Work-In-Progress Poster Proceedings of the 23rd ... · 23rd International Conference on Computers...

Work-In-Progress Poster

Proceedings of the

23rd International Conference

on Computers in Education

ICCE 2015

November 30 - December 4, 2015

Hangzhou, China

Copyright 2015 Asia-Pacific Society for Computers in Education

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,

transmitted, in any forms or any means, without the prior permission of the Asia-Pacific

Society for Computers in Education.

ISBN 978-4-9908014-8-9

Publisher

ICCE 2014 Organizing Committee

ICT Unit, Center for Graduate Education Initiative, Japan Advanced Institute of Science and Technology

1-1, Asahidai, Nomi, Ishikawa, 923-1292, Japan

Editors

Tatsunori MATSUI Ahmad Fauzi Mohd AYUB

Bo JIANG Hiroaki OGATA

Weiqin Chen Siu Cheung KONG

Feiyue QIU

TABLE OF CONTENTS # Paper title and authors Pages C1: Artificial Intelligence in Education/Intelligent Tutoring System (AIED/ITS) and Adaptive Learning 1 Avatar as Open Student Model to Enhance Student Learning

Zhi-Hong CHEN, Chih-Hao CHIEN & Chih-Yueh CHOU

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2 Cognitive Conflict in Forum Discussions on Scientific Topics Jürgen BUDER, Brett BUTTLIERE & Anne BALLMANN

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C2: Computer-supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) and Learning Sciences 3 Developing the Collaborative Problem Solving Scale

Che-Li LIN & Sing-Jung TSAI

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4 Need For Cognitive Closure as Determinant for Guidance in Wiki-Based Learning Sven HEIMBUCH & Daniel BODEMER

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5 Experimental Use of Error-Based Simulation for Dynamics Problems in National Institutes of Technology Tomoya SHINOHARA, Takahito TOMOTO, Tomoya HORIGUCHI, Atsushi YAMADA, Sho YAMAMOTO, Yusuke HAYASHI & Tsukasa HIRASHIMA

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C4: Classroom, Ubiquitous, and Mobile Technologies Enhanced Learning (CUMTEL) 6 Making Electronic Textbook for College Chemistry-experiment

Akira IKUO, Yusuke YOSHINAGA & Haruo OGAWA

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C5: Digital Game and Digital Toy Enhanced Learning and Society (GTEL&S) 7 The Game-based Learning Activity Integrating Board Game and Mobile

Online Searching Tasks for History Learning Huei-Tse HOU & Yi-Hui Lin

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C6:Technology Enhanced Language Learning (TELL) 8 Learning Design in Combination of Mobile Application for Summary

Speaking Task by Self-study and Pair Work in a Class Kae NAKAYA & Masao MUROTA

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C7: Practice-driven Research, Teacher Professional Development and Policy of ICT in Education (PTP) 9 Opportunities and Challenges in Implementing Digital Equity Initiatives

in Remote Areas in Taiwan Chientzu Candace CHOU

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10 Influence Of Learning On Realistic Mathematics Ict-Assisted

Mathematical Problem Solving Skills Students Veny SEPTIANY, Sigid Edy PURWANTO & Khoerul UMAM

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11 An Investigation into Students’ Writing Process Using Digital Pens in Exercises During Lessons Yuki MORI, Takayuki AMIOKA, Hironori EGI & Shigeto OZAWA

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Ogata, H. et al. (Eds.) (2015). Proceedings of the 23rd International Conference on Computers in Education. China: Asia-Pacific Society for Computers in Education

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Avatar as Open Student Model to Enhance Student Learning

Zhi-Hong CHENac*, Chih-Hao CHIENa, Chih-Yueh CHOUbc

aDepartment of Information Communication, Yuan Ze University, Taiwan bDepartment of Computer Engineering and Science, Yuan Ze University, Taiwan cInnovation Center for Big Data and Digital Convergence, Yuan Ze University, Taiwan

*[email protected]

Abstract: In this paper, we describe My-Hero system that is an open student model system developed to enhance student learning, including promoting their awareness, improving, and interaction. Since awareness is a key element for triggering behavior change (e.g., improving and interaction), enhancing students’ learning awareness is the first step to change their behaviors. Thus, the learning process of the My-Hero system is initiated by enhancing learning awareness via open student model. In this way, students’ effort can be guided in improving their current status and peer interaction.

Keywords: Avatar, open student model, learning awareness

1. Introduction In the research filed of technology-enhanced learning, students’ data (e.g.., profiles and portfolios) collected by educational systems to know what, how, and why the students learn is a critical element (Self, 1988). This is because students’ data can enable educational systems to “understand” students, and further “care” them in some ways, such as providing students with more adaptive instructions according to their learning progress, or offering students different learning strategies based on their various learning styles. In addition, students’ data not only can enable educational systems to understand students, but also promote their self-awareness and self-control through presenting these data to the students themselves—the concept of Open learner model, OLM (Bull, Gardner, Ahmad, Ting, & Clarke, 2009; Vélez, Fabregat, Bull, & Hueva, 2009).

Open student model refers to making students’ learning data collected by educational systems “visible” to the students themselves. With open student model, students can know what they have learned and have not mastered by interacting with the open student model. In other word, open student model can be regarded as an external representation of students’ profiles or portfolios. Students have more opportunities to observe, control, edit, or negotiate their learning status with educational systems. Thus, such “visible“ and “open” features can benefit students in several aspects, including a planning basis for learning goals, better communication between systems and students and more self-assessment and reflection about learning (Bull & Nghiem, 2002; Mitrovic & Martin, 2002; Zapata-Rivera & Greer, 2002). Because of the significances, different technologies have been explored to promote the use of open student model. One of technologies is virtual characters in different visual forms, such as virtual characters, virtual pets, and avatars. Based on the learning by teaching, virtual characters are used to enhance students’ self-regulatory skills (Kinnebrew et al., 2015). Based on the psychology of emotional attachment to pets, virtual pets are used as open student model to promote students’ self-reflection (Chen, 2012). Based on the game technology for engaged learning, avatars are applied to educational settings (Dickey, 2007). More specifically, students can project themselves into the game world. With the representation of avatars, students not only could see what they do, but also observe the results from a first-person viewpoint, which could enhance students’ feelings of engagement, tele-presence, and even serve as their second-self or alter-ego (Qiu & Benbasat, 2005).

In addition, avatars can be further related to narrative or storytelling that can foster system communication and students’ participation in learning activities (Alexander, 2011). From the historical perspective, narrative and story are one of useful approaches to accumulating experience, knowledge and culture (Lebowitz, & Klug, 2011; Crawford, 2012). Additionally, from the perspective of brain science, narrative and story are also a critical structure of remember and process


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(Gottschall, 2012). When information is conveyed in the form of story, human can remember it effectively and efficiently. In other words, narrative and story can be regarded as a potential means to transmit, communicate, and share ideas and knowledge.

Although avatars have been applied to game-based learning, few studies investigate their possible application in the use of open student model, and further examine their influences. Thus, this study proposes an educational system named My-Hero as open student models to promote students’ efforts in improving their learning status and peer interaction. By developing this system, the influences of such learning systems can be further examined in the future.

2. My-Hero system In My-Hero system, every student owns a hero to represent their learning status. On one hand, the student can be more aware of their current learning status, such as what has learned and what have not learned, and not attempted. On the other hand, the student can make efforts to improve their current status by leveling the hero. In addition, students’ heroes can be used in peer competition, where the results are determined by the strength of heroes. Through hero competition, students’ motivation to improve their heroes can be also enhanced. The My-Hero system contains three components: leveling, OLM, and competition components. The details are described as follows: Regarding leveling component (see Figure 1a), the goal of this component is to promote students’ awareness through the technique of leveling avatars, where students need to correctly answer a set of questions to level their heroes. In other words, to level their heroes, students are guided to learn materials, and then answer related questions. In particular, each question is related to core concept of materials. Thus, during this process, students’ learning status can be diagnosed by analyzing the results of answering these questions. In this way, students have more opportunities to further remedy their problems through the following component.

(a) Leveling component (b) OLM component: macro view

Figure 1. Snapshots of My-Hero system Regarding OLM component, the goal of this component is to point out the directions in improving learning status through the technique of open student model, which can indicate which concepts students have mastered or which concepts student do not master according to the results of answering questions. In particular, the representation of OLM is implemented in the graphic format with two views: macro view (see Figure 1b) and micro views (see Figure 2a). Taking the subject domain of programing language as an example, the former reveals the five core concepts: variable, flow control, application, array, and function. Students not only can observe their learning status in terms of the five concepts, but also the comparison with the peers in terms of the five concepts. The latter shows the detailed correct ratio of each question for a specific concept by 4-color-coded approach: white means “not attempted”; green implies “excellent”; yellow denotes “moderate”; red means “poor”. In this way, the students can quickly get the idea of what the learning status for this concept. Regarding competition component (see Figure 2b), the goal of this component is to foster students’ social interaction via the technique of surrogate competition (Chen & Chen, 2014), which makes students compete against each other via their avatars in the games. In the My-Hero system,


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this component is implemented by a peer-based arena mechanism, where students can find another peer to have a surrogate competition based on the comparison of the data in the open student model.

(a) OLM component: micro view (b) Competition component

Figure 2. Snapshots of My-Hero system References Alexander, B. (2011). The New Digital Storytelling: Creating Narratives with New Media: Creating Narratives

with New Media. ABC-CLIO. Bull, S., Gardner, P., Ahmad, N., Ting, J., & Clarke, B. (2009). Use and trust of simple independent open

learner models to support learning within and across courses. In User Modeling, Adaptation, and Personalization (pp. 42-53). Springer Berlin Heidelberg.

Bull, S. & Nghiem, T. (2002). Helping Learners to Understand Themselves with a Learner Model Open to Students, Peers and Instructors, in P. Brna & V. Dimitrova (eds), Proceedings of Workshop on Individual and Group Modelling Methods that Help Learners Understand Themselves, International Conference on Intelligent Tutoring Systems 2002, 5-13.

Chen, Z. H. (2012). We care about you: Incorporating pet characteristics with educational agents through reciprocal caring approach. Computers and Education, 59(4), 1081-1088.

Chen, Z. H., & Chen, Y. S. (2014). When educational agents meet surrogate competition: Impacts of competitive educational agents on students’ motivation and performance. Computers and Education, 75, 274-281

Crawford, C. (2012). Chris Crawford on interactive storytelling. New Riders. Dickey, M. D. (2007). Game design and learning: A conjectural analysis of how massively multiple online

role-playing games (MMORPGs) foster intrinsic motivation. Educational Technology Research and Development, 55(3), 253-273.

Gottschall, J. (2012). The storytelling animal: How stories make us human. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Kinnebrew, J.S., Gauch, B., Segedy, J.R., & Biswas, G. (2015). Studying Student use of Self-Regulated

Learning Tools in an Open-Ended Learning Environment. In Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Artificial Intelligence in Education. Madrid, Spain. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 9112, 185-194.

Lebowitz, J., & Klug, C. (2011). Interactive storytelling for video games: A player-centered approach to creating memorable characters and stories. Taylor & Francis.

Mitrovic, A. & Martin, B. (2002). Evaluating the Effects of Open Student Models on Learning, in P. De Bra, P. Brusilovsky & R. Conejo (eds), Adaptive Hypermedia and Adaptive Web-Based Systems, Proceedings of Second International Conference, Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg, 296-305.

Qiu, L. & Benbasat, I. (2005). An investigation into the effects of Text-To-Speech voice and 3D avatars on the perception of presence and flow of live help in electronic commerce, ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction, 12(4), 329 – 355.

Self, J. A. (1988). Bypassing the intractable problem of student modeling. Proceedings of Intelligent Tutoring Systems, 88, Montreal, Canada.

Vélez, J., Fabregat, R., Bull, S., & Hueva, D. (2009). The Potential for Open Learner Models in Adaptive Virtual Learning Environments. In AIED 2009: 14 th International Conference on Artificial Intelligence in Education Workshops Proceedings (p. 11).

Zapata-Rivera, J. D. & Greer, J. E. (2002). Exploring Various Guidance Mechanisms to Support Interaction with Inspectable Learner Models, Intelligent Tutoring Systems: 6th In-ternational Conference, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, 442-452.


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Cognitive Conflict in Forum Discussions on Scientific Topics

Jürgen BUDER*, Brett BUTTLIERE & Anne BALLMANN

Leibniz-Institut für Wissensmedien, Tübingen, Germany *[email protected]

Abstract: An online experiment (N = 96) explored which factors encourage readers to respond in an online forum discussion about the pros and cons of alternative medicine. After indicating their attitude on this issue, participants read an online discussion containing 24 pro and con posts about alternative medicine. Thus, cognitive conflict could be computed as the distance between person and post. Furthermore, participants had the opportunity to respond to whichever post(s) they liked. Results indicated that greater cognitive conflict was associated with higher likelihood of responding. This effect was attenuated in posts with high emotionality. Finally, greater conflict was associated with longer responses. Implications for research in CSCL and social psychology are discussed.

Keywords: Cognitive conflict, attitudes, online forum discussions

1. Introduction Communication lies at the heart of any computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) activity, as without communication there is no collaboration. Moreover, since Cohen’s (1994) seminal paper it is held that there is a positive relationship between communication and learning: individuals learn in cooperative or collaborative settings inasmuch as they discuss within their group.

It has long been held that some types of discussions might be more beneficial for groups than others. Based on Piagetian notions, Doise and Mugny (1984) posited in their socio-cognitivist approach that group discussions are particularly fruitful if group members have different viewpoints on an issue. This should give rise to cognitive conflicts in an individual, expressed by the Piagetian learning mechanisms of disequilibration and equilibration through assimilation or accommodation (Piaget & Inhelder, 1969). Consequently, some collaborative learning methods are explicitly geared at creating cognitive conflict in a group (e.g. Johnson & Johnson, 1979).

Large parts of CSCL research investigate discussion patterns among learners and try to unravel how cognitive conflicts among learners can be negotiated to create joint meaning and better understanding (e.g. Stahl, 2005). However, most of these studies examine patterns of discussion in individual case studies. The present study tries to uncover some factors that explain patterns of group discussions on a more general (and potentially generalizable) level. It partially replicates and builds on an earlier study which used the think-aloud approach on a much smaller sample (Buder & Rudat, 2014). 2. The Present Study While previous research has provided ample evidence that cognitive conflict leads to learning (Johnson & Johnson, 1979), and that participation leads to learning (Cohen, 1994), the present study explores the “missing link”, i.e. the relationship between cognitive conflict and participation (without looking at learning results). In order to test for this relationship, cognitive conflict was defined as the absolute distance between an individual’s attitude and the attitude expressed through an utterance that the individual processes. In order to keep the “external” part of cognitive conflict constant, it was decided to investigate our research questions in an online experiment. In the context of a controversial online forum discussion about a scientific topic (alternative medicine), all participants of our study were confronted with the same discussion posts. The posts were constructed and pretested such that they varied in their expressed “attitude” as well as their emotionality.

Participants were given the opportunity to respond to whichever post they wanted to. It was expected that greater cognitive conflict (distance between a reader’s attitude and a post’s attitude)


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would lead to a higher likelihood of responding. Following inconclusive results in our previous think-aloud study (Buder & Rudat, 2014), we did not hypothesize about the influence of post emotionality. 3. Method 96 German-speaking participants, recruited through a university portal for psychological experiments, finished the online study (29 male, 67 male, average age 25.8 years). The material consisted of a fictitious online discussion about the advantages and disadvantages of alternative medicine. An initial discussion entry was followed by 24 actual discussion posts (12 providing arguments in favor, and 12 providing arguments against the use of alternative medicine). Moreover, half of the discussion posts were composed in an emotional style, using emotionally laden words. Exact attitude ratings and emotionality ratings of each post (on Likert scales) were yielded through prior testing.

In the main study, participants first had to rate their attitude with regard to the topic (for vs. against the use of alternative medicine) on a 6-point Likert scale. After that, the alternative medicine discussion was displayed on a computer screen. By clicking on a box adjacent to each discussion post, participants could indicate that they would like to respond to this message. Participants were then given the opportunity to write their reply in a text box that opened upon clicking on the box. Participants were not requested or required to respond at all.

In order to test our assumptions, we computed a set of multiple regressions. First, we looked at the relationship of reader attitude and post attitude on the likelihood of responding. Then we added post emotionality into the regression equation. Finally, we explored the impact of these variables on response length of messages. 4. Results The first regression model tested the likelihood of responding to a discussion post based on reader attitude and post attitude. As expected, neither reader attitude alone (z = -.354, p = .72) nor post attitude alone (z = 1.755, p = .08) predicted response likelihood. However, the reader attitude by post attitude interaction was significant (z = -3.381, p < .01). The relationship between cognitive conflict (reader attitude – post attitude) and response rate is depicted in Figure 1. The larger the cognitive conflict, the more likely it is that a participant responded on the controversial issue of alternative medicine.

Figure 1. Relationship between cognitive conflict and likelihood of responding

A second analysis added post emotionality into the regression equation. Once again, neither reader attitude (z = -1.367, p = .17) nor post attitude (z = 1.127, p = .26) predicted participation rate.


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Moreover, emotionality of a post did not have a direct effect (z = 1.585, p = .11). However, apart from the expected 2-way interaction between reader attitude and post attitude (z = -3.894, p < .01) we also yielded a significant 3-way interaction between reader attitude, post attitude, and post emotionality (z = 2.705, p < .01). Further analyses showed that post emotionality had a moderating effect on cognitive conflict. Participants were less likely to respond to a highly conflicting post when that post was emotionally laden rather than neutral. In contrast, participants were more likely to respond to a non-conflicting post when it was emotionally laden rather than neutral.

Finally we examined the impact of reader attitude, post attitude, and post emotionality on the length of response (number of characters). The only significant term of the regression equation (again) was a 2-way interaction between reader attitude and post attitude (z = -3.534, p < .01). This finding indicates that greater conflict (person attitude x post attitude interaction) is related to longer responses. However, the absence of main effects or interactions involving post emotionality suggests that the emotionality of a message does not have an influence on message length. 5. Discussion

An online study with 96 participants showed clear evidence that readers of online discussion forums on controversial scientific issues are more likely to respond to a discussion post the more this post deviates from their attitude. They did not only respond more when a post was conflicting, their responses also tended to become longer – conflict breeds online productivity.

This study was conducted in an informal learning setting. However, we are confident that some of the findings also apply to “typical” CSCL fields (institutionalized, formal learning scenarios): practitioners are well advised to frame scientific issues in terms of controversies. This will increase cognitive conflicts in learners, and generate more discussion. As active participation in a discussion requires deep elaboration of one’s thoughts, conditions conducive to learning might be the result.

The current study also has interesting implications for social psychology as its results are in contradiction to the well-established tendency of people to attend to non-conflicting information (confirmation bias; Hart, Albarracin, Eagly, Brechan, Lindberg, & Merrill, 2009). The fact that we have essentially found a kind of “disconfirmation bias” with regard to online discussion forum behavior raises a couple of interesting theoretical questions: Is there an underlying mechanism behind these two conflicting findings? Under what conditions does a confirmation bias turn into a disconfirmation bias? We are currently exploring these questions in a series of further experiments, ultimately hoping to uncover some of the mechanisms that explain how people deal with and learn from conflicting pieces of information. Acknowledgements This study was funded by the Leibniz ScienceCampus Tübingen “Informational Environments”. References Buder, J. & Rudat, A. (2014). Antecedents of replies and non-replies in online discussion forums: Evidence

from a think-aloud study. In Liu, C.-C. et al. (Eds.) Proceedings of the 22nd International Conference on Computers in Education. Japan: Asia-Pacific Society for Computers in Education (pp. 19-21).

Cohen, E. G. (1994). Restructuring the classroom: Conditions for productive small groups. Review of Educational Research, 64, 1-35.

Doise, W., & Mugny, G. (1984). The social development of the intellect. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hart, W., Albarracin, D., Eagly, A. H., Brechan, I., Lindberg, M. J., & Merrill, L. (2009). Feeling validated versus being correct: A meta-analysis of selective exposure to information. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 555-588.

Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T. (1979). Conflict in the classroom: Controversy and learning. Review of Educational Research. 49, 51–69.

Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (1969). The psychology of the child. NY: Basic Books. Stahl, G. (2005). Group cognition: Computer support for collaborative knowledge building. Cambridge, MA:

MIT Press.


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Developing the Collaborative Problem Solving Scale

Che-Li LIN a* & Sing-Jung TSAIb

a Research Center for Curriculum and instruction, National Academy for Educational Research, Taiwan

bLanguage Center, SooChow University, Taiwan *[email protected]

Abstract: The present study aims to develop the “Collaborative problem solving scale”, which is able to reveal the collaborative problem solving competency. The participants of this study were 76 high school students (tenth graders) who received a collaborative problem task for 70-80minutes. After completing the collaborative problem solving task, the participants filled out the preliminary version of “Collaborative problem solving scale”. Exploratory factor analysis was conducted and four major subscales yielded: “Reflect”, “Propose”, “Passive”, and “Role”. Based on the results, the scale will be subjected to further analysis such as correlation analysis and multiple regression analysis with other scales so as to further examine the criterion-related validity of this “Collaborative problem solving scale” (CPSS).

Keywords: Collaborative problem solving, Educational technology

1. Introduction Collaborative problem solving has been recognized as a critical ability for modern citizens in such situations as international collaboration across countries (Serçe et al., 2011; Veerman, 2001). Developing the scale of collaborative problem solving is able to reveal the features of the collaborative problem solving competency. 2. Method

Participants

With the consensus and the help of school administrators and home room teachers, a total of 76 high school students participated the present study. The participants were in their first year of high schools (tenth grade), and were from two classes and two separate schools, both of which located in suburban Taipei in Taiwan. After these 76 participants completed a collaborative problem task for 70-80 minutes, the collaborative problem solving scale were filled out by these participants in about 15 minutes. The development of the collaborative problem solving scale

The design of the “Collaborative problem solving scale” was based on both the CSCL literature and the framework of collaborative problem solving literacy proposed by PISA 2015, from which the major categories of the “Collaborative problem solving scale” were elicited. The development of the items was conducted by two researchers, both of whom major in educational psychology and educational technology. The preliminary version of the collaborative problem solving scale was reviewed by professors who specialized in computer science education. The “Collaborative problem solving scale” was subjected to exploratory factor analysis. Having an eigenvalue above 1 was the criterion for determining the number of factors. Items with factor loadings lower than 0.60 were ruled out in order to satisfy the validity of the scale for conducting further analysis.


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3. Results Exploratory factor analysis for the “Collaborative problem solving scale”

A total of four major categories (subscales) were elicited. Each subscale was examined with Mean (S.D.), factor loading, variance explained, and Cronbach’s alpha (see Table 1).

3.1.1 ”Reflection” (6 items) measures the degree to which an individual reflect on his or her behavior during collaborative problem solving task (e.g., RE1: I think of the role I play in the team; RE2: I think of whether I complete the task I am assigned to do; RE3; I think of the appropriateness of the assigned-task).

3.1.2 “Propose” (7 items) measures the degree to which an individual propose his/her own ideas during collaborative problem solving task (e.g., PR1: I discuss the weakness and strength of the possible solutions; PR2: I propose my own ideas for the questions; PR3: I discuss the feasibility of the possible solutions with my teammates).

3.1.3 “Passive” (5 items) measures the degree to which an individual disengage in the collaborative problem solving task (e.g., PA1: I do not response to my teammates; PA2: When I encounter difficulties, I do not propose for further discussion; PA3: Usually I do not propose the possible solutions that I think of).

3.1.4 “Role” (3 items) measures the degree to which an individual assign their roles during collaborative problem solving task (e.g., RO1: I discuss with teammates about how we can assign the task; RO2: I understand the role that the team have given to me; RO3: I complete the task that I have been assigned).

Table 1: Exploratory factor analysis of the “Collaborative problem solving scale” (CPSS)

Scale(items ) Mean (S.D.) EFA loading

Variance explained

alpha

Reflection 4.66(0.86) 22.96 0.91 RE1 0.81 RE2 0.80 RE3 0.79 RE4 0.74 RE5 0.74 RE6 0.71

Propose 4.87(0.78) 22.60 0.93 PR1 0.84 PR2 0.81 PR3 0.73 PR4 0.70 PR5 0.67 PR6 0.67 PR7 0.66

Passive 4.64(1.33) 14.93 0.86 PA1 0.88 PA2 0.81 PA3 0.78 PA4 0.73 PA5

Role 4.47(0.93) 12.86 0.79 RO1 0.80 RO2 0.75 RO3 0.71


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4. The development this collaborative problem solving scale In order to understand the criterion-related validity of this scale, the “Collaborative problem

solving scale” will be further examined by probing the correlations between the “Collaborative problem solving scale” (CPSS), “Online Information Searching Strategy Inventory” (OISSI), and “Online Discussion Strategies Scale” (ODSS) so as to unveil the criterion-related validity for the “Collaborative problem solving scale” (CPSS). Acknowledgements The funding of this study is supported by Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan, under grant contract numbers MOST 104-2511-S-656-001.

References Serçe, F. C., Swigger, K., Alpaslan, F. N., Brazile, R., Dafoulas, G., & Lopez, V. (2011). Online collaboration:

Collaborative behavior patterns and factors affecting globally distributed team performance. Computers in Human Behavior, 27(1), 490-503. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2010.09.017

Veerman, A., & Veldhuis-Diermanse, E. . (2001). Collaborative learning through computer-mediated communication in academic education. Paper presented at the In Euro CSCL 2001 (pp. 625–632). .


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Need for Cognitive Closure as Determinant for Guidance in Wiki-based learning

Sven HEIMBUCHa*, Daniel BODEMERa

aMedia-Based Knowledge Construction, University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany *[email protected]

Abstract: In Wikis as collaborative knowledge construction environments for learning the outcome and its underlying processes can be considered on an individual as well as on a social system’s level. In previous research, we could show that by implementing either supplemental implicit or explicit guidance focused on Wiki discussions positive effects on the learner’s side could be achieved. This study investigates what type of guidance implemented on the level of talk page discussions is beneficial dependant on the learner’s degree of need for cognitive closure and if an interaction of these both factors produces larger positive effects on the individual learning processes and the resulting outcome. Therefore, we are conducting a 2x2 between-subjects design experimental study comparing four groups contrasting high vs low need for cognitive closure participants and implicit vs explicit guidance measures that we have positively evaluated in previous work. We expect to gather evidence that fostering learning processes in Wiki-based settings making use of talk page discussions is highly dependent on individual cognitive variables interacting with the type of provided additional guidance.

Keywords: Wiki, collaboration scripts, representational guidance, learning, cognitive closure

1. Introduction and Research Questions In computer-supported collaborative learning there is an ever-growing number of research covering supplemental web-based learning environments, such as Wikis, to facilitate knowledge construction processes within the individual learner and the social system itself. In previous work on the co-evolution of knowledge in social system, Cress and Kimmerle (2008) discussed the occurrence of internalisation and externalisation processes of knowledge artefacts into an individual cognitive system as well as into the Wiki as social system, which are similar and analogous to those processes originally discussed in Piaget’s theories of equilibration. The mutual influences of either system on the other open up prospects for the emergence of socio-cognitive conflicts through possible dissents between an individual’s and the social system’s knowledge base. Such conflicts that can arise from information contradicting the other system’s knowledge base do not have to be detrimental for learning and making use of its beneficial potentials plays an important role in collaborative learning scenarios (Mugny & Doise, 1978). The induction and confrontation with conflicts that are grounded on different perspectives or contradictory facts can trigger reorganisation and restructuring of cognitive structures. Resulting alteration processes of an individual's cognitive representation of knowledge about specific contents are strengthened while trying to reach a consensus or feeling the need for a common understanding (Bell, Grossen & Perret-Clermont, 1985). Supportive measures for dealing with socio-cognitive conflicts in web-based learning environments that have proven to be effective for participants in different contexts range from deployments of implicit guidance approaches, e.g. implementation of cognitive group awareness representations (Janssen & Bodemer, 2013), to more explicit instructional methods, i.e. instructional designs through collaboration scripts (Dillenbourg, 2002). Wiki talk pages comprise hidden potentials for collaborative knowledge construction purposes that should be made more salient to interested users and learners by providing them additional guidance on the level of discussion threads. Visual feedbacks as external representations of group awareness information have been realised as multidimensional graphs or highlighting emphases of specific aspects of interest. Such visualisations can be helpful cues for readers of large online forum discussions that can also be found on Wiki talk pages to navigate through the contents and select the most relevant information, e.g. the occurrence of content-related controversies (Heimbuch & Bodemer, 2014). The deployment


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of such cognitive group awareness representations that gather and visualise knowledge-related information have been successfully implemented as implicit guidance measures to structure learning processes in Wiki-based environments (Heimbuch & Bodemer, 2015). Research on collaboration scripts has also been gathering evidence that explicit instructions to groups can be effective to achieve significant learning effects in Wiki-related research. Instructions aiming at the improvement of collaborative revision processes that set the focus on increased coordination prior to any integration of knowledge artefacts can lead to less redundant revisions and more coherent texts (Wichmann & Rummel, 2013). Similar Wiki-related collaboration scripts with regard to a more intensive a priori exchange of different points of view and opposing arguments facilitated learners to acquire contrary pieces of information and integrate these into their individual cognitive systems, which resulted in more elaborated responses to a historically controversial topic (Heimbuch & Bodemer, 2015). Regardless of the type of deployed supportive measure for individual learners focussing on socio-cognitive conflicts in collaborative settings such as Wikis, the consideration of differences in specific personality and cognitive differences plays an important role. In settings as the aforementioned, research has identified the personal need for cognitive closure as a relevant construct when learners are confronted with conflicts and controversies induced by ambiguous or contradictory information (Webster & Kruglanski, 1994). A person with a high need for cognitive closure tends to avoid ambiguity and searches for plausible but quick solution to a problem. In contrast to that, low need for cognitive closure individuals show preferences towards ambiguity and mostly enjoy participating in discussions and more extensive information search. Recent research on Wiki-based learning scenarios with implementations of implicit and explicit measures of supporting learners could confirm the influences of the individual need for closure on the learning outcome and the underlying processes (Heimbuch & Bodemer, 2015). For this current study we are building upon the results of our previous work where the need for cognitive closure has been identified as influential variable on learning in Wiki-based environments. Therefore, we are mainly interested in the question if we are able to identify a significant interaction between the degree of an individual’s need for cognitive closure and the type of provided guidance (implicit vs explicit) that have already been deployed and their positive outcomes have been confirmed in previous studies. 2. Methods To answer our main research question of interest, an experimental study is currently conducted in a controlled laboratory setting. We are aiming at researching approximately N = 180 students in a balanced two factorial between-subjects design (cf. Table 1). Figure 1 illustrates the setups of the Wiki environments for the experimental groups that correspond to the study’s first independent factor guidance, where (1) visual representations of a discussion’s controversy occurrence and its status are implemented as implicit guidance and (2) a collaboration script with a focus on discussing changes to the Wiki prior to editing is applied as explicit guidance for learners. For the second factor we are conducting a pre-study on students’ level of need for cognitive closure and categorise them into high and low closure. Table 1: Study design with two between-subjects factors

Factor 2: Need for cognitive closure

Factor 1: Guidance

Implicit Explicit Low Group 1 (n = 45) Group 3 (n = 45)High Group 2 (n = 45) Group 4 (n = 45)

Independent of the experiment’s guidance type, the overarching task for all groups is to edit an

original article relying on new information and evidence found inside the discussion threads and to participate in a number of talks. The article and discussion contents of this study are on a number of different topics covering renewable and fossil energy sources for which contradictory information and opposing points of view on several aspects exist. The currently conducted study is scheduled to be finished until mid-November.


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Figure 1. Mockup illustrations of the Wikis for implicitly guided (controversy occurrence plus

resolution status) groups 1 and 2 (left) and explicitly guided (“talk first” collaboration script) groups 3 and 4 (right).

3. Outlook To measure the outcome with regard to learning success we will process and evaluate the answers given in a knowledge test about the study’s contents. With regard to underlying processes we plan to analyse recorded log data on clicks and Wiki activities, such as reading and writing times at each of the study’s phases. Furthermore, a number of qualitative analyses on the contents of the edited texts of a random selection from the four experimental groups will be conducted. At all analytical stages we will analyse the effects of the main interested influencing variable need for cognitive closure as well as the effects from other potentially relevant influencing variables. References Bell, N., Grossen, M., & Perret-Clermont, A.-N. (1985). Sociocognitive conflict and intellectual growth. New

Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 1985(29), 41–54. Dillenbourg, P. (2002). Over-scripting CSCL: The risks of blending collaborative learning with instructional

design. In P. A. Kirschner (Ed.), Three worlds of CSCL. Can we support CSCL (pp. 61–91). Heerlen: Open Universiteit Nederland.

Cress, U., & Kimmerle, J. (2008). A systemic and cognitive view on collaborative knowledge building with wikis. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 3(2), 105–122.

Heimbuch, S., & Bodemer, D. (2014). Supporting Awareness of Content-related Controversies in a Wiki-based Learning Environment. In Proceedings of The International Symposium on Open Collaboration. New York, NY, USA: ACM.

Heimbuch, S., & Bodemer, D. (2015). Let's Talk about Talks: Supporting Knowledge Exchange Processes on Wiki Discussion Pages. In AAAI Technical Report on Wikipedia, a Social Pedia: Research Challenges and Opportunities (ICWSM-15) (Vol. WS-15-19). Palo Alto, USA: AAAI Press.

Janssen, J., & Bodemer, D. (2013). Coordinated Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning: Awareness and Awareness Tools. Educational Psychologist, 48(1), 40–55.

Mugny, G., & Doise, W. (1978). Socio-cognitive conflict and structure of individual and collective performances. European Journal of Social Psychology, 8(2), 181–192.

Webster, D. M., & Kruglanski, A. W. (1994). Individual differences in need for cognitive closure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67(6):1049–1062.

Wichmann, A., & Rummel, N. (2013). Improving revision in wiki-based writing: Coordination pays off. Computers & Education, 62, 262–270.


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Experimental Use of Error-Based Simulation for Dynamics Problems in National Institutes

of Technology Tomoya SHINOHARAa*, Takahito TOMOTOb, Tomoya HORIGUCHIc, Atsushi YAMADAa,

Sho YAMAMOTOd, Yusuke HAYASHIa & Tsukasa HIRASHIMAa aGraduate School of Engineering, Hiroshima University, Japan

bDepartment of Applied Computer Science, Faculty of Engineering, Tokyo Polytechnic University, Japan

cFaculty of Maritime Science, Kobe University, Japan dDepartment of Informatics, Kinki University, Japan

*[email protected]

Abstract: In order to solve mechanics problems, force finding in the problem is an indispensable step. Also, this step is often difficult for not only beginners and also learners who have learned. Therefore, there are several researches proposed supporting method for learners in this step. Error-Based Simulation (EBS) is one of the support methods. In this research, we have experimentally evaluated EBS for a dynamics problems.

Keywords: Error-Based Simulation, Physics, Mechanics, Force, Visualization

1. Introduction One of the most difficult steps in solving of mechanics problem is the step of force finding in the problem. Therefore, examinations and developments of support methods for this step are important research issues (Clement, J., 1982, Clement, J., 1993, Tao, P.-K., & Gunstone, R., F., 1999). Also, this step is hard for students who have learned physics one time (Clement, J., 1982). Error-Based Simulation (EBS) is one of the methods to support a learner at force finding (Hirashima, T., Horiguchi, T., Kashihara, A. & Toyoda, J., 1998, Horiguchi, T., Imai, I., Toumoto, T., & Hirashima, T., 2014). EBS is a motion simulation reflecting the forces that a leaner find in the problem. This means that if any incorrect force is included, EBS shows incorrect behavior reflecting it. Therefore, EBS visualizes errors as difference between wrong behavior and normal simulation. By observing the incorrect behavior, it is expected that the learner detect his/her mistake and correct it. The effectiveness of EBS has already been confirmed at statics problems. In this research, we have been experimentally evaluating the effectiveness of EBS for dynamics problems. In this time, we held the experimental use for the students in national institutes of technology who have learned physics. 2. Learning System with EBS Evaluation of the effectiveness of EBS system is the goal of this research. Here, we will illustrate about EBS system of this research. EBS System

In this research, we implemented EBS system for dynamics problems on Android tablet. The user interface of our system consists of problem sentence, some buttons, and drawing area (figure 1). Drawing of force, and showing of EBS are done on drawing area. On drawing of force, learners draw force they think acting on target objects by flicking as arrow. Then, motions of objects are simulated based on this drawing. It is supposed that learners detect and correct own error by observation for this simulation because correct motion is known for them.


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Figure 1 shows the example problem about the forces act on the person who skating on the ice without friction with uniform motion. In this problem, many learners draw the force direction of motion. For that drawing, the parson is accelerated in EBS.

Figure 1. System Interface and Example of EBS

Problems in EBS System

In this section, problems implemented in our system are explained. In this research, learning about dynamics problems is main target. On elementary mechanics, these three kinds of motion are treated: (1) linear uniform motion without force of motion direction, (2) linear uniform motion with balanced forces of motion direction, (3) motion with acceleration. We implemented these three problems corresponding to above three kinds: (A) a person who skating on the ice without friction, (B) a person who dropping at constant velocity by parachute, (C) a ball thrown up vertically. Also, we implemented these three applied problems corresponding to above three kinds: (D) a space ship moving linearly at constant velocity in cosmic space, (E) an object pushed at constant velocity on horizontal plane with friction, (F) a ball thrown up on the angle. From here, we call above six problems “learned problems”. 3. Experimental Use In this research, EBS system explained above was used experimentally to evaluate its effect. In this section, this use is explained. Plan for Experimental Use

In this research, experimental use of EBS system with 19 subjects of fourth years at national institutes of technology was conducted to evaluate its effect. On this use, we conducted pre-test just before, system use, post-test just after, and delayed-test after a month. While this use, subjects dealt with above six learned problems. Also, some questionnaire survey were conducted with each test. Evaluation Test

In this use, we conducted written test as evaluation. Each test was drawing of forces same as practice. In pre-test, we used learned problems (problem (A) to (F)), and test was done for 10 minutes. In post-test, we used six problems on pre-test, and additional four problems which not used at system. So, total ten problems were used at post-test for 15 minutes. Added four problems: (G) a truck moving on slope and horizontal plane without friction, (H) a sled which being pushed and accelerating on ice without friction, (I) a box decelerating on horizontal plane with friction, (J) an elevator which being lifted up at a constant speed. From here, we call above four additional problems “transfer problems”. Delayed-test was conducted after a month of use, also used problems and time are same as post-test. Results of Evaluation Test


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In this section, the result of three tests above are explained. In this research, we used the number of correct answer (we call this number “point” from here). In learned problems, the point rose significantly between pre-test and post-test (p = 0.0000021). Also, although the point decreased at delayed-test, but the point of delayed-test was higher than pre-test significantly (p = 0.00627) (Figure 2). In transfer problems, the point was not so high. Also, there were no significant declination between post-test and delayed-test (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Results of Evaluation Test

4. Conclusions In this research, we are trying to evaluate the effectiveness of Error-Based Simulation in dynamics problems. In this paper, we reported about the design of EBS system and its experimental use. In this experimental use, there was some effectiveness for learned problems. From this, it is confirmed that EBS was acceptable at dynamics problems. However, the knowledge was not so applicable. As future work, we will analyze the results of questionnaire with results of evaluation test in detail. Also, as the means to encourage more deep understanding, the using of additional feedback with EBS can be needed. Also, learning support that focuses on Motion Implies Force (MIF) misconception (Clement (1982)) on dynamics problem is important. Acknowledgements We would like to thank all the people who relate to this research and this paper. References Clement, J. (1982). Students’ preconceptions in introductory mechanics. American Journal of Physics, 50, 66-

71. Clement, J. (1993). Using bridging analogies and anchoring intuitions to deal with students' preconceptions in

physics. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 30(10), 1241-1257. Tao, P.-K., & Gunstone, R., F. (1999). The Process of Conceptual Change in Force and Motion during

Computer-Supported Physics Instruction. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 36(7), 859–882. Hirashima, T., Horiguchi, T., Kashihara, A. & Toyoda, J. (1998). Error-Based Simulation for Error-

Visualization and Its Management. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 9, 17-31. Horiguchi, T., Imai, I., Toumoto, T., & Hirashima, T. (2014). Error-Based Simulation for Error-Awareness in

Learning Mechanics: An Evaluation. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 17(3), 1-13.


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Making Electronic Textbook for College Chemistry-experiment

Akira IKUO*, Yusuke YOSHINAGA & Haruo OGAWA Department of Chemistry, Tokyo Gakugei University, Japan

*[email protected]

Abstract: We are developing electronic textbook of basic chemistry-experiment for university students in which chemical reactions are shown by computer graphics (CG). The CGs of chemical reactions was made based on quantum chemical calculations and the Quick Time movie of the reaction path was produced which was combined with electric textbook of chemistry-experiment. The CGs include following reactions; 1) formation of di-atomic molecule by collision of two atoms such as hydrogen iodide, 2) hydroxylation of methyl chloride as a model of Walden’s inversion where drastic change in structure takes place, 3) esterification of acetic acid and ethanol as an example of more complex reaction. The CG could simultaneously demonstrates the nature of the reaction such as structural change by the ball-and-stick model or the space filling model with electrostatic potential, and potential energy change by the reaction profile. The textbook displays picture of apparatus and flow-chart of small-scale experiment in addition to the CG. Therefore students were able to conduct experiment smoothly and safely while studying dynamical reaction mechanism by CG in the electronic textbook inserted in the Ziploc type plastic bag. The developed electronic textbook could be used to integrate the observable level experiment and the molecular world.

Keywords: Computer graphics, Visualization, Electronic textbook, Chemical experiment

1. Introduction Understanding the observed phenomena, chemists use to imagine and explain observations in terms of molecules. Observed phenomena and molecular level models are then represented in terms of mathematics and chemical equation (Gilbert, 2009 and Tasker, 2010). Student’s difficulties and misconceptions in chemistry are from inadequate or inaccurate models at the molecular level (Kleinman, 1987). A molecular structure visualized by the computer graphics (CG) provides a deeper understanding of molecular structure (Tuvi-Arad, 2006). It is our aim to produce a CG teaching material based on quantum chemical calculations, which provides realizable images of the nature of chemical reaction (Ikuo, 2006 and 2009). If the CG were combined with chemical experiments of student’s laboratory, students would observe the reaction from three thinking levels, namely, phenomena in the actual observable level and the CG in the molecular level, and chemical equation in the symbolic level. The CG on the tablet computer was effective to provide image of “Energy” change and also effective to provide image of “Structure” change and “Migration of Electron” during chemical reaction (Ikuo, 2012). Our ultimate goal is to produce an electronic textbook linking chemical experiment, which integrates these three levels. This paper introduces our works of development of the electronic textbook for chemical experiment of student’s laboratory at the university, which integrates the observable level experiment and the molecular world. 2. Developing Method Strategy

Electronic textbook has several advantages over paper textbook. For example, realistic image can be shown by photograph or 3-dimensional CG, and movie. These images could be, apparatus, molecular structure, and reaction mechanism. In addition, programmable capability (for example. Singhose, 2013), hyper-link, and networking feature provide inter-active operation. Many electronic textbooks of chemistry are found but most of them are very similar to the paper book, and very few


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are related to the chemical experiment (Morvant, 2013). Moreover, combination of CG movie of reaction and experiment are not seen.

Flow chart of development of the electronic textbook for chemical experiment is shown in the Scheme 1. Reaction was selected based on importance in fundamental chemistry. To exhibit phenomena, experimental condition was optimized for the student laboratory and experimental program was made. For easier understanding of experimental procedure, enlargeable-photos and flow charts were used in addition to regular text-base description. The electronic textbook could acts as an individual electronic tutor. To provide image of molecular world, CG images such as realistic shape of molecules, the CG teaching material (movie) were made based on quantum chemistry calculation (Ikuo, 2006 and 2009). Students would be able to see structure and energy change during reaction while they are watching actual reaction progress. In this manner, observable level experiment and the molecular world could be integrated (Scheme 1). In order to use the electronic textbook on the lab bench, it need to be covered with a waterproof, Zip-lock type, case.

Scheme 1. Flow chart of developing method.

CG Teaching Material and Electronic Textbook

A movie of the reaction path was produced by the software DIRECTOR (ver. 8.5.1J, Macromedia, Inc.) following the display of the bond order of the structure of the reactants in each reaction stage, which was drawn by the CAChe (Ikuo, 2006 and 2009). The obtained CG was combined with reaction profile in the same reaction stage. It was confirmed that the drawn CGs of the molecular models of reactants moves smoothly. A ball, which indicates progress of the reaction, was arranged on the reaction profile and simultaneous movements of the ball and the reactants were confirmed. Created movie file was converted to the Quick Time movie for iPad by the Quick Time PRO (ver. 7.66, Apple, Inc.). Electric textbook was produced with iBooks Author (ver. 2.1.1, Apple, Inc.) and was saved to iPad (Apple, Inc.) by using the iTunes (ver. 11.2.1, Apple, Inc.).


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3. Feature of Electronic Textbook The CG teaching material was combined with chemical experiments of student’s laboratory for the purpose of making electronic textbook of basic chemistry to provide experiment at the observable-level, CG visualization at the molecular-level, and chemical equation at the symbolic-level. The electronic textbook was inserted with images of experimental procedure in the flow charts and photographs, which can be enlarged by students touch. Student can write memo for the observation. CG teaching materials of reaction profiles were also inserted. When student touches the CG teaching material in the tablet computer, the teaching material appears to show image of the structural change during the reaction. Student can compare different reaction mechanisms. If student touches the material again, the Quick Time control bar appears and the green ball on the profile can move by student’s choice. Student can manipulate the reaction back and forth until they obtain the image of the reaction. Although more study need to be done on the effectiveness of the electronic textbook, students were able to conduct experiment smoothly and safely with the textbook inserted in the Ziploc type plastic bag. 4. Conclusions Developing method of electronic textbook for chemical experiment of student’s laboratory at the university was decided which aimed at integration of observable level experiment and the molecular world. The electronic textbook was developed according to the policy. The developed textbook could display picture of apparatus and flow-chart of small-scale experiment in addition to CG teaching material. The CG in the textbook effectively demonstrates images of dynamical reaction mechanism. From the preliminary study, students were able to conduct experiment smoothly and safely with the electronic textbook inserted in the Ziploc type plastic bag. The developed electronic textbook could be used to integrate the observable level experiment and the molecular world. Acknowledgements This work was supported by JSPS Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (C) (25350188). References Gilbert, J. K., Treagust, D. F., 2009. in Gilbert, J. K., Treagust, D. (eds.), “Models and Modeling in Science

Education Vol. 4 Multiple Representations in Chemical Education”, Springer, 333-350. Ikuo, A., Ikarashi, Y., Shishido, T. and Ogawa, H., 2006. User-friendly CG visualization with animation of

chemical reaction: esterification of acetic acid and ethyl alcohol and survey of textbooks of high school chemistry, Journal of Science Education in Japan, 30 (4), 210-215.

Ikuo A., Nagashima H., Yoshinaga Y., and Ogawa H., 2009. Calculation of potential energy in the reaction of “I + H2 → HI + H”, and its visualization, The Chemical Education Journal (CEJ), Registration #13-2. Ikuo, A., Nagashima, H., Yoshinaga, Y., and Ogawa, H., 2012. Development and practice of teaching material

in tablet computer based on computer graphics by quantum chemistry calculation - Reaction of I + H2 → HI + H -, Proc. 7th IEEE Intl. Conf. on Wireless, Mobile, and Ubiquitous Technologies in Educ., 82-86.

Kleinman, R. W., Griffin, H. C., Kerner, N. K., 1987. J. Chem. Edu., 64, 766-770. Morvant, C. M, Halterman, R.L., 2013, “Organic Chemistry Laboratory Manual”, iBooks Store. Singhose, W., Donnell, J., 2013, “Introductory Mechanical Design Tools”, iBooks Store. Tasker, R., Dalton, R., 2010. in Gilbert, J. K., Reiner, M., Nakhleh, M. (Eds.), “Models and Modeling in

Science Education Vol. 3 Visualization: Theory and Practice in Science Education”, Springer, 103-131. Tuvi-Arad, I. and Blonder, R., 2006. Continuous symmetry and chemistry teachers: learning advanced

chemistry content through novel visualization tools, Chem. Educ. Res. and Pract., 11(1), 48-58. Velazquez-Marcano, A., Williamson, V. M., Ashkenazi, G., Tasker, R. F., and Williamson, K. C., 2004. The

use of video demonstrations and particulate animation in general chemistry, J. Sci. Educ. and Tech., 13(3), 315-323.


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The Game-based Learning Activity Integrating Board Game and Mobile Online Searching

Tasks for History Learning

Huei-Tse HOU a*, Yi-Hui Lin b

aGraduate Institute of Applied Science and Technology, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan

b Aim for the Top University Project Office, National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan *[email protected]

Abstract: The study designed a game-based learning (GBL) activity “Historical Battleship,” which adopted an educational board game “Voyage with Taiwan” and mobile devices with online searching tasks to support student’s history learning. Students’ perceived GBL learning process at different playing stage and their flow experience were probed. The findings showed that students at the stage using board game with mobile device for online searching had more perceived attention, cognitive engagement, discussion within group, and usefulness of history learning, compared with the stage using the board game only. Moreover, students also had high flow experience when playing this board game combined with mobile devices.

Keywords: board game, mobile devices, flow, history learning

1. Introduction With the development of teaching and instruction, research on GBL has gradually gained more and more attention. Traditional history learning tends to be one-way lecture by teacher and knowledge recitation by students. The use of GBL in history learning may contribute to students’ motivation in their further analysis in history knowledge and their follow-up exploration. Board game becomes increasingly popular in education because of its being low-budget and environment friendly; meanwhile, it may enhance interpersonal interaction and social knowledge construction in classroom. Well-designed board games have the potential to motivate students and include an element of competition and surprise (Royse, & Newton, 2007). Furthermore, board games can improve players’ interpersonal intelligence (e.g. communicative and interactive skill) and promote active learning through interaction with other players (Richardson & Birge, 1995). On the other hand, Flipped-classroom pedagogy has become popular. It offers students a preview activity for self-directed learning, followed by the higher-level cognitive discussions led by the teacher. However, how to promote students’ self-learning motivation may be a problem for flipped-classroom implementation (Du, et al., 2014; Mason et al., 2013). To improve self-learning motivation, the “mini-flipped GBL” model was proposed (Hou, Chou, & Chen, 2014). Mini-flipped GBL helped design GBL activities for 5-20 minutes that integrated learner autonomy and cognitive evaluation, which promoted students’ learning motivation and helped their learning effective. This included the use of board game or GBL supported by technology. So far, empirical research focusing on the GBL that integrates board games, mobile learning, and online searching tasks is scarce. “Voyage with Taiwan” is an educational board game, and it is a work of industry-university cooperative project between NTUST MEG research group (http://www.ntustmeg.net) and TwoPlus Studio. This board game was designed according to Taiwan historical education curriculum guideline, cognitive theories, scaffolding strategies, and social interaction theories. The cards for this board game had two sides. The front of the cards showed the name of historical events in Taiwan, and the back of the card showed the date and story of the events. The GBL activity, “Historical


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Battleship,” was designed with this board game in the study. The players were divided to groups for competitions. Each group had ten minutes. For the first 9 minutes (the first stage), players needed to build many historical battleships by discussing and arranging the order of cards without reading the back of the cards. They could use mobile devices in the last minute (the second stage) to search for information and change the order of the cards. The scores were calculated based on the players’ card arrangements in the end. The study aims to explore students’ flow experience in this activity to understand how much they were involved in it. Moreover, students’ perceived learning processes at the two stages are compared to understand the influence of mobile devices on students’ perceived learning process.

2. Method The participants for this study were 74 students (including 41 males and 33 females) from 9th grade classes in one high school in Taoyuan city. All participants had not played this board game before. The students of one class were first divided into six groups randomly. After the game instructions were provided, the participants were given ten minute to accomplish the game task. After the activity, they completed a questionnaire that measured their perceived learning process and the flow scale for games. The current study developed four perceived learning process indicators for students to measure at the two stages. These indicators were attention, cognitive engagement, discussion within group and usefulness of history learning. The students gave scores from one to five based on the degree of the indicators above at the two stages. The Flow Scale for Games was developed by Kiili (2006), which divided flow state into nine sub-dimensions. The questionnaire was a five-point Likert type scale in which numbers from five to one were assigned to responses that ranged from agree to disagree, respectively. The Cronbach’s α value for the scale was 0.93. 3. Results and Discussions The average and the standard deviation of participants’ perceived learning process scores are illustrated in Table 1.

Table 1. Perceived learning process scores of the participants Perceived learning process Initiate Game Playing Stage

M (SD) Mobile Devices Intervention Stage M (SD)

t

Attention 3.41 (1.281) 3.80 (1.135) -2.776*

Cognitive Engagement 2.88 (1.170) 3.43 (1.304) -2.907*

Discussion within Groups 3.68 (1.336) 4.08 (1.070) -2.722*

Usefulness of History Learning

3.45 (1.240) 3.74 (1.159) -2.191*

*p<0.05

Figure 1 Students discussed and arranged the historical events cards chronologically


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The table shows with the comparison of the students’ perceived learning process at the initial game playing stage and mobile devices intervention stage. The results suggested that students at the mobile devices intervention stage had relatively more attention (M=3.80, SD=1.135), cognitive engagement (M=3.43, SD=1.304), discussion within group (M=4.08, SD=1.070), and usefulness of history learning (M=3.74, SD=1.159) than initial game playing stage, and the difference was statistically significant. To evaluate students’ level of engagement, the students demonstrated flow scores higher than three (median of a five-point Likert-type scale) across all dimensions. (As shown in Table2)

Table 2 The mean and standard deviation of flow state scores

Flow Dimensions M SD Challenge 3.85 0.81 Goal 4.06 0.74 Feedback 3.73 0.80 Control 3.77 0.92 Playability 3.47 0.76 Concentration 3.84 0.77 Time distortion 3.87 1.06 Autotelic experience 3.85 0.84 Loss of self-consciousness 3.09 0.99

4. Conclusion

According to the preliminary findings in the study, students were highly involved in the

learning activity with the help of “Historical Battleship.” At the second stage when mobile devices were included for online searching, students had higher perceived cognitive engagement, cohesion with group, sense of competition between group, personal attention, usefulness of history learning, and discussion within group. This finding showed the potential in using GBL that integrated board games and mobile devices for flipped classrooms. Future research can record and analyze students’ learning process to investigate their behavioral patterns using sequential analysis (e.g. Hou, 2015).

Acknowledgements This research was supported by the projects from the National Science Council, Republic of China, under contract number MOST-104-2511-S-011-003-MY3, MOST-102-2511-S-011-001-MY3, MOST-100-2628-S-011-001-MY4 and MOST-104-2911-I-003-301.

References Du, S.-C., Fu, Z.-T., & Wang, Y. (2014). The flipped classroom–advantages and challenges. Paper presented

at International Conference on Economic Management and Trade Cooperation (EMTC 2014), Xi'an City, China.

Hou, H. T. (2015). Integrating cluster and sequential analysis to explore learners' flow and behavioral patterns in a simulation game with situated-learning context for science courses: a video-based process exploration, Computers in Human Behavior, 42, 424-435.

Hou, H. T., Chou, Y. S. & Chen, H. W. (2014). Applying mini-puzzle games for flipped classroom: the “Mini-Flipped GBL” model and the development of educational game authoring environment- XML-based ER Game Maker©. Paper presented at Taiwan E-Learning Forum 2014 (TWELF 2014), Taipei, Taiwan.

Kiili, K. (2006). Evaluations of experiential gaming model. Human Technology, 2(2), 187-201. Mason, G. S., Shuman, T. R., & Cook, K. E. (2013). Comparing the Effectiveness of an Inverted Classroom to

a Traditional Classroom in an Upper-Division Engineering Course. IEEE Transactions on Education, 56(4), 430-435.

Richardson, D., &Birge, B. (1995).Teaching physiology by combined passive (pedagogical) and active (andragogical) methods. The American journal of physiology, 268(6 Pt 3), S66-74.

Royse, M. A., & Newton, S. E. (2007). How gaming is used as an innovative strategy for nursing education. Nursing Education Perspectives, 28(5), 263-267.


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Learning Design in Combination of Mobile Application for Summary Speaking Task by

Self-study and Pair Work in a Class

Kae NAKAYAa,b*, Masao MUROTAa* a Dept. of Human System Science, Graduate School of Decision Science and Technology, Tokyo

Institute of Technology, Japan b Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Japan

*{knakaya, murota}@mr.hum.titech.ac.jp

Abstract: We developed MAST (Mobile Application for Summary speaking Task), which helps learners to practice English speaking by self-study. Using MAST, learners read an English article and speak its summary referring vocabularies of the article that learners record in advance. This research aimed to show effectiveness of combination of self-study using MAST and face-to-face speaking pair-work in an English class. In the experiment, we asked participants to use MAST at home, and in an English class we conducted pair-work based on the task of MAST for four weeks. The analysis result of the experiment showed that the participants might keep practicing English speaking using MAST and they might improve fluency.

Keywords: English speaking, second language acquisition, English class, mobile learning

1. Introduction In the age of globalization, the need to acquire English skills is indisputable. We developed a Mobile application for Dynamic Listening and Speaking method (MDLS) to support self-study in speaking English (Nakaya & Murota, 2015) based on DLS method (Shinzaki & Takahashi, 2004). MDLS aimed to increase speaking fluency and acquire vocabularies offering Summary speaking task.

In this research we propose a learning design in combination of self-study by using mobile application based on MDLS and pair work in a class. In order to realize it, we have developed MAST (Mobile Application for Summary speaking Task), which tasks are based on MDLS. The objectives of the learning design are to motivate learners to keep self-study and to offer learners face-to-face English speaking task. This paper aims to show effectiveness of the learning design. 2. Learning Design MAST

We developed MAST, which is an Android application, in order to help learners to practice English speaking by self-study. The learning goal is improving fluency. In this research, the targets are undergraduate and graduate students who have achieved a TOEIC level C score (IIBC). The students are supposed to have already learned all basic grammar so that they can read the texts in MAST.

The learning process of MAST is as below. First, learners read an English newspaper article and add some vocabularies (maximum is five) to a list (Figure 1(a) and (b)). Second, learners compose the summary referring the list for one minute and speak it for the next one minute (Figure 2). Third, they reflect on the practice by listening to their recorded vocabulary list and summary.

MAST has two features. First, MAST saves a list of vocabularies that learners intend to refer when they speak the summary. During Summary speaking task, MAST shows leaners to the list of vocabularies (Figure 2) so that they might pay attention to grammatical encoding in composing a sentence. This feature aims to improve fluency. Second, MAST offers a simple summary task. Learners read an English newspaper article with 80 to 150 words, speak the summary twice and then


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reflect on their summary. Therefore leaners can finish the task for only fifteen minutes. In addition, teachers have only to select articles in order to offer the task to the learners. Learning Design in Combination of MAST and Pair Work in a class

In this research, we proposed learning design in combination of MAST and pair work in an English class. In this design, learners practice English speaking by using MAST as homework, and then they conduct pair work based on practice of MAST in a class. This design aimed to offer face-to-face speaking task to MAST users and to motivate them to keep practicing English speaking by self-study.

The process of pair work is as below. First, learners explain summary and impression of some articles in pairs. The articles are ones with which learners have learned by using MAST. Second, a teacher explains some important phrases or contents of the articles. Third, learners modify and speak the summary. Finally, learners evaluate their own motivation for speaking English.

Figure 3. The Schedule of the Experiment.

Figure 4. Analysis Results for the Number of Learned Articles and Fluency Score.

3. Outline of the Experiment We conducted an experiment in an English class of a Japanese university from 1st June to 29th June, 2015 (four weeks) and the participants were 22 Japanese 2nd undergraduate in a science department.

Figure 2. The Screen for Speaking the Summary.

Figure 1. The Screen for reading the Article and adding vocabularies.


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Figure 3 shows the schedule. In one week, the participants used MAST as homework for six days and on the 7th day, they conducted pair-work in the class. For the self-study, we prepared nine articles every week. The topics are IT, sports, science, and movies and the topic changed every week. In addition, we conducted speaking tests as pre-test on the first day and as post-test on the last day of the experiment. In the test the participants were asked to explain in English their interests of their major and their experience of part-time job or club activities within three minutes for each topic. 4. Analysis Result We analyzed the data about the number of learned articles during self-study terms to evaluate how the learning design could motivate the participants to keep learning. Moreover, we analyzed the data about fluency score of pre- and post-test to evaluate effectiveness for improving fluency. The data of six participants was not included for analysis because they were absent from pre- or post-test. The number of learned articles is shown in Figure 4. The result of ANOVA did not show statistically significant differences between weeks (F(3. 45)=1.634, p>.1). The result suggests that the participants might keep the number of learned articles by self-study. The result of a fluency score is also shown in Figure 4. Fluency score was calculated with syllable divided by spoken time (seconds). This calculation was referred to the way by Kormos et al. (2004). The T-test showed marginally differences between pre- and post-test (t(15)=-2.073, p < .1) and the average score of post-test was higher than the one of pre-test. Therefore we concluded that the learning design might be effective for improving fluency. 5. Conclusion and Future Work In this research, we got the following conclusion. (1)We developed MAST and proposed learning design in combination of self-study by using MAST and pair work in a class. (2) Learners might not only keep self-study of English speaking but also improve fluency.

However, we have to improve the contents of MAST and pair-work to motivate learners to practice more because many of the participants practiced once or twice a week for all articles. As for self-study of MAST, we will offer more variety of speaking tasks. As for pair-work in the class, we will re-design more interactive tasks between students. Acknowledgements We would like to thank Prof. Masatoshi Tamura, Foreign Language Research and Teaching Center of Tokyo Institute of Technology for his help in conducting the experiment. References Nakaya, K. & Murota, M. (2015). The Effectiveness of Mobile Application for Dynamic Listening and

Speaking Method in Self-study, Proceeding of 45th Annual Conference of The English Language Education Society of Japan, http://www.decode.waseda.ac.jp/announcement/documents-for-2015-03-07-08/KaeNakaya.pdf (Aug. 7th, 2015 accessed).

Shinzaki, R. & Takahashi, Y. (2004). Make hidden English skills appear. (Memutta eigo wo yobisamasu in Japanese). Hamano Publisher.

IIBC (the Institute for International Business Communication). PROFICIENCY SCALE, http://www.toeic.or.jp/library/toeic_data/toeic/pdf/data/proficiency.pdf (Aug. 21st, 2015 accessed).

Kormos, J. and Denes, M. (2004). Exploring measures and perceptions of fluency in the speech of second language learners, System, 32(2), pp145-164


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Opportunities and Challenges in Implementing Digital Equity Initiatives in Remote Areas In

Taiwan

Chientzu Candace CHOU College of Education, Leadership, and Counseling, University of St. Thomas, Minnesota, USA

Abstract: This research project examines the outcomes and strategies in implementing

digital equity initiatives by government agencies, non-profit organizations, and academic institutions for improving K-12 students’ learning in Taiwan’s remote areas. This study will utilize the case study approach to analyze several major initiatives aim at improving the performance of under-served students. I will work with the principle investigators of major digital equity initiatives to conduct research at strategic locations in Taiwan. The findings will provide recommendations for policy makers and educators in designing new initiatives to bridge the digital divide.

Keywords: Digital divide, digital equity, social responsibility, digital justice, service learning

1. Introduction

Bridging the digital divide has been a top concern for many countries (OECD, 2000). The divide is no longer understood only as obstacles to accessing ICT but also the ability to access ICT with the confidence and competence needed to participate fully in the modern economy and contemporary society (OECD, 2000). While advancements in information and communication technology (ICT) on Taiwan makes possible the creation of a knowledge society, the ROC (Republic of China) government has determined that the widening digital divide has had negative social consequences to those segments of society unable to connect via the internet to information knowledge. As a teacher and researcher, I believe that while ICT drives economic growth it should also enhance democratic and social goals. Taiwan's digital divide has become more evident as the inequality in wealth distribution widens. The ratio of household income share of the highest 20% to that of the lowest 20% has risen from 4.21 in 1981 to 6.17 in 2011 (Statistics Bureau, 2014). Although it is relatively low compared with United States (14.71), Hong Kong (20.7), and China (9.59), rising inequality impacts the government and society at many levels. The proportion of social welfare spending to total central expenditure has risen from 8.45% in 1990 to 19.89% in 2006 (Chen, 2008). Education is seen as key to reducing income inequality. The gap between the student performance in rural areas and non-rural areas in Taiwan has also significantly widened (Sheu, 2012), limiting rural options for colleges and careers. The Research, Development, and Evaluation Commission (RDEC) (2014) of Taiwan’s Executive Yuan’s has collected data on the digital divide and noted a significant gap along gender, generation, region, and ethnicity, especially between majority Han and minority Aborigine. In response, Taiwan’s government nation-wide digital equity initiatives aim to provide digital resources to empower participants in remote communities. This study will provide valuable analysis of what recent government digital initiatives mean to policy makers and educators and their impact on the lives of students. The study will (1) identifying factors that contribute to successful cases of digital equity initiatives; (2) examining factors that may inhibit the successful implementation of digital equity initiatives; and (3) determining strategies and components that are critical in the design, implementation, and evaluation of digital equity initiatives.


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2. Background In the social sciences, digital equity in education is achieved when "all learners have opportunities to develop the means and capacity to be full participants in the digital age, including being designers and producers (not only users) of current and future technologies and communication and information resources" (Solomon, Allen, & Resta, 2003, p. xiii). Fulton and Sibley (2003) proposed the following four critical components for educational equity in the digital age: (1) access to hardware/software and connectivity, (2) access to excellent and culturally responsive content and the opportunity to contribute to the content, (3) access to educators who know effective technology integration, and (4) access to systems whose leaders support change through technology (p. 14-23). Although the critical components may vary in different international contexts, they do provide a holistic framework for dialogues on digital equity in different regions of the world. There have been many studies that explored the impact of digital equity initiatives on individual students or schools through case studies in Taiwan (劉旨峰 et al., 2013; 王雅芳 & 呂慈

涵 , 2012). More studies on the overall impact are essential for the implementation of future initiatives. I would like to use Fulton and Sibley’s framework to analyze the overall impact of digital equity initiatives over the past ten years. Taiwan's current digital infrastructure plan seeks to provide access to digital resources to improve the life quality of under-served populations. A total of 168 Digital Opportunity Centers (DOC) have been established in remote townships and villages. Most DOCs utilize office space at local K-12 schools, libraries, non-profit organizations, or community centers. The new phase of digital equity initiatives will be moving toward empowerment. A recent major initiative is titled The Project of Online Tutoring for After School’s Learning, aka eTutor Program, which provides one-to-one learning opportunity through video-conferencing and customized curriculum for students in-need at various DOCs. The eTutor program will be the starting point for this study. 3. Research Methods I will apply the case study approach to scrutinize the opportunities and challenges of digital equity initiatives. The case study method produces in-depth qualitative and quantitative examination of design, implementation, and evaluation of the digital equity initiatives. This approach can provide a holistic account of the phenomenon under investigation (Yin, 2003). 3.1 Participants and Settings The participants for this study will be parents, K-12 students, eTutor volunteers, organizers of digital equity initiatives from Digital Opportunity Centers, University partners, and non-profit organizations in Taiwan. According to Ministry of Education, 24 university teams, 61 K-12 schools, 22 DOCs have participated in the initiative, totaling 1,420 university tutors and 1,064 K-12 tutees (Ministry of Education, 2014). More non-profit organizations will be identified as the research unfolds. A combination of surveys, interviews, and focus group discussions will be used to gain the perspectives of the participants at ten different Digital Opportunity Centers in Northern, Central, Southern, North-Eastern, and South-Eastern Taiwan. 3.2 Research questions

1. What efforts have been made by government agencies, university researchers, K-12 educators, and non-profit organizations to promote digital equity for students in remote areas in Taiwan? I will begin with an extensive literature review and examine government publications to gain a better understanding of the current development in the summer before I arrive.

2. What are the opportunities and challenges in implementing digital equity initiatives? In Taiwan, I will send surveys and conduct subsequent focus groups with the students and parents to learn from their perspectives on their achievements and obstacles in participating


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in the various digital equity initiatives. I will also poll the project organizers and volunteers during in person interviews.

3. What are the different components of digital equity initiatives in Taiwan and how do these components promote educational opportunities? I will interview staff at Digital Opportunity Centers, university partners, tutors, and curriculum developers on their views of the essential components of the digital equity initiatives to promote learning.

4. What are the effects of the digital initiatives on student learning? Students GPAs or test scores before and after the eTutoring sessions will be one indicator of their performance. I will also observe onsite the videoconferencing between tutors and tutees. Student self-assessment via survey will also be collected to address this question.

3.3 Data Collection The following data sources will establish a database of evidence to answer the research questions:

Quantitative data: Online survey of students, tutors, project coordinators, public databases, and student GPA

Qualitative data: onsite observation at the etutoring centers and remote sites, focus groups, and interviews with stakeholders.

4. Outcomes and Contributions The results of this study will establish evidence-based best practices for practitioners in enhancing digital equity, empirical data for scholarly publications, and recommendations for policy makers in improving digital equity initiatives based on the voices of the participants. This project will contribute to increased international and intercollegiate collaboration of scholars on digital divide, a revised framework on digital equity, and a collection of real-life case examples as the base of a new graduate course on digital equity in international context for students who are interested in the issue.

References

Chen, C. L. (2008). The impact of income inequality on social welfare spending in Taiwan – county-level analysis. Unpublished MA Thesis. Retrieved from http://nccur.lib.nccu.edu.tw/handle/140.119/38823

Fulton, K., & Sibley, R. (2003). Chapter 2: Barriers to equity. In G. Solomon, N. Allen, & P. Resta (Eds.). Toward digital equity: Bridging the divide in education (pp. 14-24). Boston, MA: Pearson Education Group, Inc.

OECD (2000). Chapter 4: Emerging trends and issues: The nature of the digital divide in learning. In Learning to bridge the digital divide (pp. 51-62). Paris, France: Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/site/schoolingfortomorrowknowledgebase/themes/ict/emergingtrendsandissuesthenatureofthedigitaldivideinlearning.htm

Sheu, T. M. (2012). Impact of educational resource on junior high school student achievement in Taiwan rural and non-rural area. Grant report to Taiwan’s Ministry of Education. Retrieved from https://srda.sinica.edu.tw/search/gensciitem/1398

Solomon, G., Allen, N. J., & Resta, P. (Eds.). (2003). Toward digital equity: Bridging the divide in education. Boston, MA: Pearson Education Group, Inc.

Statistics Bureau. (2014). Report on the survey of family income and expenditure. Taiwan’s Statistics Bureau. Retrieved from http://eng.stat.gov.tw/np.asp?CtNode=1542

Yin, R. K. (2003). Case study research: Design and methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage.


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Chinese Bibliography

劉旨峰, 劉佩艷, 楊舒熏, 張琬羚, 張純瑜, & 邱馨瑩. (2013). 檢視數位學伴計畫國中小學生數學學習態度於輔導大學及上課場域之差異. 第十七屆全球華人計算機教育應用大會(GCCCE

2013), 北京-北京大學.

王雅芳, & 呂慈涵. (2012). 弱勢學童數位課業輔導新興議題 - 數位學伴計畫─「偕同」概念與機制. 第十六屆全球華人計算機教育應用大會(GCCCE 2012), 屏東-墾丁福華飯店.


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Influence of Learning on Realistic Mathematics ICT-Assisted Mathematical

Problem Solving Skills Students

Veny SEPTIANYa, Sigid Edy PURWANTOb*, Khoerul UMAMc**, Mathematics Education,University of Muhammadiyah Prof. DR. HAMKA, Indonesia Mathematics Education,University of Muhammadiyah Prof. DR. HAMKA, Indonesia Mathematics Education,University of Muhammadiyah Prof. DR. HAMKA, Indonesia

*[email protected] **[email protected]

Abstract: This research study aims to (1) determine whether or not the influence of ICT-

assisted learning realistic mathematics to students' mathematical problem solving ability. (2) Develop the learning model of the integration of mathematics realistic education with Information Technology. The research was conducted in class VIII in the second semester of school year 2014-2015. The sample used in this study were 88 students in each class numbered 44 students in the experimental class and 44 students in the control class. The research validators included one expert in Mathematics education and one expert in instructional multimedia. The instruments employed in this study were a questionnaire, observation guide, and pre-test and post-test. The data were analyzed by using descriptive statistics. This study uses a quasi-experimental design. Instruments used in the form of test problem-solving ability in the form of a description. The research finding is that the mathematical problem solving ability of students taught using ICT-assisted learning realistic mathematics higher than that is not taught using ICT-assisted learning realistic mathematics.

Keywords: Realistic Mathematics-ICT Assisted, Mathematical Problem Solving Ability

1. Introduction

The important of problem solving in mathematic learning has encourage many teachers to develop their students’ problem solving skills. Improving the problem solving will encourage students to better understanding of mathematics and solving various problems. If the students have the high quality of problems solving then students will be easy to solve various kind of problem life. Tests results of Trends in International Mathematics and Sciences Study (TIMSS) held by the International Association for Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) suggests that mathematical ability of grade 8th of Junior High School in Indonesia is still quite alarming, which is ranked 38 from 45 countries (Mullis, 2012). The ability of grade 8th of Junior High School in Indonesia for completing non-routine problems (mathematical problem) is very weak, but relatively well in resolving questions about the facts and procedures.

2. Realistic Mathematics Education ICT-Assisted

Treffer (Wijaya, 2012) formulate five main characteristics of realistic mathematics education, namely (1) the use of context, (2) use the model for progressive mathematics process, (3) utilization of construction student outcomes, (4) interactivity and (5) linkages. The use of context of realistic mathematics learning is the first step in building and find back a math concept through mathematical process. The mathematical process come from horizontally mathematics process to vertically. Mathematics in the horizontal process starts from the issue-a matter of contextual, then students define for themselves the language and symbols of its own. While vertical mathematics is a process


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that occurs within the system itself mathematical concepts such as the use of multiplication, division, addition or subtraction.

Microsoft power point is used in this ICT-assisted learning of realistic mathematics education. Power point is used to display the contextual issues related to real life, so hopefully the students may be interested to resolve the problem.

3. Mathematical Problem Solving in Realistic Mathematics Education

In realistic mathematics, learning begins with contextual issues (real-world), allowing students to use prior experience directly. Through abstraction and formalization performed by the students will develop a more complete concept. Furthermore, students can apply mathematical concepts to new areas of the real world (applied mathematization). Therefore, in order to bridge the math concepts with everyday experiences children need to be considered mathematical from everyday experience (mathematization of everyday experience) and the application of mathematics in everyday life (Bonotto, 2000). In the context of real-world use students will develop mathematical concepts as part of the priorities within the framework of the process of mathematical problem solving. The use of real-world contexts will also foster a sense of pleasure in doing mathematics that will encourage perseverance in resolving the problem (Ginsburg et al, 2005).

4. Research Method

This study used a Quasi Experiment design. Data sources in this study were students of VIII‐6 class as the class were taught by a realistic mathematics education ICT assisted (experimental class), and students of VIII‐8 class as a class taught without a realistic mathematics education ICT assisted (control class) in SMPN 4 Bekasi registered in 2014/2015 academic year. Collecting data using a written test with a test item instrument description, which is to measure the ability of students problem solving skills.

5. Results

The mathematical problem solving ability of students taught using ICT-assisted learning realistic mathematics higher than that is not taught using ICT-assisted learning realistic mathematics.

Table 1: The result of mathematical problem solving ability between experimental and control class

Mathematical problem solving ability indicator

Items Ideal score

Experimental class Control class

Average score

Gain Average

score Gain

understanding, planning, problem solving, revise and

check.

1 10 5,3 53% 5,1 51%

2 10 1,3 13% 2,8 28%

3 10 3,8 38% 2,3 23%

4 10 3,1 31% 2,6 26%

5 10 4,2 42% 2,9 29%

6 10 3,7 37% 2,6 26%

7 10 4,6 46% 2,4 24%

Score data calculation results of mathematical problem solving ability experimental class

students obtained an average score of 41.409 and a standard deviation is 9.061, while the control group gained an average score of 33.136 and a standard deviation is 10.409.


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6. Conclusion tcount = 3.997 > 1.666 = ttable it can be concluded that the H0 is rejected. The conclusion is

ICT-assisted learning Realistic Mathematics affect the ability of students' mathematical problem solving. The next step calculates how much influence the ICT-assisted learning realistic mathematics to

students' mathematical problem solving ability. After doing the calculations obtained ES (effect size) = 0.795 or 79.5% is included in medium condition.

Math teacher can be expected to pay more attention to mathematical problem solving skills as the ultimate goal of learning mathematics. The use of ICT in teaching and learning will allow students in the learning process, and can attract students to learn mathematics. Realistic mathematics education can be used as a mathematics teacher learning approaches in enhancing students' mathematical problem solving ability.

Acknowledgements We would like to thank University of Muhammadiyah Prof. Dr. HAMKA of Jakarta for

supporting this study.

References

Bonotto, C. (2000). Mathematics in and out of School :Is It Possible Connect These Contexts? Exemplification from an Activity in Primary Schools. http://www.nku.edu/~sheffield/bonottopbyd.htm

Ginsburg, A., Leinwand, S., Anstrom, T., & Pollock, E. (2005). What the United States Can Learn from Singapore’s World-Class Mathematics System (and what Singapore can learn from the United States): An Exploratory Study. Washington, DC: American Institutes for Research.

Inna V. S Mullis, et. all. (2012). TIMSS 2011 International Result in Mathematics. (TIMSS) & PIRLS International Study Center, Lynch School of Education, Boston College.

Sudjana. (2005). Metode Statistika. Bandung: Tarsito. Sugiyono. (2009). Metode Penelitian Kuantitatif Kualitatif dan R&D. Bandung:

Alfabeta. Wijaya, Ariyadi. (2012). Pendidikan Matematika Realistik Suatu Alternatif

Pendekatan Pembelajaran Matematika. Yogyakarta: Graha Ilmu.


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An Investigation into Students’ Writing Process Using Digital Pens

in Exercises During Lessons

Yuki MORIa*, Takayuki AMIOKAa, Hironori EGIb & Shigeto OZAWAc aGraduate School of Human Sciences, Waseda University, JAPAN

bInformation Science and Technology Center, Kobe University, JAPAN cFaculty of Human Sciences, Waseda University, JAPAN

*[email protected]

Abstract: Many university classes nowadays have adopted the active learning (AL) style. AL is conducted through various techniques. In this report, we focus on exercises during lessons in class. We propose that teachers should know how students work on exercises in order to be able to give more effective support to students on these lessons. In order to investigate how students work on exercises, we used digital pens to collect data on their writing process using those pens and analyzed the data. The results showed that the students’ writing process had two important features: making attempts at exercises during explanation of the theme by the teacher, and adding other answers during group-work or explanation by the teacher after answering. Keywords: Digital pens, writing process, active learning, lesson study, higher education

1. Introduction Recently, many university classes have adopted the active learning (AL) style. AL involves various techniques, for instance, project-based learning, learning through educational games, and learning by completing exercises during lessons. In this study, we focused on exercises during lessons.

Many studies focus on exercises during lessons in higher education. For example, Crouch and Mazur (2001) present the peer instruction method, which gets students more involved in their own learning during lessons and focuses their attention on underlying concepts. However, it is important that teachers not merely design AL classes but also assess students’ performance or process in AL environments. This allows teachers to find ways to provide more and better support to students in AL classes and to better assess their performance.

In the present study, we used digital pens to collect data on students’ writing process while they completed exercises on worksheets during classroom lessons. Digital pen technology has been used previously in educational settings, for example to share notes or memo between students (Steimle, Brdiczka, and Mühlhäuser, 2009), or to assess students’ writing performance or process (e.g., Ikegami and Ohsawa, 2015). The purpose of the present study is to investigate how university students work on writing exercises during their class lessons. 2. Research Objects The Course Design

The course in which this research took place was conducted at a university in 2015. About 180 students participated in each lesson. The course theme was “learning environmental design.” Lectures on knowledge creation, study support, and educational assessment were provided over the course of the semester. In each lesson, the teacher repeated two or three cycles of the following activities: (1) lecture by the teacher; (2) exercises related to the lecture; and (3) group-work to share students’ answers among them. The teacher distributed the worksheets in each lesson, one by one, and students filled them in.


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Students started using digital pens in the 5th lesson. However, we could not analyze the data for the 6th, 12th, and 13th lessons because of malfunctions of the digital pens and Bluetooth receiver. We also excluded the 10th lesson because there was a guest lecturer. Methods of Data Collection: Using Digital Pens

We used the Anoto Digital Pen (DP-401) to collect students’ writing data. The special paper used with this pen has a microdot pattern surface, and the pen camera reads these dots to identify the pattern of the writing. The data were transferred to PC via Bluetooth. Using OpneNOTE, the data for all students were displayed with pictures onscreen, and could be managed there (Figure 1).

Since this study is a pilot for future work, we had only six students use digital pens when they wrote exercise answers, all semester. The participants were students who expressed their own interest in taking part or who were recommended by the teacher (Table 1). 3. Research Methods and Resources We examined the students’ writing process of exercises during lessons using two methods.

The first way was by capturing students’ exercise answers as pictures at different stages (we called this approach “Method A”). We used this method from 5th to 11th lessons. We captured data five times per exercise, respectively when the students were (1) presented with exercise content, (2) started the exercise, (3) finished the exercise (started the group-work), and (4) finished the group-work (that is, at the beginning of the explanation by the teacher), and also (5) at the end of the explanation by the teacher.

The second approach was by capturing students’ answers as videos in order to examine how early or late students started and finished to write (we called this “Method B”). We used this method on the 14th lesson. 4. Results Method A: As Students Write Answers

Table 1 shows the timing with which students wrote answers to the exercises during the lessons. In the table, “1” means that the student started writing when first presented with exercise content by the teacher, while “3” means that the student added further material to the answer during group-work, and “4” means that students added to their answers during the explanation by the teacher after answering time was over.

The results suggest that students C, D, E, and F often started writing at “1.” On the other hand, students A and B often began writing in the answering time, from “2” to “3.” In 5th lesson E2 (C, D, E), 7th lesson E3 (A, C, E), and 8th lesson E3 (C, D, E), three students started at “1” each exercises. We considered these findings to relate to the theme of the exercises. For example, 8th lesson E3 asked students to “Consider learning support to students themselves by other people: teachers, parents, other learners.” The themes they responded with focused on students’ own

Figure 1. Methods of Data Collection.


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experiences. We consider on this basis that themes related to student’ experiences are relatively easy for students to absorb.

Table 1: Results for Method A by Participant

Student(year) 5th lesson 7th lesson 8th lesson 9th lesson 11th lessonE1 E2 E1 E2 E3 E1 E2 E3 E1 E2 E3 E1 E2 E3

A (3) 1B (3) 3C (2) 1 1 1 1 1 1D (2) 1 1 4 1 3 4 3 E (2) 1 1 1 1 1F (2) 1 4 Absent Absent

*E = Exercise; thus, E1 = Exercise 1, etc. Method B: When Students Write Answers

We examined when students started writing answers using video that captured students’ writing process. The 14th lesson had two exercises. The first involved gathering information from a reading, instead of a lecture. Students did the exercise after the reading the handout. In the second exercise, the teacher presented the exercise theme at the opening of a lecture (lecture 2 in Figure 2 below).

In the 14th lesson, almost all students answered the both exercises on time. However, student D added additional answers after and during group-works. We focused on student D because she also tried exercises early or added to the Method A analysis. Figure 2 shows the lesson plan for the 14th lesson and student D’s writing process for exercises. She stopped writing during group-work and wrote after group-work (Exercise 1). This result suggests that she engaged in group-work and got some information or advanced knowledge from it, which she added.

Figure 2. Compare the Lesson Plan and Student D’s Writing Process in the 14th Lesson.

5. Conclusion and Future Work In this study, we investigated how students worked on exercises during lessons on the basis of data on their writing process collected with digital pens. As a result of the analysis, we identified two important features of their process: trying exercises during explanation of content by the teacher, and adding more material during explanation of the exercise by the teacher or during group-work after the answering time was finished.

The next step in our project is to look for any relationships between students’ writing process and learning outcomes. To do so, we will examine the exercise-writing process during lessons and exercise outcomes for a larger number of students. References Crouch, C. H., & Mazur, E. (2001). Peer Instruction: Ten years of experience and results. American Journal of

Physics, 69(9), 970–977. Ikegami, K., & Ohsawa, Y. (2015). Modeling of writing and thinking process in handwriting by digital pen

analysis. IEEE International Conference on Data Mining Workshops, ICDMW, 447-457. Steimle, J., Brdiczka, O., & Mühlhäuser, M. (2009). Collaborative paper-based annotation of lecture slides.

Educational Technology and Society, 12(4), 125–137.

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