verbs have no supine, eg:

volo, velle, volui to want

nolo, nolle, nolui to refuse / not want

malo, malle, malui to prefer

AND:eo, ire, ii, itum to go

fio, fieri, factus sum to become

fero, ferre, tuli, latum to carry

gratias! me

delectat


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An Officer Keeps his Discipline to the End

This is a story of an officer in the Praetorian Guard in the time of Nero. He did not like Nero

because he had murdered his mother and wife and was rumoured to have started the Great Fire

of Rome in 64AD.

Subrius, virseverrimus, erat tribunusPraetorianus. semper milites

vituperabat. vos milites, nihil, inquiebat, ex disciplina facitis.

Subrius cum aliis tribunisPraetorianis paucisque senatoribus, coniurationem

fecit. hi coniuratiNeronem interficere volebant, quod Nero tam crudelis erat.

sed Nero coniurationem cognovit et coniuratoscomprehendit. deinde Nero

quis, inquit, coniurationem coepit. senatores, quod timebant, omnia

patefecerunt. Subrius diu nihil dixit. tandem culpam suam declaravit. Nero

rogavit: cursacrimenti ad me immemor fuisti?

Subrius respondit. nemo tibi fidelior fuit quam ego. sed nunc te odi quod

matrem et uxorem necavisti.

statim Nero Subrium capitis damnavit et eum Veianio tradidit. Veianus,

postquam Subrium ex urbe duxit, milites scrobem effodere iussit, sed milites

scrobem humilem fecerunt. ne hoc quidem, inquit Subrius, ex disciplina

fecistis!

Subrius, -i (m) Subrius patefacio, -ere, -feci, -factum to reveal

severus, -a,-um severe culpa, -ae (f) blame

tribunus, -i (m) tribune sacrimentum, -i (n) oath

Praetorianus, -a, -um Praetorian immemor (adj) + Gen forgetful of

vitupero, -are to curse, blame fidelis, -is, -e faithful

disciplina, -ae (f) discipline odi I hate

coniuratus, -i (m) conspirator Veianus, -i (m) Veianus

Nero, -onis (m) Nero scrobis, -is (f) grave, hole

comprehendo, -ere to arrest effodio, -ere to dighumilis, -is, -e shallow


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Public International Law

What would the Romans have done?This was a question in1922 for the LLB examination on Public

International Law how times have changed!

What are the essentials of acquisition of territory by occupation?

X, an uncommissioned shipowner, navigates his ship to an island

hitherto unoccupied, claims it in the name of his State, lands certain

stores, and returns to his own country and informs the authorities of

his act. No steps are taken by his Government. The island is unfitted for permanent residence

but is a good base for fisheries. A year later X returns to the island and finds that an

authorised official of another State has landed, has also deposited stores, and has hoisted his

national flag and posted a proclamation of annexation. Discuss.

The Army in CampEssentialsWhenever the army stopped it made camp which followed an exact layout, each man knowing his own

job. Scouts exploratores were sent out in advance to find a site which had to have:

a good water supply

and preferably be on a slight slope.

Layout Prerequisites

The ground had to be levelled before being pegged out in a square or rectangle by surveyors.

The generals tentpraetorium had to be in the centre. It housed the general and his staff as

well as the standards, treasury and a place for taking the auspices. Beside this were thepaymasters tent quaestorium and theforum where the men could be

addressed.

A ditchfossa, about two metres deep and three metres wide, had to bedug around the site and the earth thrown up to form a wall vallum,

usually topped by a palisade.

The mens tents had to be set up in fixed positions leaving a space of 60metres intervallum wide between tents and the rampart.

A wall with towers at regular intervals had to be built. The towers hadraised platforms to support various artillery engines.

There had to be a broad gate in each of the camps four walls.

Permanent camp was similar to the temporary camp but the outer wall andRoman Tower interior buildings were made of stone. These buildings included granaries,

hospital, administrative block and generals house. A bath building might be situated outside the camp.

Guarding the CampThe camp was guarded day and night. The length of a watch vigilia varied with the length of the days

and nights during the year, the hours of darkness being always divided into four watches. Pickets of

horse and foot guarded the gates and outposts stationes, while sentries patrolled the walls and the

praetorium.


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Trumpet Call for Breaking CampA Roman writer, Josephus, says that

the first trumpet signalled breaking camp and the taking down of the tents;

a second trumpet meant the gathering of equipment and preparation for the march and

a third trumpet rounded up stragglers.

Finally in answer to the heralds enquiry, made three times, the men raised their right hands

and shouted that they were ready to march.

The Army on the MarchMarching OrderOn the march, the arrangement of a Roman army varied according to the tactical situation, but it

usually followed this pattern:

a reconnaissance group of cavalry and light infantry

the army at a convenient distance marching in a column of centuries.

the baggage following each legion.

several cohorts, detailed by the last legion serving as a rear guard for the entire army.During a normal marching day a Roman army covered no more than twelve to fifteen miles, since it

was necessary to halt early in the afternoon to make camp for the night. In an emergency the marchingperiod was lengthened.

Battle ActionA Roman general preferred to draw his army up in a triple line of battle on

higher ground than the enemy. The legions advanced slowly until they

were about 180 metres from the enemy; then they:

broke into a run;

hurled their javelins at about 15 metres from the enemy;

charged with drawn swords into the enemy ranks;

fell back and were replaced by thesecond line of troops as they began to tire. These two lines alternately

relieved each other while the third line was kept in reserve.

Assault, Blockade and SiegeThe Romans were as effective at capturing fortified places as they were at fighting in the field. The

three methods used were assault, blockade and siege. In an assault the enemy was driven from the

walls by a barrage from archers, slingers and heavy artillery consisting of

machines called:

catapults that were capable of throwing javelins, arrows and darts;

scorpions - that were large bows mounted on a portable frame;

onagers and ballistas that hurled large stones;

battering rams (arietes) - that were moved into position under cover of

movable wooden sheds (vineae) placed end to end; scaling ladders and movable towers (turris ambulatoria) that were

moved forward on rollers,

testudo (tortoise) - that was a storming party with shields locked together over their headsadvancing to scale the walls;

an agger a rampart that began about 150 metres from the the wall, extended with a gradualincline toward it until the rampart topped the fortifications. It served as a broad roadway along

which the legions could advance to the top of the enemys walls. This was used in a formal

siege see Massada and in a blockade strong fortifications were erected around the city so that

no reinforcements or supplies could enter. The inhabitants were thus forced to surrender. If the

city was a seaport, ships were also used to enforce the blockade.


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14 The Roman NavyThe Classis

The Roman fleet classis, despite its name of top rank / elite, never commanded

the esteem that the army had. The military virtues of the army were discipline,

order, duty, and loyalty. Sailors, mainly all non Italians, were referred to as

milites, as in the army, and were commanded in the same fashion as legionaries.

For the first two centuries of the Republic, Rome did not have a navy. It only

built one to engage with its first overseas power, the Carthaginians in the First

Punic War. The Senate ordered a fleet of 100 quinqueremes long warships with

five banks of oars, to be built in just sixty days.

The CorvusThe Romans were successful against the Carthaginians due to the

fact that they adapted their ship design so that they could fight on

their own terms the grappling hookcorvus was used to lock

onto the opponent ship so that Roman fighting men could board

it.

Roman invention ofcorvus

The Navys Main JobThe navy guaranteed freedom of trade for Rome, ensuring that the Mediterranean did in fact remain

Mare Nostrum our sea. For the pirates had at one stage wrecked havoc on the Roman economy

until Pompey swept the whole of the Mediterranean and successfully eliminated them.

Roman naval bases were at:

Misenum, near Naples the main one

the Rhine and

the English Channel.

The Wisdom of RomeFreedom suppressed and again regained bites with keener fangs than

freedom never endangered.

Cicero, On Moral Obligations.

Men do not care how nobly they live, but only how long, although it is within

the reach of every man to live nobly, but within no mans power to live long...

Seneca, Letters to Lucilius

Cicero No one can live happily who looks to himself alone and

transforms everything into a question of his own utility: youmust live for your neighbour, if you wish to live for yourself.

Seneca, Letters to Lucilius

Be like the cliff against which the waves continually break, but it stands

firm and tames the fury of the waters around it. Marcus Aurelius

Marcus Aurelius, Meditations


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15Latin Words and Phrases

Vigiles Urbani: These were a force or around 7,000 freedmen set up by

Augustus as a police and fire-brigade. They policed and patrolled the streets by

night and day with buckets of water, pumps, axes and hooks. Their legacy

remains in the name, for the local Italian police forces today are called Vigili

Urbani.

in digito clavus: Two familiar words make up this description of physical

discomfort - digitus means toe/finger in Latin and clavus is a nail (the word

clove derives from this because of the shape of the plant). One of the most distinctive sounds in

ancient Rome was the clatter of soldiers boots as they marched through the streets. Their boots,

much like sandals had nails fitted in the soles, (like sprigs) which enabled them to march long

distances over difficult terrain. The writer Juvenal complains of a sore foot stomped on in the

street by a solders hobnail boots.


AdjectivesRemember that adjectives describe a NOUN and therefore have to match that noun so

that the two can fit together.

Adjectives usually come AFTER the noun they describe. There are only a few

adjectives like this, that, that come in front. Make sure you get the right adjective for

the noun.

e.g. mea soror minima ingentem leonem necavit.

Adjectives must match the noun they describe. They must be the SAME gender, case

and number!

e.g. tribuni praetoriani; villam maritimam; aequo animo; puellas bellas

British CoinsCurrent new pence boast in honour of Elizabeth II, D.G.

REG.F.D ordei gratia regina fidei defensor(by the grace of

God, queen and defender of the faith.

The English

pound coins

edge revealsdecus et tutamen

(honour and

protection, used

as a reassurance that the coin isnt clipped as they

used to be in the 17th

century when the phrase ws

first used on a coin) comes from Virgils Aeneid V

and the full line is donat habere viro, decus et tutamen in armis.

gratias! me

delectat


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16 Periods of Roman HistorySee also Yr 9 Unit 1 Overview of Roman History on school website.

Century Important Dates Information

Descendants of Aeneas rule Alba Longa

700 BC

753 BC

Romulus founds Rome 753 BC

600 BC

Numa founds state religionTullus Hostilius warrior king

Ancus Martius extends Roman power

Tarquinius Priscus great builder

PeriodofKings

Servius Tullius reorganises people

Tarquinius Superbus tyrant, expelled 510BC500 BC BC 510

400 BC

300 BC

Long

series of

wars

ending

with the

defeat ofPyrrhus in

275 BC.

Rome now

controlled

all of Italy.

200 BC

BC 275

BC 264

BC 241BC 218

BC 202

The first Carthaginian War 264 241 BC

Second Carthaginian War 218 202 BC

Rome becomes the superpower of the Mediterranean

world 202 133 BC

100 BC

BC 133

Pe

riodoftheRepublic

A century of revolution and civil

wars: Sulla & Marius; Caesar &

Pompey; Octavius & Antony.

Octavius is master of the Roman

world 31BC and founds the

empire; in 27BC he is given the

name Augustus.BC 31

tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento

(hae tibi erunt artes), pacique imponere morem,parcere subiectis et debellare superbos.'Remember, Roman, it is for you to rule the nations withyour power, (that will be your skill) to crown peace with

law, to spare the conquered, and subdue the proud.

Aeneid. VI


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17

The Death of Cicero

Mark Antony sends troops to kill Cicero, who attempts to escape but eventually resigns

himself to death.

ubi Cicero Antonium effugere non poterat, ad villam maritimam iit. inde per

mare saepe navigare temptavit, sed venti adversi eum in portu tenebant.

tandem Cicero fugere noluit et ad villam, quae non procul a mari aberat, revenit.

servi pugnare volebant, sed Cicero eos iussit lecticam deponere et fortunam

suam aequo animo ferre. tandem milites Antonii eum ceperunt.

Cicerocervicem militibus dedit qui caput ceciderunt. manus quoque ceciderunt.

milites caput inter manus in foro posuerunt. multi Romani lacrimabant, quod

eloquentiam Ciceronis laudaverant.

Cicero, -onis (m) Cicero lectica, -ae (f) litter

Antonius, -i (m) Antony aequo animo with a calm mind

maritimus, -a, -um seaside cervis, -icis (f) neck

adversus, -a, -um adverse eloquentia, -ae (f) eloquence

Latin DiminutivesIn English the suffix _ette indicates a smaller size of something a

diminutive: E.g. cigarette is a small cigar. In Latin the suffix endings thatshow a word is a diminutive of another word are:

ulus, -a,-um; olus, -a, -um and -ellus, -a,-um

In Latin diminutives are used to express

Either:

AFFECTION or SMALLNESS of SIZE.e.g.

filiola = (dear) little daughter;

Caligula got the nickname little boots as a childfrom caliga, a boot.

Pliny the Elder

The sword shaped leaves of a certain

flower inspired Pliny to name that flowergladiolus (little sword);

ocelli (little eyes) from oculus, an eye.

Or:

MOCKERY e.g

homunculus (puny little weed of a man) from homo a man.The diminutive of puer ispuerulus; the feminine formpuerula is the

origin ofpuella, a girl.


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18

An Elephant Attack

elephantus in proelio graviter vulneratus erat. itaque vehementersaeviebat etad aciem Romanam procedebat. subito fecit magnum impetum in militem

quendam, qui iam territus tremebat. elephantus hominem miserum sub pede

premebat.

unus ex amicis, qui eum auxilium ferre volebat, audacter igitur bestiam

oppugnare constituit. elephantus tamen hoc vidit. corpus militis reliquit et

amicum irate petebat. deinde proboscidem sustulit et eum rapuit.

miles de vita sua desperabat. gladium cepit et proboscidemelephanti verberare

coepit. itaque elephantus, dolore motus, militem deposuit. elephantus cum

magna difficultate effugit et ad ceteras bestias se recepit.

elephantus, -i (m) elephant proboscis, -idis, (f) trunk

saevio, -ire, -ii, -itum to rage premo, -ere, pressi, pressum to crush

Romanus, -a, -um Roman

Some Sharp Wit from CiceroPublius Cornelius Lentulus Dolabella, the husband of Ciceros daughter, was a

man of small stature. Cicero, when he saw him wearing a long sword, asked:

who has tied my son-in-law to his sword?

P.Cornelius Lentulus Dolabella, Tulliae, Ciceronis filiae maritus, vir parvae

staturae erat. Cicero, cum eum longo gladio accinctum vidisset, interrogavit:

"Quis generum meum ad gladium alligavit?"

eheu. me miserum!


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19


Other Question Words:quot? = how many? quando? = whenquis? = who? quid? = what?

quo modo? = how? quantus, -a, -um? = how great/big?

quotiens? = how often qualis, -is, -e? = what kind of?

quo? = to where? unde? = from where?

cur? = why? ubi? = where?

NB Watch out for ubi without a question mark and referring to time = when.

Negative Commands in Latin (Dont!...) A command NOT to do something to ONE person is NOLI + INFINITIVE:

e.g. noli laborare!; noli ire!; noli spectare! A command NOT to do do something to MORE THAN ONE person is NOLITE +

INFINITVE:

e.g. nolite laborare!; nolite ire!; nolite spectare!

Superlative Adjectives in LatinAn adjective has THREE grades (positive, comparative and superlative). The superlative

changes the meaning of an ordinary adjective (positive) in English to:

very ....; the most ....; or simply ....est on the end of the adjective.

In Latin a superlative adjective always ends:

in .....issimus, -a, -um e.g.fortissimus, -a, -um = very brave

in .... illimus, -a, -um if the positive adjective ends inilis, -is, -ee.g. facillimus, -a, - um = very easy;

in ...errimus, -a, -um if the positive adjective ends iner, -a, -ume.g. miserrimus, -a, -um = very sad

Find the FOUR superlative adjectives in the next story! Make sure you translate them

correctly.

Did You Know?There are a million and a half species of plants and animals in the world, all named in Latin.

That is a lot of Latin!

gratias!

me delectat


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20


CasesEach noun in Latin has six cases or functions, both singular and plural, as follows:

Nominative Case the singular nominative case is always the first part of a noun given on a

word list e.g.feles, -is (c) cat.

The nominative case is used for the subject of the verb (verb and subject = your married

couple who go together) e.g. The cat likes mice!

Vocative Case is used when addressing someone or something by their name e.g. Cat, be

quiet! You will be fed.

In form it is identical to the nominative case except for the singular masculine 2nd

declension

which ends in e and not us.

Accusative Caseisusedfor all objects, in other words the nouns that gethit by the action of the verb e.g. the cat ate the rat.

It is also used after certain prepositions.

Genitive Case is used to showwho or what owns something and is the word in English

after of.. or with the apostrophes ors apostrophe eg. The cats claws are sharp or the

claws of the cat are sharp.

Dative Case is used with any kind of verb of speaking or giving TO

someone or something. E.g. One mouse gave the cheese to the other

mouse

Ablative Case - is used after certain prepositions and is used by itself to mean by / with /

from e.g. One mouse was filled with hope; the other mouse was overcome by love / the catdied from hunger.

Venenum = PoisonThis is the drink of the goddess of love, Venus. It had a range of

meanings from love potion, charm to remedy and poison. Its Englishderivative is venom. There were people in ancient Rome who

specialised in selling drugs to cure and to kill. The most famous poisoner

was Locusta who concocted poisons for Nero and increased their

potency if their result was not at first immediate.Venus

gratias! mevalde delectat.

eheu!

mortuus sum!

venenum malo.


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21 Caesar is Captured by PiratesIulius Caesar, iuvenis iter facere Rhodum constituit, ubi habitabat philosophus,

a quo philosophiam discere voluit. dum hieme Rhodum navigat, piratae navem

oppugnaverunt, et eum ad insulam quandam adduxerunt. ibi dux piratarum

pecuniam rogavit.

Caesar igitur iussit servum suum ad amicos ire et pecuniam comparare. postquam

servum dimisit, Caesarsollicitus nonerat. plurimos dies in insula mansit. piratae

saepe declarabant: servus tuus redire non audebit et te necabimus.

Caesar nihil dixitaliud quam hoc:mox vos omnes puniam. piratae eum

ridebant, quod captivum tam eloquentem numquam antea audiverant. sed Caesar

liberatus est, et de piratis supplicium celeriter sumpsit.

Caesar, -aris (m) Caesar pirata-ae (m) pirate

Rhodus, -i (f) Rhodes, town in Greece sollicitus, -a, -um worried

philosophus i (m) philosopher supplicium i (n) revenge

philosophia, -ae (f) philosophy

Noun Families

There are FIVE noun families in Latin. It is easy to work out which family a noun belongs to if

you look at its second part. A noun on any word list or dictionary will always have two parts and a

gender given, e.g puer, -i (m) boy; puella, -ae (f) girl.

Each family has a different set of endings for its second part. You can see this below from these

soldiers standing to attention in their families.

Families

EndingsAE I IS US EI

III

III

IV V


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22Parts of Speech on NCEA Word Lists

Nouns:These have TWO parts and a gender e.g.puella, -ae (f) girl

Verbs:These have FOUR parts and the English meaning starts with to ....e.g. amo, -are, -avi, -atum to love

An irregular verb does not have a 4th

part e.g. adsum, adesse, afui to be present

Adjectives:These have THREE parts e.g. bonus, -a, -um good, orfacilis, -is, -e easy.

Sometimes, if the masculine and feminine columns are the same, only two parts are given

e.g. facilis, -e easy.

Prepositions:These are little words that denote direction to or from a place or say where something is.

Prepositions are followed by either (+ Acc) or (+Abl) e.g. per (+Acc) through

Adverbs:These describe the verb saying how / when / where / why. In Latin adverbs have NO parts

e.g. ita thus, semper always, hic here

Conjunctions:These join sentences together (co-ordinating conjunctions) or attach a sentence to a main

sentence (subordinating conjunctions). Conjunctions have NO parts and are usually written

with (conjunction) beside them on the word list.

Common PrepositionsPrepositions used with the Accusative

Case:

ad to / towards

ante before

apud among / at the house of

circum around

contra against

extra outside

inter among, between

intra inside

per through

post after, behind praetor past, except

prope near

propter on account of, because of

trans across

ultra beyond

Prepositions used with the Ablative Case

a/ab by, from

cum with

de down from, about

e, ex out of

pro in front of, on behalf of, for

sine without

Prepositons that can take EITHER the accusative case OR the ablative case

in (with accusative) = into; (with ablative) = in

super over

sub under

See the

light!

ecce, ecce ...ad

nauseam!


23/55

23 TEN STEPSAND YOUCAN TRANSLATE!

1 Look at the the WHOLE sentence.

Make sure you break at commas, after each verb, before conjunctions and beforerelative pronouns (qui quae quod).

2 Circle all prepositional phrases and translate them LAST.

Make sure you include any adjective of genitive noun attached to them (Mother &

baby & nappy!)

3 Take each section in turn up to each break.

DO NOT move words out of clauses.

If a section starts with a conjunction (sed, postquam, quod etc) translate the

conjunction first followed by its clause.

4 In each section GO to the verb and DO NOT move from this stepping stone until youhave worked out

a) the person endingb) the tense endingc) whether it is a verb of speaking/giving. If it is, it will be followed by a noun in the

dative case.

d) Is it a command?5 MATCH the subject (noun in nominative case) with the verb they make a

matching COUPLE (both must be the SAME NUMBER.

Is there an adjective with the noun?If YES multi-task and translate it before the noun.

6 Go to the object (noun in the accusative case) it ends in M if singular and S ifplural.

Watch out for a neuter noun, especially in the plural = A (if in doubt use your

word list to check the gender of the noun).

Is there an adjective with this noun?If YES multi-task and translate it before the noun.

7 Have you a verb of speaking/giving?If YES look for another NOUN in the DATIVE case = TO.

Watch out for any adjective or participle agreeing with this noun.

8 Are there any nouns left that you have NOT translated?If YES are they attached to another noun and are they in the GENITIVE case? =

of. /s or s.

9 Go back to the circled prepositional phrases and translate them watching out foradjectives.

10 Review the whole sentence. Does it make sense?

Make sure you have NOT left words out and have NOT added extra words.If NOT then check your cases and the main verb.


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24Dona MilitariaVarious gifts or military decorations were given to a Roman soldier who had

distinguished himself in war. In itself it was not worth a lot but its value came

from its association with an act of bravery, much like our military medals today.

The commonest decoration was the hasta pura, a lance without a point on it,

which was awarded for wounding an enemy. For other courageous acts a

bracelet armilla, of a twisted necklace torques of gold could be awarded. The the

laurel leaves various types of crown corona were highly prized:

corona obsidionalis (wreath made of grass) for freeing a besieged army

corona civica (wreath made of oak leaves) for saving a life of a comrade in battle

corona muralis (crown in form of a city wall) for being first over the wall

corona vallaris (crown in form of a rampart) for being first to break into an enemys camp

corona aurea ( crown of gold) for distinguished conduct in a campaign

corona navalis (wreath with little ship prows) for being first to board an enemy ship

corona triumphalis ( crown of bay leaves) worn by victorious general in a triumphalprocession.

Medicine

HippocratesThe most famous Greek doctor Hippocrates (490BC) had an excellent

reputation and of course left us the

Hippocratic Oath which all doctors

graduating have to take. Many doctors

were Greek and they simply followed

another doctor around, picking up his

skills.

Alexandria and HerophilusSoon after its foundation, Alexandria in Egypt became famous as the

centre of science and learning. Its famous museum and library attracted

clever men from all over the known world who began to make discoveriesin all the sciences and medicine. Herophilus, the most famous

Alexandrian anatomist:

gave a detailed description of the brain,

explained the differences between tendons and nerves, arteries andveins, described the optic nerve and the eye, including the retina

measured the frequency of the pulse and used this to diagnose fever Aesculapius, god of healing

stressed the importance of hygiene, diet, exercise and bathing.

Martials Complains of the Medical ProfessionOften a Roman doctors reputation was founded on how few of his patients died.

I was feeling ill, but you, Symmachus, came to me straightaway, closely accompanied by 100

trainees. A hundred icy hands frozen by the North wind touched me. I did not have a fever,

Symmachus, but now I do.

languebam: sed tu comitatus protinus ad me

venisti centum, Symmache, discipulis

centum me tetigere manus aquilone gelatae:

non habui febrem, nunc habeo.

The Fight against Germs


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25

The Romans did not yet really understand how germs related to disease. They did not know

that germs can be carried by insects like mosquitoes or animals like rats. However they did use

many of the techniques/strategies that killed germs and prevented epidemics, (techniques not

reinvented until much later) which included:

boiling their tools before use;

not reusing the same tool on a patient before reboiling;

washing wounds with acetum, which is actually a better antiseptic thanJoseph Lister's carbolic acid (Joseph Lister rediscovered antiseptics in

the 1860's, based on Louis Pasteurs brand-new germ theory of disease);

placing forts away from insect infested swamps;

installing drains and sewers to transport sewage away from the men;Rattus rattus - black rat

inventing sophisticated permanent hospitals, with specialized rooms for different tasks, andwith isolation of some patients from others to reduce the spread of disease;

ensuring hospitals had central heating and good ventilation which helped patients.

Military Medical CorpsMedicine was a trial and error process, but the doctors were observant and carefully noted down any

treatment that worked and this knowledge was passed on and could besuccessfully utilized by the next doctor.

The fifteen-year civil war that followed the

assassination of Julius Caesar led to significant

medical innovations. The war was fought

between the best armies of the world and yielded

such high levels of injury that the newly

emerged emperor, Augustus, formed a

professional military medical corps.

Before this, doctors had fairly low status

(because they were mainly Greek?) Augustus,

gave all physicians that joined his new army medical Roman scalpelscorps dignified titles, land grants, and special retirement benefits!

Medical professionals hereafter were required to train at the new Army

Medical School and could not practise unless they passed. This

increased the success rates in treatments and the reputation of doctors.

For the next five hundred years, fueled by the motivations and

opportunity for medical advancement supplied by the many battles, and supported by the powers

that be, this serious group advanced the study and practice of medicine to a level not seen again

until late in the nineteenth century.

How A Doctor Earnt His ReputationOften a Roman doctors reputation was founded on how few of his patients died. Martial has this

witty poem about a doctor, named Diaulus:

Recently Diaulus was a doctor, now he is an undertaker. What he does now as an undertaker, he

had done also as a doctor.

nuper erat medicus, nunc est vispillo Diaulus:

quod vispillo facit, fecerat et medicus.


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26

Some Notable DoctorsRoman Forceps

Galen 130-200 AD) - the most well known Roman

doctor described many of the medical instruments

used by both Roman and Greek doctors. Under

Emperor Augustus, he compiled informative medical

texts and manuals and left behind detailed writing

about physiology and surgical processes, including

the various surgical instruments then in use. Pedanios Dioscorides (65 A.D.) - wrote a text on Herbal Medicine that was referred to

for the next 1500 years and is still in use today in alternative Medicine.

Soranus of Ephesus wrote on Obstetrics and Gynaecology.

PLINY COMMENTSPliny the Elder reminds us that even though doctors experiments on patients were often fatal, the

medical profession protected them from prosecution - it is the patients fault.

This is the only profession where anyone is immediately believed who

declares he is a doctor, when surely no untruth could be more dangerous.

Nevertheless, we arent bothered by that; each one of us is seduced by the

sweet hope of being healed. And there is no law which punishes the

ignorance which endangers us. They learn from our dangers, and their

experiments lead to deaths; and only doctors can commit murder with

impunity. Indeed the blame goes to the victim, who is chastised for self

indulgence and lack of restraint.

Minor surgery was regularly practised:

Tonsils are covered by a thin layer of skin. If they become hardened after inflammation, they

should be scratched round with a finger and drawn out. If they cannot be drawn out in this way,

they should be gripped with a hook and cut out with a scalpel. The hollow should then be rinsed

out with vinegar, and the wound smeared with something to check the blood.

Some Cures?The lack of scientific knowledge is reflected in some suggested Roman remedies - malaria was

believed to come from bad night air (malus aer). On the other hand, Roman doctors used cures that

have since been substantiated:

burnt sponge for goitre (ashes of sponge contain iodine);

red hot stone held against a wound to cauterise it,

chewing of castor oil berries for constipation,

and chewing sage for ulcers.Medicinal Propertiesof Some plants and Insects The cyclamen could prevent furhter loss of hair in balding

men if they sniffed it.

The peony flower was considered to have magical curativeproperties.

Bees were thought to be the messengers of the gods and their presence signified good fortune.


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27

Surgeons Knew

that arteries and veins carried blood;

how to use tourniquets, arterial clamps, and ligatures to stem bloodflow;

how to carry out amputation to prevent deadly gangrene, though thiswas done as a last resort and

how to reset broken bones with splints, and stitch up wounds.

And They Could make incisions, tie veins and arteries;

attempt difficult or very difficultoperations such as: operations for

cartaracts, removal of tonsils and

reduction of swelling on the brain.Although the quality of medical treatment in Roman RomanBone Drills

the ancient world naturally varied from one doctor to another, it is

probably true that the standards of the best doctors were not improved

upon in Western Europe until about the 20th

century.

Bone Levers

Join the Mou seketeerin W riting Dow nThese Gramm ar Notes!

Pronouns He, She, It

A pronoun standspro for /in place of a noun. These are little words like, he, she, it, they,

him, her or them.

In Latin the pronouns are expressed in three genders (masculine feminine and neuter) by the

words is, ea, id= he, she, it.For their cases and English meanings see the chart at the back of this book. Check how they

are used in the next story

e.g cives eum amabant= The citizens used to love him.

eum non novit = He did not know him.

Possessive AdjectivesThese always go with a noun usually in front of it and take the gender and case of their noun.

In Latin they are:

meus, -a, -um my

tuus, -a, -um your (of one person)

suus, -a, -um his/ her/ their (refers back to something belonging to the personof the verb)

noster, -stra, -strum our

vester, -stra, strum your (of more than one person)

gratias

bene ecisti!


28/55

28Latin TodayAbbreviations of Latin words are used in the writing of prescriptions by doctors.

Here are some. See if you can work out what they mean or stand for. The full

Latin is given in brackets to help you.

Aq (aqua) ut dict (ut dictum)

Dil. (dilue) t.i.d. (ter in die)

h.s. (hora somni) gtt. (guttae)

M.(misce) cap. (capiat)

R/ (recipe) o.d. (oculus dexter)

o.s. (oculus sinister) a.c. (ante cibos)

p.c. (post cibos) c. (cum)

s. (sine)

Heal Yourself

This is a story told about the great comic actor Roscius, a friend of Cicero.

Roscius erat actor notissimus. magnas divitias quoque habebat. cives eum

magnopere amabant quod semper ridebant. cotidie in forum ibat, ubi cum amicis

sermonem habebat; post meridiem ad thermas ibat et tum ad theatrum

procedebat. tandem, vespere appropinquante, domum revenit, ubi magnifice

cenavit.

sed Roscius tristissimus erat; neque sciebat cur tam tristis esset. dolorem non

removere poterat. postremo sibi dixit, morbus gravissimus mentem meam

opprimit.

itaque, Roscius auxilium ab medico petivit. quaeso, inquit, meam dolorem

remove! medicus tamen, quod semper occupatissimus erat, Roscium in theatro

numquam viderat. eum igitur non novit. tibi necesse est, inquit, saepe ridere. i ad

theatrum et comedias specta! ille Roscius te sanare potest.

Roscius, -i (m) Roscius esset he was

actor, -oris (m) actor postremo (adv) finally

sermo, -onis (m) conversation medicus, -i (m) doctor

meridies, -ei (m) noon quaeso please

thermae, -arum (fpl) baths comediae (f.pl) comediestheatrum, -i (n) theatre sano, -are to cure

vespere appropinquante with evening approaching


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29

Britain before Caesar

Men had lived in Britain for many thousands of years before

Caesars invasions. They had used, at first, only wooden, stone

or bone tools and weapons and lived in caves or pits. Their

existence depended on hunting and fishing and gathering wild

fruit and berries. By 3,000 BC however, the time of Neo-lithic

or New Stone Age, man had gained some knowledge of pottery

and building in wood. They had also begun to grow crops andto make woollen cloth, and had put into use the horse, cow,

sheep, goat and dog.

Shortly after 2,000 BC there were important newcomers to the

British Isles from across the North Sea, called the Beaker Folk.

They were a highly intelligent people, speaking an Indo-

European language and were the first in Central and Western

Europe to use metals. They were responsible for developing

trade (tin from Cornwall, gold from Ireland and amber beads)

with other parts of Europe. So we have in Greek writers the first

references to Britain. Herodotus mentions Cassiterides, the tin islands and Aristotle even has the

names Albion and Ierne for Britain and Ireland. From about 600 BC a regular trade route developedfrom Cornwall to Massilia (Marseilles).

Celtic tribes established themselves in Gaul, northern Italy and Spain, and even raided Rome itself in

390BC. The Celts began to arrive in the British Isles after 700BC and there was a continuous

immigration for nearly 800 years. These invaders included:

the Morini;

the Parisii (300 BC)

the Belgae (75BC) who came from a part of France called Gallia Belgica by the Romans.The Belgic tribes of south-east Britain were the most civilised in the country and applied their

knowledge of iron and other metals, not only to make beautiful objects, but also for making farm tools,

especially a new kind of plough which could break up the heavy clay soils of the valleys.

The Britons kept sheep and cattle and grew corn. Towns began to appear. There was trade with the

continent and coins were minted. The Britons were an artistic people and fond of personal adornment.

Metal pins, beads, bracelets and necklaces, some of very fine gold and enamel work have been found.

The Britons settled in family groups under tribal kings. Each small tribe was ruled by a chieftain, each

kingdom by a King or Queen. No-one had any idea of loyalty to the country as a whole, and there was

continual bitter warfare between the tribes. Their warriors who delighted in fighting were armed with

long slashing swords and heavy spears. They were driven into battle in light wooden chariots essedarii

pulled by two horses yoked together to a central shaft. It was their custom when going into battle to

paint their bodies with woad, a purple vegetable dye.

An influential class among the Britons were the Druids who were the priests, poets, teachers and

judges of the people. Their religion was a cruel one which included human sacrifice. The Druids were

men of intelligence and learning who influenced the people in the western part of the Roman Empire

and beyond. They practised a rough kind of medicine and surgery, and educated the young. They

taught the Britons to believe in many gods, and in the survival of the soul after death.


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30The Romans in BritainJulius Caesars InvasionsHe took the first step to conquer Britain, because he:

believed that Britain was rich in minerals and pearls

expected the sale of prisoners of war would also make the expedition profitable

wanted to punish the southern British tribes who had helped their kinsmen in Gaul againsthim.

His first attempt in 55BC was not a full scale invasion, because he wasforced to go back to Gaul when his ships were badly damaged by September

gales and winter was fast approaching.He was impressed by the Britonss

use and speed of their war chariots.

The next year he sailed with five legions and 2,000 cavalry from the port of

Boulogne. With this force he took the Thames and forced the submission of Cassivellaunus, the leader

of a group of British tribes. However his plans for a final conquest of Britain were thwarted by

uprisings in Gaul, and it was nearly 90 years before the Romans again attacked Britain.

Caligula Did Not Like ThisOnce, after a victory, when an essedarius (warcharioteer) was applauded for setting free the

slave who was his driver, Caligula was so

annoyed at the gesture that, leaving the

amphitheater in a huff, he tripped on the

fringe of his toga and fell headlong down the

steps, fuming that "The people that rule the

world give more honour to a gladiator for a

trifling act than to their deified emperors or to

the one still present with them" (Suetonius,

Life, XXXV.3). The Romans first met these

chariots when Caesar invaded Britain. They

did not get stuck in sand as were very light

weight.

The Province of BritainIn 43 AD the Emperor Claudius gave the order which initiated the Roman invasion and subsequent

occupation of Britain. Aulus Plautius, one of his best generals defeated the Britons in a battle on the

river Medway. Claudius came to make a triumphal entry into Camulodinum. Most of the tribes

of the south and east then submitted. Claudius returned to Rome, leaving behind his general as

governor of the new province of Britannia.

The west and north of Britain had yet to be conquered and the Roman army

was divided between the three, one part going north, one north-west, and one

south-west. The rapid advance of the armies was possible because of the good

roads which the troops made.

After the campaigns were over a permanent army of occupation remained in

the north and west of Britain numbering about 56,000 men. The Roman army

remained in Britain until the first part of the 5th century AD when the empire

was crumbling under the attacks of the barbarians.


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TownsThe degree to which civilisation spread to various parts of Roman Britain can best be seen in the

towns and villas of the island. Scattered about southeast England were numerous small towns, all more

or less Roman in character. Some seem to have been market towns or posting stations located along

Roman roads. Noteworthy are:

London (Londinium) - purely Roman and probably did not exist before the coming of theRomans. Its inhabitants were highly Romanised and there are many indications that Latin was

the spoken language.

Towns such as Exeter and Canterbury were allowed to remain organised on a tribal basis withlocal government matters left in the hands of the tribal aristocracy. Even on such towns as

these, however, Rome imposed her ideas of town planning.

And VillasAn adaptation of the Roman villa came to be a status symbol in Britain. These houses were not copies

of those built in Italy at that time, nor were they normally the homes of Italians settled in Britain. They

were the homes of native landowners. They contained such modern features as baths and central

heating. Landowners who lived in these villas were better housed than any other Britons until the 17th

century.

Join the M ouseketeer in W ritingDow n These Gram m ar Notes

Reflexive PronounsThese go back to the (he / she/ they) subject of the sentence e.g.

Feles se necavit = The cat killed itself (= not another he)

Demonstrative Adjectives / Pronouns: (pages 44-45)

These can be used by themselves as a pronoun i.e standing for a noun. Or they can beused as an an adjective to describe a noun. See pronoun chart

hic haec hoc = this ille illa illud = that

iste ista istud = that of yours

Demonstrative adjective only:ipse ipsa ipsum = self i.e. himself/herself/yourself/myself .

This does not add ANY meaning to the sentence. It is only used for EMPHASIS

A Little Bit of Humour For Those WhoKnow

A Latin teacher ordered a bottle of Hock in a restaurant and while he was waiting

for the waiter to bring it to him, he absent-mindedly declined the demonstrative

adjective hic, haec, hoc, hunc, hanc, hoc .....

When the wine had still not arrived twenty minutes later, he called over the waiter,

and asked, Didnt I order Hock?

Yes, sir, you did, replied the witty waiter, but then you declined it.

gratias. benefecisti!


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On his return to Rome, Caesar practiced law for a time, and then he studied oratory on the island of

Rhodes. He really won his way into high office through his ability as an orator and by the courting of

the people through lavish displays of generosity. In 68BC he was appointed quaestorin Spain. As

such he was assistant to the governor and also gained experience in conducting military campaigns.

As aedile in 65BC Caesar provided Rome with sumptuous spectacles and festivals. To do this he went

heavily into debt, but the money was well spent. In 63BC the people showed Caesar their appreciation

by electing him Pontifex Maximus. Caesar returned to Spain as praetor in 62BC and the following yearhe was governor of Farther Spain. Having thus complied with the cursus honorum he intended to run

for the office of consul. Encountering opposition from the Senate he allied himself with Crassus, a

man of great wealth and influence, and with the popular military leader Pompey.

How To Make Your Millions Crassus WayOne of the ways he got rich quick was to train up slaves to be builders and

architects. When Crassus got whiff of a house on fire, hed rush around and

offer the owner a deal not to be refused. The terrified owner usually sold up, as

even a bad price was better than nothing. Crassus then had the fire put out and

redeveloped the site for rent. The end result was eventually that Crassus owned a

huge part of Rome and became its first millionaire.

The Death of CrassusCrassus had invaded Parthia (modern Iran and Iraq) with a huge force, but was defeated at the

battle of Carrhae and the standards were lost. Twenty thousand Roman legionaries were killed

and then thousand captured. Crassus head was taken to the king of Parthia who was watching a

performance of a play that featured a decapitation. The leading actor resourcefully grabbed the

generals head and used it as a prop!

The First Triumvirate

The marriage of Pompey to Caesars daughter, Julia, helped to cement relations between Caesar andPompey. Caesar, Pompey and Crassus formed a coalition known as the First Triumvirate, for the

purpose of dividing among them the government of the Roman world. Caesar became consul in 59BC,

and in 55BC Pompey and Crassus shared the consulship. The same triumvirate secured the passage of

laws that were to their advantage (These three generals defined the shape of Roman history down to

the 40s BC. They all led armies, jockeyed for power, worked together and against each other

depending on circumstances, and all had violent deaths).

Pompey the Man!Pompey, the Great, was a legend in his own time and ever afterwards!

Pompey had risen to the top through his own talents, having started off

merely as an equestrian like Cicero. Pompey was the first equestrian toride in a triumphal chariot, but his chariot was pulled by elephants, a sight

never before seen in Rome. He cleared the Mediterranean of pirates and to

commemorate this event, paraded a costly portrait of himself made in

pearls. Was he the one who made precious stones and pearls fashionable?

At the same time he introduced fluorspar (calcium fluoride) translucent ornamental vessels to

Rome. He also had shipped to Rome from Greece an elementary computer which has only just

been found.

Oh, dont beso crass!


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The Three Gain

Caesar was by now well established in the favour of the people. At the end of his consulship, passage

by the Senate of theLex Vatinia made Caesar, for the unusually long period of five years, governor

of the three provinces:

Illyricum,

Cisalpine Gaul and

Transalpine Gaul.This term was later extended to ten years when the triumvirate came to a new agreement at Luca in

56BC. He left for Gaul in 58BC with four legions, five staff officers legati and a quaestor.

Pompey and Crassus also gained:

becoming consuls in 55BC as mentioned above,

followed by five year governorships of Spain and Syria respectively.

were granted funds for powerful armies like Caesar.

Caesars Strengths

Caesars military ability was equal to his talent as a politician and statesman.

his careful planning usually prevented unexpected crises;

he could keep control of the situation, even when a crisis did arise -many later generals, among

them Napoleon himself, have studied Caesars strategy, trying to learn from his he selected his subordinates for their ability, and then trusted them. His chief legatus, Labienus,

was a gifted staff officer, to whom Caesar could confidently assign the most dangerous and

difficult tasks.

he led from the front the last military commander in history to do so

Caesar and Pompey

During the period from 58BC to 49BC Caesar extended his province by conquering and pacifying the

whole of Gaul in a series of brilliant campaigns. He also crossed the Rhine into Germany and carried

out two invasions of Britain. At the same time he was creating enemies in Rome who tried to block his

candidacy for the consulship by persuading the Senate to insist that he should at first disband his army

and come to Rome as a private citizen. By now Crassus had been killed in Syria and Pompey had

joined the Senate in its opposition to Caesar -Julia had died in 54BC. Using as an excuse the fact that

the Senate had acted unconstitutionally by passing its resolution in spite of opposition from the two

tribunes of the people, Caesar led his army across the Rubicon, the boundary of his province. Thus

began the civil war between Caesar and Pompey. Nowadays the phrase crossing the Rubicon is used

to mean theres no going back, whatever the situation.

Caesar drove Pompey and his other enemies from Italy and then pursued them to Greece where he

defeated them at Pharsalus in 48BC. Pompey fled to Egypt where he was assassinated. However

Caesar had to inflict further defeats on the Senatorial parties in Africa and Spain before he could

regard himself as undisputed master of Rome.

Caesar the Dictator

During his few years as dictator Caesar brought much needed stability to the empire after many yearsof conflict between ambitious generals who had used their military might for their own advancement.

It had become quite clear the Republican constitution which had worked so well while Romes power

was confined to Italy was no longer suited to an empire which extended over much of the known

world.

Caesar introduced several laws which improved the situation by providing stronger central

government. He did not call himself king (a title detested by the Romans) but in the eyes of many he

was monarch in all but name, undoubtedly he thought he was saving Rome from anarchy. A plot was

formed against him by some committed Republicans who neither trusted nor understood him. Though


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jealousy motivated some of them, there is no doubt that others, including his friend Brutus, were

honest patriots, hoping to revive the Republic. Brutus was actually very ruthless -he had got himself

exempt from a cap on interest rates, lent out money at a ruinous 48% to people and then reinforced

repayments by murdering city councillors.

The Death of PompeyPompeys end was not great! He might have preferred the honourable option of committingsuicide than what he got.

He was murdered in Egypt by Pothinus and Achillas, two members of the Egyptian court of the

pro-Caesar boy-king Ptolemy XIII. He was killed and his head severed on the shores of Egypt.

Caesar turned up in hot pursuit only to be proudly shown Pompeys head.

Ptolemy hoped this would please Caesar and support him in his dispute with

his sister Cleopatra. He got that wrong.

Caesar was disgusted at Pompeys treatment and had Pothinus executed. He

placed Cleopatra on the Egyptian throne by giving the crown to her other

brother Ptolemy XIV whom she married (brother sister marriages were

normal for Egyptian rulers. Fortunately for Caesar Ptolemy was killed in an

attempt to attack the Roman force Caesar had brought with him. For goodmeasure Cleopatra became Caesars mistress and had a son by him,

Cleopatra Caesarion.

Pompeys Death Latin Versionubi Pompeius ad Aegyptum navigabat, silentium subito eum commovit. tamen

timorem sermone celare temptavit. se vertit ad Septimium, centurionem, nonne,

inquit, te cognovi? nonne quondam simul militabamus?

Septimius taciteadnuit. silentiumiterum cadere incepit, donec ad litus

pervenerunt. Pompeius surgere voluit et manum Philippi, liberti sui, prensavit, sed

Septimius eum gladio necavit.

Pompeius intellexit se moriturum esse. faciem toga velavit et omnes ictus fortiter

accepit. tum in harenam mortuus cecidit. sic Pompeius, Romanus insignis mortuus

est.

Aegyptus, -i (f) Egypt milito, -are to be soldiers

silentium, -i (n) silence adnuo, -ere, -ui to nod

Septimius, -i (m) Septimius harena, -ae (f) sand

donec until velo, -are to cover

Pompeius, - (m) Pompey Pompeius, - (m) Pompey

Philippus, -i (m) Philippus sexagisimus-a-um sixtieth

dies natalis (m) birthday sollicitudo, -inis (f) worry

prenso, -are to take hold of ictus, -us (m) strike/blow

sermo, -onis (m) conversation


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37Cleopatra and CaesarCaesar, postquam Pompeium Magnum in bello civile superaverat, dictator

factus est. Pompeius ad Aegyptum fugit. ibi Pothinus, libertus Ptolemaei, eum

necavit. Caesar igiturPtolemaeo non credebat. itaque, Caesar Alexandriam

advenit et Cleopatram arcessivit.

sed difficile erat Cleopatrae ad Caesarem venire, quod milites Ptolemaei vias

urbis complebant. Alexandria tamen canales habebat; nam flumen, quod per urbem

fluebat, in multos rivos dividit.

itaque Cleopatra in scapham conscendit et cum uno comite (Apollodorus) ad

aulam Ptolemaei navigavit. postquam Cleopatra in tapeta se convolverat,

Apollodorus eam in umeros sustulit et ad Caesarem portavit. hic dolus Caesarem

valde delectavit.

Caesar, -aris (m) Caesar Cleopatra, -ae (f) Cleopatra

Pompeius Magnus (m) Pompey the Great canal, -is (m) canal

civilis, -is, -e civil rivus, -i (m) stream

Aegyptus, -i (f) Egypt Apollodorus, -i (m) Apollodorus

Pothimus, -i (m) Pothinus scapha, -ae (f) little boat

Ptlolemaeus, -i (m) Ptolemy aula, -ae (f) palace

Alexandria, -ae (f) Alexandria tapeta, -ae (m) carpet

convolvo, -ere to roll up

David Beckhams Latin TattoosDavid Beckham has many tattoos on this body. He has attributed the many

tattoos to his obsessive-compulsive disorder, and claims to be addicted to

the pain of the needle.

April 2002 - Roman numeral VII (7) on his right forearm.

May 2003 - Latin phrase "Perfectio In Spiritu", meaning "Spiritual

Perfection", on his right arm.

May 2003 - More Latin, "Ut Amem Et Foveam" or "So That I Love And Cherish", on his

left arm. 2003 - Classical art design on his right shoulder


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Picture from the bookHow toInsult,Abuse andInsinuate in Classical Latin: Michelle Lovric,

Nikiforos Doxiadis MardasCleopatra and Mark AntonyCleopatra declares that she can beat Mark Antony in a competition to see who can consume

the most expensive dinner party dish.

postquam Antonius cibum exquisitum in mensas posuerat: quid melius est,

inquit, quam haec cena? tamen Cleopatra, quae duas margaritas maximas

possidebat, respondit: ego centiens HS in una cena edere possum.

postridie, Cleopatra et Antonius sponsiones inter se fecerunt. tum Cleopatra cenam

magnificam in mensas posuit. Antonius ridens pretium cenae postulavit. Cleopatra

ei respondit: haec cena adhuc tibi donum est. mox ego sola centiens HS edam.

itaque Cleopatra servos suos iussit mensam secundam ferre. servi ante eam

posuerunt vas aceti quod acetum margaritas dissolvere poterat.

tum Cleopatra removit unam margaritam e duabus, quae de auribus pendebant.

deinde margaritam in acetum imposuit et bibit. iudex tamen sponsionis, amicus

Antonii, alteram margaritam cepit, quam Cleopatra etiam bibere parabat, et

clamavit, Cleopatra Antonium superavit.

margarita, -ae (f) pearlCleopatra, -ae (f) Cleopatra (queen of Egypt)

Antonius, -i (m) Antony (a mans name)

exquisitus, -a, -um exquisite, choice

magnificentia, -ae (f) magnificence

centiens HS 100 thousand sesterces

sponsio, -ionis (f) bet

vas, vasis (n) dish

acetum, -i (n) vinegar

dissolvo, -vere, -vi, -utum to dissolve


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39The Death of Cleopatra and AntonyOctavian defeats Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium 31 BC and becomes sole ruler of

the Roman world.

Antonius, qui Asiam et Orientem tenebat, Cleopatram, reginam Aegypti,

uxorem duxit. inde ingens bellum civile excitavit. Cleopatra, quae cupiebat etiam

in urbe Roma regnare, auxilium dabat.

Octavianus autem Antonium in pugna navali apud Actium, qui locus in Epiro

est, superavit. tum Antonius in Aegyptum fugit. omnes milites eius ad

Octavianum transierunt. ipse se gladio necavit. Cleopatra post mortem Antonii

aspidem ad pectus suum applicavit et veneno eius mortua est.

ita Octavianus, postquam bella per totum orbem confecit, Romam rediit, etrempublicam per quadraginta et quattuor annos solus regnavit.

Antonius, -i (m) Antony navalis, -is, -e naval

Asia, -ae (f) Asia Actium, -i (n) Actium

Oriens, -tis (m) East Epirus, -i (m) Epirus

Cleopatra, -ae (f) Cleopatra aspis, -dis (f) asp

civilis, -is, -e civil pectus, -oris (n) breast

Octavianus, -i (m) Octavian applico, -are to apply

Omens of Caesars DeathThe Romans loved the idea of bad and good omens and especially liked to watch

out for clues through soothsayers that bad things were coming. Caesar is said to

have sacrificed an animal that turned out to have no heart, but much more

ominously a soothsayer, named Spurinna, warned him that some great danger

would come to him not later than the Ides of March. Caesar had a dream he was in

heaven, and on the morning of 15th

March, he hesitated to go out, leaving late.

videre est

credere


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40A Soldier s Solution Does Not Work.Manlius arma sua semper curabat, quod centurio omnes milites arma curare iusserat.

cotidie igiturManlius gladium purgabat et poliebat, sed gladium splendidum facere

non poterat. galea erat sordida, quoque scutum. tandem Manlius arma ad

centurionem tulit.

caudex! inquit centurio, haec arma sunt sordidissima. volo meam faciem sicut in

speculo videre. noli redire nisi cum armis bene nitidis! deinde centurio Manlium

verberavit. Manlius dolore motus, celeriter fugit.

tandem ad contubernium festinavit et amicum petivit.

salve, inquit. arma tua splendidissima semper sunt. da mihi tua arma.

mox Manlius ad centurionem revenit et ei arma ostendit.

hercle, inquit centurio, haec arma sunt splendidissima. mea facies sicut in speculo

videre possum. tu bene fecisti. dehinc semper tua arma tam bene polita videre volo.

Manlius, -i (m) Manlius speculum, -i (n) mirroir

purgo, -are, -avi, -atum to clean nitidus, -a, -um shining bright

polio, -ire, -ivi, -itum to polish contubernium, -i (n) tent

galea, -ae (f) helmet hercle (adv) by Hercules

sordidus, -a, -um dirty dehinc (adv) from now on

caudex, -icis (m) blockhead politus, -a, -um polished

Revision - The Roman Legionary1. gladius2. lorica3. pugio4. pilum5. caligae6. bracae / fasciae7. galea8. scutum

9. umbo10.cingulum11.balteus


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41Caesars Assassination as Reported bySuetoniusThese warnings and a touch of ill health, made him hesitate for some time whether to go

ahead with his plans, or whether to postpone the meeting. Finally Decimus Brutus

persuaded him not to disappoint the Senate, who had been in full session for an hour or

more, waiting for him to arrive. It was about ten oclock when he set off for the House.

As he went, someone handed him a note containing details of the plot against his life, but he merely

added it to the bundle of petitions in his left hand, which he intended to read later. Several victimswere then sacrificed, and despite consistently unfavourable omens, he entered the House, deriding

Spurinna the soothsayer as predicting falsely. The Ides of March have come, replied Spurinna, but

they have not yet gone.

As soon as Caesar took his seat, the conspirators crowded around him as if to pay their respects.

Tillius Cimber, who had taken the lead, came up close, pretending to ask a question. Caesar made a

gesture of postponement, but Cimber caught hold of his shoulders. This is violence! Caesar cried,

and at that moment one of the Casca brothers slipped behind him and with a sweep of his dagger

stabbed him just below the throat. Caesar grasped Cascas arm and ran it through with his stylus; he

was leaping away when another dagger caught him in the breast. Confronted by a ring of drawn

daggers, he drew the top of his gown over his face, and at the same time ungirded the lower part,

letting it fall to his feet so that he would die with both legs decently covered. Twenty three daggerthrusts went home as he stood there. Caesar did not utter a sound after Cascas blow had drawn a

groan from him; though some say that when he saw Marcus Brutus about to deliver the second blow,

he reproached him in Greek with: You too, my son?

The Murder of Caesar

simulac Caesar sedebat, conspirati eum circumvenerunt. statim Tillius Cimber ei

appropinquavit, quasi aliquid rogare volebat, sed Caesar aliud tempus proposuit.

Cimber togam Caesaris apprehendit qui clamavit sed haec vis est.

tum alius e conspiratis Caesarempauluminfra iugulum vulneravit. dum Caesar

surgere temptabat, aliud vulnus accipit. omnes enim conspirati pugionibusstrictis

eum petebant. itaque Caesartoga caput obvolvit atque ita tribus et viginti plagas

tacitus accepit. postquam conspirati effugerunt, Caesaraliquamdiu iacebat, donec

servi eum domum rettulerunt.

Caesar, -aris (m) Caesar paulum (adv) a little

conspiratus, -i (m) conspirator infra (+acc) below

Tillius Cimber (m) Tillius Cimber iugulum, -i (n) throat

propono, -ere, -sui, -situm to suggest toga, -ae (f) toga

apprehendo, -ere, -di, -sum to seize obvolvo, -ere, vi,utum to cover over

pugio, -ionis (m) dagger plaga, -ae (f) blow

strictus, -a, -um drawn aliquamdiu (adv) for some time

donec (conjunc) until


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42The Key Roman CompetenciesThere must be ideals and standards existing in a society or a satirist cannot measure a decline, and

point out how far behaviour falls short of what it should be, not that the Roman satirists ever set

out to improve the society they were making f

Yr10 Unit I Roman Britain

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