Women’s Head-coverings inNorth-Western Europe

in the Viking Age

Brígiða Vadesbana (Brenda Gerritsma)

Feb 1, 2008

Contact: thepassingstranger@hotmail.com

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Table of Contents

Introduction..........................................................................................................................3Head Coverings - Styles & Forms.......................................................................................3

Veils and Scarves.............................................................................................................3Headbands......................................................................................................................11Caps...............................................................................................................................16Hairnets..........................................................................................................................22

Head Coverings – Cultural Traditions...............................................................................22Viking Dublin................................................................................................................22Anglo-Saxon..................................................................................................................24Kents..............................................................................................................................26Scandinavians................................................................................................................27Franks............................................................................................................................27

Head Coverings – Fabrics & Dyes....................................................................................28Wool..............................................................................................................................28Silk.................................................................................................................................29Linen..............................................................................................................................30Dyes...............................................................................................................................31

Conclusion.........................................................................................................................33Bibliography......................................................................................................................34

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Introduction

Textiles in north-western Europe often suffer from soil conditions which are not

conducive to preservation, and this is particularly true of the more fragile fabrics

commonly used in head-coverings. Improvements in technology and awareness within

the archaeological community have greatly expanded our knowledge and understanding

of costume history in recent decades, however. More and more finds of textiles fragments

and impressions left in various contexts are being preserved and analysed and new

analyses of old finds are showing us a much broader picture of Early Medieval textile

traditions.

I present here an overview of female forms of headdress in Ireland, Britain, Scandinavia

and western continental Europe in the Viking Age and the historical traditions they come

from, organized both by style of headwear and by culture. Included is some information

about the textiles themselves, headdress construction where available to me, and the dyes,

which were used to colour them. Sadly I was unable to include eastern European

traditions in this paper, due to a lack of sources currently available to me. Hopefully they

may be added at some future date.

Head Coverings - Styles & Forms

Veils and Scarves

There is little evidence of women’s dress in the Viking Age in Ireland. A 13th century

stone carving at Kells Priory (Kilkenny County) shows a woman wearing a short folded

head-cloth with a band over it. Older, more worn stone carvings show women with either

hair dressed to ear or shoulder length, or short head dresses. But archaeological evidence

comes only from Viking controlled Dublin, though it is uncertain whether the evidence

indicates Scandinavian fashion or Irish influence. 1

1 Heckett, 2003 pg 53

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There is evidence of short narrow veils or scarves being worn in Dublin. A length of silk,

dyed purple with lichen, and measuring a minimum of 870 mm long and 240 mm wide

was found.2 The piece still has both selvedges, indicating the fabric was woven to that

width. The ends are hemmed so it is difficult to determine if it was cut from a longer

piece or not.

The veil is not wide enough to cover the back of the head, and may have been secured

with a band or pinned to a cap, band or plait of hair, as it is too short to drape over the

head and wrap securely around the neck. The piece is broken however, and may have

been longer. If 870 mm were approximately the original length, the veil would hang to

slightly below the shoulders when worn centred on the head.

Dublin style Wool Scarf (long-rolled hems)

The other pieces are much shorter though of a similar width. These scarves were rarely

stitched, but woven to width and the warp ends gathered and plied into decorative tassels.

Both silk and wool scarves have been found, in most cases of an open-weave, with fine

threads and show some traces of dyes, in particular indigotin (likely from woad) and

2 Heckett, 2003 pg 4

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madder. Draped over the head they would have been open at the back and likely would

have had to be worn secured either with a headband of some sort, or pinned to the hair or

a hat. 3 The lightness of this cloth makes it unlikely that it could have been used for much

else but head-coverings, as it would not tolerate much stress.4

The wool fabrics were all of good quality, long staple fleeces, combed and Z-spun firmly.

The average thread had a diameter of 0.2 mm, and fairly high thread count at 16 warp

ends per cm, and 13 weft threads. The tabby weave was open with visible space between

threads and was not fulled. This fabric is not seen elsewhere in Europe, though some

gauze-like fabric was found at Haithabu (Denmark), some of which might have been

wool, similarly woven with a slightly lower thread count. No information is available on

thread diameter, so it is difficult to determine if the fabric was as light as the Dublin

pieces. 5

Dublin style Silk Scarf (short-no tassels)

The silks are all tabby woven as well, though of different qualities. Some of the pieces

are also woven of fine, Z-spun thread in both sets, though the threads are slightly finer

3 ibid, pg 44 ibid, pg 65 Heckett, 2003 pg 89-90

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than the wool at 0.09-0.14 mm, and have a higher thread count, particularly in the warp,

at 30-40 threads per cm, and 16-26 in the weft. 6

Other silk pieces have Z-spun warp ranging from 0.05 to 0.13 mm in diameter, and

untwisted weft of 0.45 to 1.0 mm. These are a denser cloth but still too light to have been

suitable for garments other than headwear. They have a thread count of 17-27 per cm in

the warp and 26-33 in the weft. There are also fragments of a type of silk cloth with

untwisted threads ranging from 0.11-0.12 mm in the warp and 0.45-0.5 mm in the weft,

but not much else is able to be determined from them. These silk fabrics are well known

in other parts of Europe, and have been found all over England and Scandinavia. 7

Among Anglo-Saxons veils are more securely assigned a place. It is relatively common

to find lightweight linen tabby woven cloth (preserved or cloth impressions) lying in

front of brooches worn on the shoulders and chest of buried individuals. These fabrics

range from gauzy to close-woven but are generally of finer fabrics than those found on

other parts of the body. The fabrics appear to lie in loose folds, or, in the case of the

denser fabrics, in gathers and pleats, sometimes sewn in place.8

The majority of these fabrics were bleached white linen, though examples of net-like

wool fabrics, including one dyed a deep blue black have been found. In one grave where

a brooch has fallen beside the head and preserved part of the upper portion of the veil, the

veil appears to be fine red tabby, edged with a patterned tablet woven band, 9 mm wide,

and running across the temple and over the ear, suggesting some form of tie to secure the

veil about the head. In several mid 6th - 7th century graves there are lightweight linen

fabrics bordered in tablet weave that are clearly worn over other garments. This border

may have only been on the front edge in some cases, or may have been sewn on only

across the forehead, after which they detached from the veil to form a tie. 9 A 7th century

6 ibid, pg 917 ibid, pg 93-48 Walton-Rogers, 2007 pg 157 9 Walton-Rogers, 2007 pg 157-8

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complaint against nuns by Saint Aldhelm mentions veils held in place with ‘ribbons’

sewn to them. 10

Early to Mid-Saxon Veil with attached band

Small closed rings, annular brooches, and metal clips shaped like modern staples begin

appearing near the ears in graves at this time. The rings have sometimes been interpreted

as earrings, but as the rings are permanently closed it is more likely that these, and the

clips and brooches were part of the veiling arrangement. They may have been a way of

securing tablet woven bands to the veil or a coif underneath, or of strengthening the point

at which a band edging the veil in front detached from the veil to form ties.11 Single pins

are also found at the jaw, forehead and under skulls. These metal objects have also been

interpreted as possibly securing a burial shroud across the face of the deceased.12

A long straight pin appears to have been used to secure the veil in the neck area. These

pins, however, rarely appear in graves on women under the age of approximately 17. This

10 Owen-Crocker, 2004 pg 13511 Walton-Rogers, 2007 pg 15912 Owen-Crocker, 2004 pg 157

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may indicate a specific change in status of a female at this age, most likely marriage.

This is in contrast to when the peplos dresses generally began being worn; the

approximate age at which a female is capable of bearing a child. The fabrics interpreted

as veils are also not found on women under the age of 16. 13

In the 5th and early 6th century short white linen veils were worn. Gauzy black veils and

at least one red one are found in Yorkshire. These veils hung around only the shoulders

and upper chest, with the longest veil found only reaching to just above the elbows.14 This

is evident from the fact that metal artefacts worn lower on the body preserve other

materials, but the veil material is only preserved around the head and shoulders.

These began lengthening in the 6th and 7th centuries and a wider range of fabrics began

being used. Veils are found to the hips and even the thighs, and the pleats seen in some of

the heavier early veils had become tight, close pleats. Coloured veils seem more

common, and according to literary evidence, may even have been so long as to fall to the

ankles.15 Veils also become more common among girls in the 7th century, probably due to

the influence of Christian morality. 16

By the 7th century veils appear to have become a medium for displaying status and

fashion sense, with veil options including plain, or ornamented with patterned braid (and

possibly beads), white or coloured, smooth or pleated, and worn with or without a

headband and/or coif. However they were worn, it would seem that the veils did not

entirely cover the hair, as Aldhelm’s complaint makes mention of curled hair visible at

the forehead and temples. 17

Black veils appear to have been a sign of religious status. In the 7th century, Aldhelm

complains of nuns replacing their black or dark grey veils with white or coloured veils,

13 Walton-Rogers, 2007 pg 178, 24214 ibid, pg 158, 161-215 Walton-Rogers, 2007 pg 159-6516 Owen-Crocker, 2004 pg 15717 Walton-Rogers, 2007 pg 165-7, Owen-Crocker, 2004. pg 135, 157-8

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and in Byzantine art Mary is often depicted wearing a black veil over a white coif,

whereas secular, court ladies are more often portrayed in white or patterned veils. 18

In the 10th and 11th centuries most art depicts women wearing voluminous veils, covering

the head and neck and hiding the hair. This appears to have been worn by all women

except very young girls. One possible variation of this head covering is a large

rectangular veil, draped loosely about the head and pinned at one end to the head on the

opposite side. This is not a practical style for physical labour, and may be more common

among the upper classes that dominate in artistic depictions. Another possibility for a

closer fitting veil is a rectangle or oval with a hole cut out near one long edge for the face

to emerge from. Or the veil may be worn tucked into the neck of the gown underneath

rather than loose about the shoulders.19 Most of these veils are depicted as being

unornamented though there are a few which may have been pattern-woven silk.20

Late Saxon Veil with headband

18 Walton-Rogers, 2007 pg 16519 Owen-Crocker, 2004 pg 219-2020 ibid, pg 158, 223

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Pins are never shown in depictions, but are common finds. They are usually small,

round-headed pins, which could have been discreetly used to hold the veil in place.21

Early in the period, the fashions in Kent were a bit different than other parts of England,

due most likely to being settled by the Jutes and Frisians rather than the Angles or

Saxons. In the 6th century Jutish fashions were replaced with Merovingian. 22

Kentish women almost certainly wore veils. Veils were fashionable among Merovingian

women, likely an import from Byzantine styles. One veil falling to the hip appears to

have been made from brocaded fabric. The ground fabric has disappeared, so it’s unclear

what the veil was made of. These veils likely framed the face more closely than the

Continental fashion, however, as there is evidence that brooches were used to fasten them

under the chin, and Kentish women were generally not found to be wearing the elaborate

earrings popular in the Frankish courts.23

Many veils found in Kent edged with gold thread are from this period. While some of the

gold-brocaded bands have been interpreted as headbands, and the location of some of

these bands support this, some of the bands also appear to fall alongside the face and are

quite possibly veil edgings.24

Among the Frankish courts, elaborate and lengthy veils were fashionable. The burial at

Arnegunde contains a veil of red silk satin, pinned at the temples, which hung to the

waist. Another burial at Cologne Cathedral, presumed to be of a princess, contained gold

threads by the feet, which have been interpreted as the edges of a veil. Calf-length veils

were popular in the Byzantine Empire with whom the Franks had many close ties. 25

Germanic women are sometimes portrayed in Roman sculpture as wearing long loose

veils sometimes secured by headbands.26

21 ibid, pg 225-622 Walton-Rogers, 2007 pg 190-123 Owen-Crocker, 2004 pg 100-124 Walton-Rogers, 2007 pg 15825 Owen-Crocker, 2004 pg 79, 10026 ibid, pg 79

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The evidence for veils in Scandinavia is a bit scarcer, at least in the archaeological

record. At Birka, several metal-brocaded bands have been found with fragments of silk

cloth preserved beneath them, suggesting the possibility that the bands had been worn

over a veil or a cap. Gauze-like cloth has been found at Danish Haithabu (Hedeby) dating

to the 9th century, it may be wool and the open-weave of the cloth is similar to what was

found in Dublin, dating from the 10th and 11th century. Some more closely woven wool

fabric at Kaupang in Norway may also be related.27 The Oseberg Queen is also said to

have been found with evidence of a veil, possibly soumak woven, however I have as yet

not been able to access the recent research released on the textiles found in the Oseberg

burial.

There is a 10th century burial at Horning in Denmark, where fragments of a loosely

woven tabby cloth, dyed blue, have been identified as a veil with a tablet woven edging

falling on both sides to the knees. This burial of a high-ranking lady is believed to reflect

Frankish fashion, which seemed to be popular among the elite in Denmark at the time. 28

The only artistic depiction I have seen record of is the Lewis chessmen, which were

found in Scotland, but appear Norse in style. The Queens in the set are depicted wearing

short veils under their crowns.29

Headbands

Headbands of silk and wool have been found in Dublin. Two longer silk ones measure

580 mm long and between 80-100 mm wide. One is still knotted, though the loop is

broken, but the broken ends appear to fit together. The measurement of the loop would

be about 390 mm. A further two bands are made of shorter lengths knotted together; one

two-piece band measuring 390 mm, and a three-piece band measuring 480 mm. Heckett

determined these would be sufficient to wear round the head. 30

27 Heckett, 2003 pg 8, 9028 Krag, 2005 pg 29-3129 Heckett, 2003 pg 730 Heckett, 2003 pg 4-5*

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Shorter pieces in wool and silk measure approximately 380 mm as well. At least two of

the wool bands appearing to be a complete loom-pieces, as warp loops are present at one

end of one, with the other hemmed, and the other piece appears to have the fringes tucked

into hems at both ends. It is impossible to tell if the silks are also loom-pieces as the ends

are still stitched down. One of the silk bands was found with a knot of flossy silk yarn,

and the ends of the band were drawn in as though the yarn may have been sewn to the

ends to allow the band to be tied around the head. One of the wool bands also shows

signs of similar bunching at one end. 31

Thin gold bands with Scandinavian associations, perforated at the ends to allow for a tie

to be threaded through have also been found in Dublin. These may have been used to

hold scarves and veils in place, as could gold and silver brocaded tablet woven bands

found in Dublin. Such bands have a long history in Europe of being worn with or

without other head-coverings. The undecorated wool and silk bands of loom woven cloth

may be a lower status version of these tablet woven bands. 32

There are few depictions in art of Anglo-Saxon women wearing headbands but written

sources indicate they were a typical garment of married women, so much so that a form

of sign language developed for use by monks who had vowed silence indicated a

headband or bindan as a sign for women. The word binde in Anglo-Saxon refers to a

fillet and appears most likely to be a gold or silver (or both) brocaded band. It is possible

it may also have referred to bands which were not brocaded with metal, but which have

disappeared from the archaeological record. 33 A similar word, bænde, refers to a solid

metal band. 34 The brocaded bands appeared to have been brocaded only on the front and

* I am enormously confused by this conclusion. All evidence I have seen seems to indicate the average height of people in this period is not much smaller than average height now. I am slightly shorter than current average size and there is no way in which to wear a band that short securely around my head. All measurements of my head require over 500 mm, even if pinned to something else. Since there seems to be clear evidence these were worn on the head, I theorize these may have actually been worn as binding for the hair, rather than worn around the head itself.

31 ibid, pg 5-632 ibid, pg 7-833 Owen-Crocker, 2004 pg 8234 ibid, pg 225

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possibly on the ends of longer ties, with the hair and veil covering the undecorated parts,

though the largest example had brocading on 250 to 340 mm, which would stretch from

temple to temple or even from behind one ear to behind the other. 35

Metal-brocaded Head-band common across Northern Europe

There is one illustration (showing the daughters of Ruel) that shows the band being worn

over veils, and another illustration of Emma, King Cnut’s wife wearing a stiffened band

with long, possibly jewelled, embroidered or brocaded, ties under her veil. 36

Patterned tablet woven bands have been found in Anglo-Saxon graves. While there is

some evidence that these may have been veil edgings in some graves, being found falling

alongside the face, in other graves the bands appear to cross the forehead and over the

ears, suggesting they were headbands. They may have been sewn to the veil around the

face and then left loose for the rest of their length, allowing them to be used as ties to

bind the veil. Small closed rings, brooches and metal clips similar to modern staples

appear around the temples and ears, which would reinforce the point at which the band

35 ibid, pg 96-736 Heckett, 2003 pg 6-7, Owen-Crocker, 2004 pg 224

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separates from the veil. 37 These bands would have been rich items, as they were one of

the most commonly bequeathed garment in women’s wills. 38

In Kent these headbands commonly were gold brocaded. At least ten burials have gold

strips on or near the head. There are several other burials that also contain the same type

of gold strips used for brocading, but the position of the strips was not recorded, and it is

therefore impossible to say for certain they were also headbands. These headbands were

probably tablet woven and likely of silk, as the Continental examples of these types of

headbands were. The gold brocading was made of gold foil cut into narrow strips, which

were brocaded into the bands, then flattened and burnished to look like a solid gold

pattern. If brocaded onto red silk they would have looked remarkably similar to the gold

and gilded jewellery inlaid with garnets or red glass that was being imported from among

the Franks. 39

The Kentish bands were probably derived from the fashions of the Franks, among whom

some of the earliest examples of these bands appeared (5th and early 6th century), where

they were referred to as vitta. They were popular in the later 6th and 7th centuries. A

particularly elaborate example comes from a grave in Cologne Cathedral, with the gold

brocaded in a soumak weave, and a gold and garnet ornament set on the brow. The bands

were so notable, they appear frequently in Frankish literature. They seem to be especially

associated with brides, but married women appear to have continued wearing them, at

least on ceremonial occasions. Roman sculpture depicts women with loose veils draped

over their heads, and secured by headbands. The technique of brocading gold was likely

learned from the earlier Gallo-Romans, who edged their garments with it, but the fashion

for fillets was Byzantine. 40

According to literary sources, narrow brocaded fillets were worn by both men and

women in Scandinavia, especially among middle class women and warriors. At Birka, 20

male graves, and 15 female graves have the distinctive gold and silver strips on tablet 37 Owen-Crocker, 2004 pg 158-5938 ibid, pg 22439 Owen-Crocker, 2004 pg 9640 ibid, pg 97, 79

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woven bands. Silver is more common than gold in Scandinavia, both in the relative

numbers of gold and silver brocaded bands worn in Scandinavian, and in comparison to

other areas of Northern Europe.41

Some of the bands have fragments of silk lying under them, suggesting the band was

worn with a cap or veil (there’s evidence of stitching some of the fragments). Viking Art,

however often depicts women bareheaded, with their hair knotted, and sometimes

confined with a headband to keep it in place. 42 This is shown on the Oseberg cart and

the Kinsta figure, both of which appear to have a band, not across the forehead, but

running along the hairline. In some graves it would appear it could also have been worn

only around the back of the head. 43

Metal Brocaded Headband worn in different positions

The scarf-like headband, however, was only worn by women. This may have been the

head covering referred to in sagas as sveigr, a garment worn by married freewomen. The

word is related to another Scandinavian word meaning “to bend or bow”, suggesting to

was some kind of cloth twisted around the head. In one saga a man taunts another by

claiming the bandage the second man is wearing around his head and covering his eye

looks like a woman’s head-cloth. This would clearly suggest that the narrow brocaded

41 Heckett, 2003 pg 7-842 ibid, pg 7-8, 5343 Ewing, 2006 pg 55

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fillet is not what is meant here. 44 It may be similar to the short, narrow scarves found in

Dublin.

Caps

Several wool and silk caps have been found in Dublin, the most common form being

about 160 mm wide and 480 mm long (unfolded). The front edge is usually rolled, or

folded and sewn; the bottom edge double folded and hemmed (average fold 5 mm/5 mm

on the wool caps, and 2-3 mm in the silk caps); and the back over-sewn with the selvedge

edge turned in 2-25 mm. A curved line of running stitch shaped the peak of the hat to the

skull, and the peak is left revealed. The over-sewing on the back often was not continued

past the beginning of the curved line of stitching, and in some cases the back was not

stitched together at all, the back edges being rolled and stitched like the front. Ties were

sewn to the front bottom corners of the cap. None have been found still attached, but silk

ribbons and braids have been found, which may have been used for ties, and the fronts of

the caps show signs of stress consistent with having been pulled by ties. 45

Dublin Wool Caps - 1. closed back, 2. open back (wrong fabric)

44 ibid, pg 52-345 Heckett, 2003 pg 44

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It is unclear whether the wool caps were loom-pieces as the bottom edged are hemmed,

but most had selvedges on both sides so were woven to the finished width, likely

specifically for making caps with. The width is slightly narrower than that of the wool

scarves. 46 The silk caps have only one selvedge or none extant, suggesting these were cut

down from wider cloth to match the parameters of the wool caps. 47

The sewing on the wool caps was on average 2-4 stitches per cm and about 1-4 mm long,

on the silk it was 3-6 stitches per cm and 1-2 mm long per stitch. In most cases the fibre

used to stitch the cap was the same as the cap was made of. The wool sewing thread was

Z-spun and S-plied with two strands, and around 1 mm in diameter. The colours ranged

from reddish-brown to black, with black predominant. The silk sewing thread was used in

both single and double strands (S-plied) with diameters ranging from 0.4-1 mm and

appeared golden to dark brown in colour (these colours may be the result of the soil in

which they were found). All extant beginnings of a line of stitching had knots to secure

the end, with no instances of taking several stitches in place as later became common.

The variations in technique and skill suggest that the pieces were made on an individual

basis as needed or wanted, rather than being commercially produced by a specialist. 48

The fact that these caps have been found in more than one location in Dublin suggests

that the caps may have been in general use in the community. It is not completely certain

who wore these caps but, based on comparable garments in other cultures, experts believe

it is more likely to be women and children. The range of sizes and the placement of ties

on some of the caps suggest they were worn by a wide range of ages. The veil-like

material is not very sturdy and may have been originally been meant to be pinned to

dressed hair or loosely tied as tying them more firmly would cause the fabric to pull and

tear quickly. They may have been worn under the kinds of veils seen in Anglo-Saxon and

Byzantine art. While such under-caps in those cultures would likely be made of linen,

which was readily available and comfortable, there’s no reason wool and silk could not

have been used the same way. 49

46 ibid, pg 4447 ibid, pg 4648 ibid, pg 102-449 Heckett, 2003 pg 47-9

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Several show signs of repair; darning, patches, and ties replaced. One cap has a patch

sewn on the inside over one ear. This is an odd position, as it has left a hole visible on

the outside. Possibly this hole was created after the patch had been applied, and the patch

had been intended to reinforce a thin area that had not worn through yet. Or perhaps it

was worn only as a nightcap or under another covering so comfort on the ear was more

important than appearance. 50 These sometimes extensive repairs suggest that these caps

had a complex and lengthy pattern of use, possibly as status symbols worn alone or with

a fillet when first made, and gradually being put to more general use as they became

worn, or handed down to younger family members, servants, or such. 51

There are no extant caps or hairnets found among the Anglo-Saxons, however, some kind

of coif does seem likely. Coifs and caps of various sorts have a long history in Northern

Europe and both the veil of the nun’s habit (with its roots in early medieval dress) and the

Moslem veil are typically worn with a cap and/or headband to hold the hair securely and

provide a base for the veil. 52

Pillbox Hat

50 ibid, pg 46-751 ibid, pg 4952 Walton-Rogers, 2007 pg 160, 165

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The Anglo-Saxon language has three terms for kinds of hats, hæt (hat), cuffie (loose

fitting hood or scarf) and scyfel (hat or cap with some form of projection). 53 A cuffie is

related to the modern word coif, but could also be related to the word cufle, a monk’s

cowl, suggesting the cuffie was shaped more like a hood. There is also the possibility of

some kind of round hat, perhaps in a pillbox style. The 6th century pot lid from Spong Hill

is often interpreted as piled up hair, but may be hair confined in a pillbox style hat. Some

Frankish and Germanic art from the 9th and 11th centuries also depict such a hat, 54 and

one has been found in the Merovingian or Carolingian level at Raskwerd, the

Netherlands. 55 Such hats appear in the archaeological record in Greenland as well,

though they are dated past the scope of this paper. 56 A further possibility is some form of

hat with a projection of some sort that shades the face, which may be what is meant by

the scyfel. Scyfel is a cognate of the Icelandic skupla or skypill, which refers to a

women’s hood, which hides or shades her face. Such a hat is depicted in the 11th century

English Harley Psalter. 57

Caps similar to the Dublin caps were found in York, London and Lincoln, Birka

(Sweden), and Masku (Finland). The closest comparable ones are the ones at York (in the

10th century layer at Coppergate) and Lincoln, all of which are silk of similar weaves to

the Dublin silk caps, and like them, had one selvedge edge and one cut one. The basic

pattern, including the curved line shaping the peak to the head was present, though at

least one York cap had the peak snipped off. The cap found at Saltergate, Lincoln was

open at the back. It has been suggested that the similarities between the silks may even

indicate that the fabric could have come from the same bolt, possibly sold in pieces by a

travelling merchant, however variations in reinforcement of the selvedge during weaving

and the fact that caps have been found in contexts ranging from the early 10th century to

early 11th makes it more likely that the fabric was merely a commonly available fabric at

the time, particularly in trade towns. 58

53 Owen-Crocker, 2004 pg 8154 Owen-Crocker, 2004 pg 221-255 ibid, pg 7956 Ostergard, 2004 pg 219-2057 Owen-Crocker, 2004 pg 221-258 Heckett, 2003 pg 49-52

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Jorvik Cap (in linen, with headband)

At Birka, the evidence is less firm. A silk fragment with evidence of stitching, is

described as a small cap by Agnes Geiger, which she suggests was worn on the back of

the head, and secured with a metal-brocaded band, the silver strips of which preserved the

fragment. A headdress found at Masku is similar in shape and dimensions as the Dublin

caps, but is made of a thicker wool twill fabric, which would have stood up around the

head in a stiffer fashion. A fresco in Kiev shows the daughters of the King of Kiev in

what appear to be close-fitting caps, though they appear more generously constructed

than the Dublin caps.59

In the Scandinavians sagas, a type of headdress called a faldr (“to fold”) is mentioned, a

good description of the Dublin and York caps and small scarves. One saga seems to

suggest a woman’s faldr had a bulging appearance, as though it were stuffed with her

hair, and some of the women on the Oseberg Tapestry do appear to have their hair

dressed or covered in such a fashion. 60 It is possible to tie the caps in such a way as to

accomplish this.

59 Heckett, 2003 pg 52-360 Ewing, 2006 pg 53

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A late 10th century statue from Germany shows Mary wearing what is possibly a close-

fitting cap, or a small wrapped headdress with a cloak closed by an elaborate eagle

brooch. This gives credence to the idea that people who wear elaborate jewellery would

not likely wear garments that habitually covered them up. 61 Roman sculptures from a few

centuries earlier also show Germanic women wearing caps or hairnets, at least in indoor

settings. 62 Sculptures in Rhineland show women with drawstring caps over bundled hair. 63

Pillbox style hats also appear in Frankish and Germanic art. The 11th century Paris

Psalter shows a woman in a round hat, carrying a scarf or veil, and 9th century

Carolingian illumination shows a cloth wrapped round a similar hat. In archaeological

finds there was a pillbox hat found in the Netherlands in the Merovingian or Carolingian

levels. 64

Hairnets

Hairnets are very fragile in nature and few survive in the archaeological record. Seven

knotted silk hairnets were found in Dublin, and one piece of sprang. 65 There is no

evidence Anglo-Saxon women wore sprang, though it was known in Britain in the

Bronze Age. 66 No sprang pieces or other types of hairnets have survived in England in

the Viking Age, 67 though the soils are poor for textile preservation and very little textiles

from the top of heads remain unless they were resting against metal. Caps of sprang were

known to be worn by Germanic women in Scandinavia and is known in Norway and

Sweden in the Viking Age. 68 This may be because most sprang was probably made in

linen which rarely survives in the archaeological record. 69

61 Heckett, 2003 pg 5462 Walton-Rogers, 2007 pg 161-263 Owen-Crocker, 2004 pg 8064 ibid, pg 221-2, 7965 Heckett, 2003 pg 10966 Owen-Crocker, 2004 pg 8067 Walton-Rogers, 2007 pg 16068 Owen-Crocker, 2004 pg 79-8069 Ewing, 2006 pg 149

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Head Coverings – Cultural Traditions

Viking Dublin

Our knowledge of headwear in Viking controlled Dublin is primarily from the 10th and

11th centuries. Very little is known about dress in other parts of Ireland at the time. The

women of Dublin do not appear to have worn veils commonly. This is not unusual, as

veils known to be worn in other cultures during this period were generally relatively

voluminous, and impractical for working in. Dublin was a trade town and the areas in

which the Dublin caps and scarves were found were primarily populated by artisans,

rarely than the wealthy elite, who might have had the leisure to wear impractical clothing.

Also, the caps and scarves were found in settlement areas, discarded, rather than buried in

graves, where people were commonly buried in their finest.

Art in Ireland at this time shows women with their hair either dress to shoulder length, or

wearing short veils or caps. It is unclear if this was a native fashion or Scandinavian

influence, though the presence of similar caps in Viking controlled York and Lincoln

suggests the latter.

Scarves and veils were narrow and short, only about 240 mm wide, and about 600 mm

long. They were woven to size, with selvedges on both sides, and warp ends, sometimes

still in loops, plied and cabled into decorative fringes. They were of delicate gauze or net

like fabric and were woven of both wool and silk.

They could be worn a number of ways; centred on the head and hanging loose, probably

pinned to the wearer’s hair or some form of cap or headband; secured with a band

overtop; tied by the corners under the chin or at the nape of the neck; or gathered and tied

like a headband around the forehead.

Similar to the scarves are the sewn caps. They were also woven to size, though on

average narrower than the scarves, being between 160 –180 mm wide where selvedges

could be identified on both sides. Because the ends were sewn in it is difficult to say for

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certain that they woven to length as well, though it seems plausible. They were also

shorter than the scarves, at 480 mm unfolded.

A typical cap had a rolled, or folded and sewn, front edge (front edges with cord whip-

stitched on are also present). Doubled folds of 5-20 mm were hemmed along the bottom

edge with ties sewn to the front bottom corner. The backs of the caps could be hemmed,

but otherwise left unstitched, or more commonly, over-sewn with the selvedge edge

turned in 2-25 mm, often continuing only to where the peak was shaped. A line of

running stitch curved across the peak of the hat, shaping it to the skull, with the peak left

standing. No ties have been found still attached to the caps, but silk braids and ribbons

have been found in context with the caps, which may have been used. There is no sign

embroidery or decorative stitching was used on the caps.

Narrow bands of silk and wool were also utilized, sometimes knotted together from more

than one short length. These were loom-woven bands and some of the shorter pieces may

have had some kind of ties sewn to them to secure them behind the head. These bands

could be a lower status version of the metal-brocaded silk tablet bands found in Dublin

and across Britain and the Continent. Solid narrow metal bands with a perforation in the

ends, which could have been threaded with ties, have also been found. These would have

been very high status symbols.

Some knotted silk hairnets and one piece of sprang have been found in Dublin as well, so

hairnets are a likely form of headdress. If they were typically made of linen, they may

have been more common than the archaeological record suggests.

Anglo-Saxon

Early in the Anglo-Saxon period in Britain women tended to wear short veils, only

covering the head and shoulders. It was common for them to be pinned at the neck,

though not necessarily closely. By the Viking age, these had lengthened considerably.

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The archaeological record shows many extending to the hip or thigh, but literary evidence

points to the fact that some hung as far as the ankles.

While bleached white linen was typical early on, and continued in use into the Viking

Age, a much wider range of fabrics and styles had appeared. Veils were often plain but

could be ornamented with costly braid and possibly beads. Most common were tablet

woven borders, possibly only on the front edge. Some of these borders were only sewn

on the veil across the forehead, and then detached to form ties to secure the veil. The

point of detachment was sometimes reinforced with brooches, rings, or staple-like metal

clips. Veils could also be pleated and/or worn with or without a coif or a headband

(which was usually worn underneath, but could occasionally be worn over top of the

veil).

Veils appear to have been the exclusive province of married women in the early period,

but by the Viking Age, all but the youngest of girls would have been wearing some form

of head covering. By the 10th and 11th century these head coverings would cover the head

and neck and conceal the hair completely, but in the earlier Viking age, literary evidence

suggests hair was often visible at the forehead and temples. The later veils were also

depicted as unornamented for the most part, though a few seem to be patterned silk.

It should be noted, the voluminous veils of the late Viking Age are known primarily from

art, as Christian beliefs discouraged the practice of interring grave goods with the dead.

The veils depicted are impractical for work, but as art generally depicts royalty, wealthy

patrons and saints, and what little remains in the graves is likely to be ‘Sunday Best’ this

is likely to represent a high status and/or ‘special occasion’ fashion. Two possible

variations of this fashion might be a large rectangle of fabric draped closely about the

head and pinned with small, discreet pins at the side of the face, or a rectangle or oval

with a hole cut near one long edge through which the face can emerge. One fashion that

is occasionally shown is to wear the veil with the ends tucked into the neck of the gown.

Likely this would have been a smaller veil.

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Headbands were a typical feature of Anglo-Saxon women’s headwear. While the most of

the finds are of metal-brocaded tablet woven bands, this would have been an expensive

item, and fibre-brocaded tablet bands, or non-brocaded patterned or plain bands would

probably have been worn on a day-to-day basis and by lower classes.

The bands often appear to be brocaded only on the front, presumably because the veil and

hair would cover the rest. Some of the bands seem to have been quite long, and hang out

from under the veil at the bottom. These tie ends appear to have been ornamented, at

least some of the time, possibly with further brocading, embroidery or even jewelled.

Solid metal bands have also been found.

Coifs have not been found in Anglo-Saxon England, though textile historians do consider

them likely. They were common elsewhere in North-western Europe during this period

and would provide a firm base for the veil, as well as holding the hair back. The Anglo-

Saxon language does have several words for types of hats, including a cuffie, which is

often translated to mean a loose fitting hood or scarf, which would fit the description of

the nearby Dublin caps and scarves. Other possibilities for Anglo-Saxon hats include a

pillbox style, as possibly depicted on the 6th century Spong Hill pot lid, and in the 11th

century Harley Psalter. One possible reconstruction for how these types of headdress

would be worn is to tie the coif at the chin or nape of the neck, tie the wide band of cloth

around the forehead, and drape the veil over top. 70

Hairnets have also not been found in this period in England, though they would not

survive well in an archaeological context in English soil, and would not be visible under

the veils in most artistic depictions. There is no evidence for sprang being a utilized

technique at this time.

Kents

70 Owen-Crocker, 2004 pg 165

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Veils were common among the women of Kent, and many were richly decorated with

gold braid borders and gold threads running through the weave. One veil appears to have

been brocaded all over with gold thread. They seem to have been worn close around the

face, as pins have been found under the chin, and the elaborate earrings of the Frankish

courts, from which Kentish fashion derived, do not appear.

Gold brocaded bands were quite common in Kent, sometimes as fillets, and sometimes as

veil borders. The gold strips, which formed the brocading, was smoothed and burnished

to appear as though the designs were formed of solid pieces of gold. The bands

themselves were most likely silk, and if they were done in red, would have looked much

like the garnet or red glass enamelled gold jewellery that was then being imported into

Kent from the Frankish territories. Shortly into the Viking age, however, the differences

between Kentish fashion and that of the rest of Anglo-Saxon England had mostly

disappeared.

Scandinavians

There is little evidence for veils in the archaeological record in Scandinavia. Some silk

fragments have been found under a metal-brocaded band in Sweden, suggesting the

bands were worn with a veil or cap, and some gauze-like fabric similar to the Dublin caps

and scarves has been found in Denmark. The Queens of the Lewis Chess Set, which may

have been Norwegian work, are wearing what looks like short veils under their crowns.

Brocaded fillets were routinely worn by both men and women. In Scandinavia, silver

was a more commonly used metal thread than gold, unlike elsewhere. These bands are

sometimes shown being worn alone in artistic depictions and in archaeology, and could

be worn around the forehead, the hairline, or just the peak of the skull. Women wore

another form of headband as well; based on literary evidence, it seems to have been

similar to the short narrow scarves found in Dublin.

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Caps like those found in Dublin were also found in Viking settled York and Lincoln, and

in London. One of the York caps has the peak trimmed off, but otherwise the hats are, for

the most part, similar. A fragment of stitched cloth, found under a brocaded band at

Birka, suggests this fashion existed in Scandinavia as well. Sprang hairnets were also

known.

Franks

The veils of Frankish women were often depicted as very similar in style to that of

Byzantine Empire, with whom the Frankish kingdoms had close ties. The veils were long

and elaborate, some of the finest found being of red silk satin, or having gold threads

worked in at the edges.

Brocaded tablet bands were common, and as a fashion likely also derived from Byzantine

styles, though the technique of metal-brocading probably came from the Gallo-Romans.

Frankish gold-brocaded bands were especially elaborate, and included soumak-wrapped

weave, and were so notable they often were mentioned in Frankish literature. They

appear to have been especially associated with brides, but married women seem to have

continued wearing them, at least on ceremonial occasions.

There is some suggestion in Frankish art for coifs or caps of some sort, and hairnets and

caps were known from Roman times. Some sculptures in Rhineland also show a form of

drawstring cap over bundled hair. 9th and 11th century illuminations show a pillbox style

hat, worn by women, and one has been found from the Merovingian or Carolingian level

in the Netherlands.

Head Coverings – Fabrics & Dyes

Wool

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The wool fabric found at Dublin has some similarities to fabric found elsewhere in

northern Europe; the particularly fine tabby wools are peculiar in the archaeological

record to Dublin. It was all of light, open-weave tabby, averaging 16 warp threads per

cm, and 13 weft threads and was not fulled. The threads were all Z-spun firmly, of long

combed wool staple and the average diameter of the threads was 0.2 mm. The wider

fabric was between 140-180 mm wide where both selvedges are extant, and between 380-

490 mm long. The bands were between 80-120 mm wide. 71 16 warp threads per cm was

also typical of the narrow bands, but while one band has a similar weft count to the wider

fabrics, the other has a weft count of 17-21 threads per cm. Many of the fabrics appear to

have been complete loom-pieces, woven specifically not just to width, but also length, the

scarves at least, having clear warp loops plied into tassels on several pieces. 72

A few of the Anglo-Saxon veils are of wool; they are described as semi-transparent net-

like Z/Z spun tabbies of fine, smooth yarn. These weaves are found in England (6th-7th

centuries), Germany (7th-8th centuries), and in the Viking Age, in Anglo-Scandinavian

York, Hiberno-Norse Dublin, Mammen (Denmark), and Haithabu (Sweden). The Viking

Age weaves are a bit finer, but generally the same technically. They were often dyed

black, blue or purple. 73

As the tools for wool production from fleece to finished garment are present in all

Northern Europe communities, it is likely the wool was locally produced. There is a

possibility such fine cloth was produced by a specialist, and unusual wool fabrics were

known to be traded widely.

Silk

The Dublin Silks were of three kinds, Z/Z tabby, Z/no twist tabby, and no twist/no twist

tabby. Weaves vary from gauze-like to more solid weaves with thicker weft threads that

add sheen to the fabric. Some of the pieces have both selvedges and warp loops present,

71 Heckett, 2003 pg 8972 ibid, pg 573 Walton-Rogers, 2007 pg 68-9

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which indicates many pieces, would have been woven to size. All types seem to have

reinforced selvedges with extra threads. These types of fabrics were well-known in

Europe, with finds at York, Jelling, Mammen, Perth, Lund and London

The no twist/no twist silks were all small fragments, and are distorted, so the density of

the weave is difficult to establish. The yarn diameters were 0.11-0.12 mm in one set, and

0.45-0.5 mm in the other.

The Z/Z tabby is the finest fabric, with a yarn diameter of 0.09-0.14 mm, and a thread

count of 16-26/cm (warp) x 12-15/cm (weft), to 30-41/cm (warp) x 19-32/cm (weft). The

weave is open and some of the pieces have a well-crimped yarn, which gives the fabric a

crepe-like appearance, though the twist of the threads is light to medium. There are

traces of decorative fringes on several of the pieces. The one exception to the general

parameters of the fabric is the largest silk scarf, which has thicker yarn and a denser

weave than the others.

The Z/no twist silk is of a denser weave than the Z/Z tabbies. The yarn diameter of the

warp is 0.05-0.13 mm, while the weft ranges from 0.45-1.00 mm, with a thread count of

17-20/cm x 24-27/cm to 28-33/cm-26-31/cm. This cloth is very similar to the silks used

for the York, Lincoln and London caps. 74

Many of the tablet weaves are believed to be of silk, which was common on the

Continent. While brocading could be done on wool or linen, only silk seems to have

survived with any frequency. 75 Some silk bands from Scandinavia have replaced certain

of the threads, those never appearing on the surface of the band due to the pattern of

weaving, with some organic thread (linen or nettle) which has not survived. 76

74 Heckett, 2007 pg 91-375 Crowfoot and Hawkes, 1967 pg 53, 5676 Knudsen, 2005 pg 36-37

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A few rare types of silks were also found. Silk taffeta was found at Birka, 77 and a satin

weave was found at Arnegunde (the burial is dated 580-90 CE, before the Viking Age). 78

Silk cloth is less likely to be locally produced. While silk thread was being imported

since at least the early 7th century for use in embroidery, there is no evidence of silk

weaving in Europe at that time. 79

Linen

Linen was a widely available cloth in the Viking Age, but because it does not survive

well in archaeological settings, it is often more difficult to find evidence of. Its use for

veils in Anglo-Saxon England and on the Continent is known from impressions and some

fragments, 80 There were no pieces of linen from Dublin positively identified as parts of

headdresses. This doesn’t mean it wasn’t used, only that it the soil conditions are not

conducive to its survival. It may have been used to make the same sorts of headdresses,

or even possibly a form currently unknown. 81

Dyes

No traces of dyes were found on the Dublin caps, though a few showed signs of the

presence of mordants, which may indicate they were dyed once but the dye decayed. 82

However, some naturally occurring mordants may have leached in from the soil.

In the silks, several dyes are present. The largest scarf was dyed with lichen purple,

though which lichen is unknown. Two of the silk hats had traces of indigotin, likely from

77 Heckett, 2007 pg 9478 Owen-Crocker, 2004 pg 7979 Heckett, 2003 pg 10580 Walton-Rogers, 2007 pg 15781 Heckett, 2003 pg 10982 ibid, pg 129

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woad, and one had traces of madder. 83 Some of the pieces had a golden brown tint to

them. This may be their natural colour, however, or colour leached in by the soil. 84

Dye analyses in Anglo-Saxon textiles indicates dyed cloth was a lot less common than

previously thought, and occurred with greater frequency in accessories such as veils and

scarves and in trimmings than in whole garments. Reds and purples tended to be confined

to threads for embroidery, narrow bands and headdresses. Blues, greens, browns and

yellows were a bit more common on larger pieces of clothing, and also used for

accessories and trims; blue in particular. 85

The same is true in Scandinavia, where undyed clothes were the norm in day-to-day

garments. Most undyed clothing came from naturally pigmented wools, which were

rarely dyed, and natural or bleached linen. Dyed wools were predominantly white

originally. Blue is one of the commonest colours mentioned in relation to clothing in the

sagas. It is also the usual colour of a specific type of cloth called Birka-type, which is

generally dyed a deep blue, as are the fine tabbies in high-status graves.

Blue dye came from woad, in northern Europe. While the chemical component in woad

is the same in indigo, which produces more dyestuff, indigo is a tropical plant that does

not grow in Europe and would have been impractical to import at that time, when woad

ass available. Idigotin is the only source of natural blue dye. 86

Reds primarily come from madder, though some imported dyes silks were coloured with

kermes, and bedstraw was also used. While madder was grown in both England and

France, it was sparingly used in both places and rare in Scandinavia. Kermes is derived

from a beetle, which lives on the kermes oak in the Mediterranean. 87

83 ibid, pg 484 ibid, pg 9385 Walton-Rogers, 2007 pg 62-386 Walton-Rogers, 2007 pg 6387 Ewing, 2006 pg 155-7

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Purple is most commonly derived from lichen. Several lichens will produce this dye in

various shades. It was particularly favoured in Dublin, 88 but rare in much of England,

perhaps reflecting a scarcity of the types needed. 89

Yellow can come from a number of sources, one an unidentified plant labelled ‘Yellow

X’ which is only known in Scandinavia. 90 Among the Anglo-Saxons weld and dyer’s

greenweed were used. They give bright, fast yellows, and greenweed in particular was

commonly used with woad to produce greens, hence its name. 91

Brown, aside from naturally pigmented wool, came from the tannins in walnut shells.

Without a mordant, it gives a rich, reddish brown, 92 and over-dyed with woad, a deep

blue-black. 93

88 ibid, pg 154-589 Walton-Rogers, 2007 pg 63-490 Ewing, 2006 pg 15791 Walton-Rogers, 2007 pg 6392 Ewing, 2006 pg 15593 Walton-Rogers, 2007 pg 64

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Conclusion

A rather wide range of garments with which to cover, protect and dress the head were

available to women in north-western Europe during the Viking Age. There was

considerable overlap in styles between cultures, possibly due to increased amounts of

trade between them during this era, though it is still somewhat unclear in some cases how

widespread certain styles were. Clearly however, headdress was a remarkably evocative

and important part of a woman’s attire, displaying to her contemporaries her wealth and

status, her tastes, her culture and her beliefs.

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