Who is India

8/7/2019 Who is India

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Who is IndiaWho is India and what is her claim? Is she as elusive to find as the insides of a seed? A mere

country cannot assume thebewitching charms that hang on her slender wrists. Who is India?

Sit by the ruins, and the inscriptions in caves, and listen. Listen to the seers and the folklorists, to

the waters of the perennial rivers and the echoes from the immortal gigantic mountains. Look atthe personifications of prayer carved out of marble or stone, and lie under a banyan tree, andlisten - Listen to India.

India is the name given to the vastpeninsulawhich the continent ofAsia throws out to the

south of the magnificent mountain ranges thatstretch in a sword like curve across the

southern border of Tibet. Shaped like anirregular quadrilateral, this large expanse of

territory, we call India, deserves the name of asubcontinent. Ancient Geographers referred

India as being constituted with a four-foldconformation (chatuh samasthana

samsthitam), on its South and West and Eastis the Great Ocean, the Himavat range

stretches along its north like the string of abow. The name Himvat in the above passage

refers not only to the snow capped ranges ofthe Himalayas but also to their less elevated

offshoots -the Patkai, Lushai and ChittagongHills in the east, and the Sulaiman and Kirthar

ranges in the west. These go down to the Seaand separate India from the wooded valley of

Irrawady, on the one hand, and the hillytableland ofIran, on the other. The Himalayas

standing tall in breathtaking splendor areradiant in myth and mystery. These, the

youngest and tallest mountain ranges, feed theGanga with never-ending streams of snow. The Himalayas are home to the people ofKashmir,

Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh.

Indians love these snow-capped peaks because they are a part of every Indian's life. Indian'srevere the mountains, as they would, the father. Even today, when Urban india is racing against

time, in the caves of the snow-clad peaks, live hermits - seeking the divine. Not a surprise whenyou consider that even this century has seen some great philosophers like Ramana Maharishi,

Swami Vivekananda, Ramakrishna Paramhansa and J. Krishnamurti.

Land And LocationThe Vindhya mountains cut right across the country, from West to East, and form the boundarybetween North and South India.

India is also fortunate in possessing one of the worlds most extensive and fertile lands, made up

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of the alluvial Soil brought down in the form of fine silt by the mighty rivers. Lying south of theHimalayas, these Great North Indian Plains consist of the Indus basin, Ganga-Brahmaputra

basin, and the tributaries of these mighty river systems.

To the south of the Great Plains of northern india lie the Great Plateau of Peninsular India, which

is divided into two parts, viz., the Malwa Plateau and the Deccan Plateau. The Malwa plateau -bounded by the Aravalli hills in the northwest and the Vindhyas in the Vindhyas form thenorthern half of this peninsula. Chhota Nagpur region forms the northeastern part of this plateau

and is the richest minerals producing region of India. The valley of the Narmada river forms thesouthern boundary of this plateau. The Deccan plateau, extends from the Satpura hills in the

north to Kannayakumari, in South.

Towards the west of this plateau lie the Western Ghats that comprise of the Sahyadri, theNilgiri,the Annamalai and the Cardamom Hills. On the eastern side, this plateau merges into a layer of

discontinuous low hills known as the Mahendra Giri hills, which comprise of the Eastern Ghats.

Narrow coastal plains along the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal flank the Deccan Plateau, onits eastern and western sides, respectively. The Western coastal plains lie between the Western

Ghats and the Arabian Sea, further split into the northern Konkan Coast and the southernMalabar Coast. The eastern coastal plains, on the other hand lie between the Eastern Ghats and

the Bay of Bengal and like the western plains are divided into two parts - the Coromandel Coastas the southern part and the Northern Sircaras as the northern.

Towards the western half of India lies a vast stretch of land that is divided, by the Aravalli

mountains, into two separate units. The area west of the Aravalli comprises of the Thar Desert -

made up of sand and interrupted by rocky hills and waterless valleys, this arid land, extend deep

into Pakistan. The state of Gujarat lies to the east of this range and is one of the most prosperous

regions in India.

These mainland areas apart, India has two groups of islands - the Andaman and Nicobar in the

Bay of Bengal and the Lakshadweep in the Arabian Sea.

Politically, India as it existed before its independence, however, extended beyond these natural

boundaries and included not only Baluchistan beyond the Kirthar range, but also some small

areas that lay in the Bay of Bengal.

The Legends

Historically, this vast landmass - we call India, was known as Bharat-Varsha, or the land ofBharata, a king famous in Puranic tradition. This territorial unit was said to form part of a larger

unit called Jambu-dvipa - the innermost of seven concentric island-continents into which the

earth, as conceived by the Hindu cosmographers, was supposed to have been divided.

The name India was applied to the country by the Greeks. It corresponds to the Hi(n)du of

the old Persian epigraphs.Like Sapta sindhavah and Hapta Hindu- the appellations of the


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Aryan country in the Veda and the Vedinand - it is derived from Sindhu (Indus), the great river

that constitutes the most imposing feature of that part of the sub-continent, which seems to have

been the cradle of its earliest known civilizations. Rising in southwestern Tibet, at an altitude of

16,000 feet, Indus enters the Indian territory near Leh in Ladakh.

The river has total drainage area of about 4,50,000 square miles, of which 1,75,000 square miles

lie in the Himalayan Mountainsand foothills.

After flowing eleven miles beyond Leh, in the north Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir, the

basin is joined on the left by its first tributary, the Zanskar, which helps green the Zanskar

Valley. Many interesting mountain trails beckon the mountaineering enthusiasts to the Zanskar

Valley. The Indus then flows past Batalik. When it enters the plains, its famous five tributaries-

Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej-that give Punjab (the food bowl of India) its name as the

land of five rivers, join it.

However,much of the myth and sentiment attached to India is related with the Ganges. The

gushing waters of the Ganges are at once peaceful, and at once tumultuous. Natures glory and

mans aspirations have long met along the Ganges. As her civilization spread out further, a

pilgrimage had to be undertaken to reach her watery shores. Fairs and festivals began to be

celebrated on her banks. The history of Ganga is as long as the history of Indian civilization.

Barring the period of Harappan civilization, Ganga basin has been the spectator to all the actions

that shaped mythology, history, and people of India. It was in this plain that the great kingdoms

of India, viz., Magadh, Gupta, and Mughals found their home. It was in this region that one of

the most homogenous cultures of all times was born. Furthermore, it was in this place that the

essence of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism was established in india. Ever since then,the river has been the lifeline of India, economically,spiritually and even culturally.

The mighty Ganga (also Ganges) emerges from beneath the Gangotri glacier at a height of 3,959

m above sea level, in the Garhwal region of North India. Here she is known as the Bhagirathi,

after the legendary prince Bhagirath who is accredited with bringing her down from heaven to

earth. Bursting forth at Gaumukh, out of a huge cavern shaped like the mouth of a cow, snow

laden and hung with giant icicles, the Bhagirathi goes rushing, sparkling, foaming around chunks

of ice that are constantly breaking off from the glacier above. Eighteen kilometers downstream,

stands Gangotri, which was the source of the river until the glacier melted and retreated to its

present position above Gaumukh. From here, onwards the river passes through the plains of

North India, covering the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, and Bangladesh. Along

the route that Ganga and her tributaries took, they set up different settlements, each of which was

distinct and developed its own indigenous culture.

Uttarkashi,Devprayag, Rudraprayag, Karnaprayag, Rishikesh and Haridwar are some of the


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important sites on the coast of this holy river during the early phase of its journey through North

India. From Haridwar to Allahabad, the Ganga flows parallel to the Yamuna, another important

river flowing through North India, each describing a huge arc. It flows past Garhmukteshwar, the

very place where the goddess Ganga is said to have appeared to Shantanu (ancestor of the

Pandavas), and Bithur, a city close to but much older than Kanpur, the site of an ancient Shiva

temple, before reaching Allahabad, an important religious centre of india.

Allahabad is a sacred place with soul cleansing powers, particularly so because the mythical,

subterranean river Saraswati is said to join the Ganga and Yamuna at this point-a speck of white

sand known as the Sangam. In Vedic times, there was a settlement at this confluence, known as

Prayag, where the Vedas were written. Brahma himself is said to have performed a sacrifice

here. Huen Tsang visited Prayag in ad 634. It was under Mughal Emperor Akbar that Prayag was

renamed Illahabas, later to be changed to Allahabad. Overlooking the confluence is a massive,

historic, red stone fort built by Akbar.

Like Haridwar, Varanasi is also a temple town of India. However, it is difficult to describe

Varanasi. As Shri Ramakrishna once said, One may as well try to draw a map of the universe as

attempt to describe Varanasi in words. As old as any currently inhabited city on earth, it was

already well known in the days of Buddha, 2,500 years ago. It finds constant mention in ancient

literature and has all along been a pilgrimage center, sacred to Shiva. Hindus consider it an

auspicious place to die, for then one goes straight to heaven. Surprisingly, Varanasi does not

mark one of Gangas great confluences, but is named after two small rivers that join here, the

Varuna and Asi. The oldest habitation site of India - Kashi, lies north of the Varuna.

Crossing the vast Gangetic plain, the Ganga flows past Patna, the famous Pataliputra asmentioned in the history books across India. She flows past Mokamah a place famous as the

working destination of the great hunter-conservationist Jim Corbett while in India. It flows past

Farakka Barrage, built to divert more water from Ganga to Hooghly to prevent the latter from

silting. Soon thereafter, the Ganga splits into the numerous tributaries that form the Gangetic

delta. The Hooghly, regarded as the true Ganga, is one of these tributaries. The main channel

proceeds to Bangladesh as the river Padma, so dearly loved by Rabindranath Tagore - the

legendary poet of India.

Like the Ganges, the vast networks of rivers flowing throughout India are sacred to its people.

The same goes for the region south of the Gangetic Plains in north India. This region is a

highland zone rising to the chain of the Vindhya Mountains - forming the land of the river

Cauvery Long revered by the people of India, for the bounties offertility bestowed by the gentle

waters, this river flows from the azure mountains of the Nilgiris. Today, this region covering the

four south Indian states of Tamil Nadu, Kanataka, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh offers visible

continuity with traditions in time. Above the land of Cauvery lies Orissa, another culturally rich


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state in India that is fed by the river Mahanadi.

Through the east of India, flows the very cascading Brahamputra. The waters of the Brahmaputra

travel all the way from China through the Indian States of Arunachal Pradesh and Assam.

Further northeast are seven other states - Tripura, Meghalaya, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh,

Nagaland and Mizoram. The two rivers Narmada and Tapti in central and western India have a

unique distinction of flowing in the east to west direction, unlike other major rivers in India India

with the exception of Brahmaputra. Out of the two, Narmada has more mythological significance

as being the mother and giver of peace.Legends in India have it that the mere sight of this river is

enough to cleanse ones soul, as against a dip in the Ganga or seven in the Yamuna.

Population

India is also home to a large and diverse population that has added to its vibrant character since

ages. There are about 3,000 communities in India. So wide and complex is the mix of the Indian

population that two-thirds of her communities are found in the geographical boundaries of eachof her states. They are a mingling of the Caucasoid, the Negrito, the Proto-Austroloids, the

Mongoloid and the Mediterranean races. The tribals constitute eight percent of the total

population of India. Based on their physical type and language, we can easily divide Indian

people into four broad classes. First, a majority of high class Hindus, who live in North India and

whose language is derived from Sanskrit. Secondly, those who live in that part of India that is

south of the Vindhyas and whose languages - Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam - are

entirely different from Sanskrit. These are known by the generic name of Dravidians. Thirdly,

primitive tribes living in hills and jungles of India, who as mentioned above constitute eight

percent of the total population in India. The Kols,Bhils and Mundas belong to this class.

Fourthly, there are a people with strong Mongolian features inhabiting within India the slopes ofthe Himalayas and the northeastern states

To add all this, India is perhaps the only place in the world where twenty religious streams flow

together. If that sounds clichd, here is a surprising piece of information. About 500

communities of India say they follow two religions at the same time! India has a population of

over 1 billion people, the majority of whom are Hindus.

No wonder then that India is today known all over the world as the Land of several Religions.

Ancient India witnessed the birth of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism; but all these cultures and

religions intermingled and acted and reacted upon one another in such a manner that though

people speak different languages, practice different religions, and observe different social

customs, they follow certain common styles of life throughout the country. India therefore shows

a deep underlying unity inspite of its great diversities.

The term Hinduism has emanated from the name given to the people who lived on the banks of


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the river Sindhu or Indus as it was denominated by the foreign invaders who came from the

North West into India many, many centuries ago.

However, Hinduism is not really a religion, it is a philosophy and a way of life that has evolved

over the millennia in the Indian subcontinent. Although there are many texts from the Vedic

times, which enunciate the basic truths and lay down certain doctrines, Hinduism is not a

doctrinaire religion but a catholic one with tolerance as its corner stone. Hence, the myriads of

people of different racial, linguistic and religious faiths who have come in from the east and from

the west, through the mountain passes and along the sea coast, bringing with them their own

ideology their customs and their languages into India, have continued to live their lives

according to their own traditions.

Religion

During the last 50 years since India gained Independence, the Constitution has guaranteed the

freedom of worship and way of life to all its citizens. This has ensured the rich kaleidoscope offestivals that are celebrated throughout the realm.

Since the majority of the inhabitants of India are Hindus, their festivals dominate the calendar.

The most colorful of all the festival is Deepawali or Diwali as it is commonly known, the festival

of lights. The central figure in the Indian epic, Ramayana, is Rama who went into exile for

fourteen years at his fathers behest, accompanied by his wife Sita and his brother Lakshman.

During their wanderings in the forests, Ravana, the king of Lanka, carried Sita away. It was only

after an epic battle that Rama vanquished Ravana, rescued Sita and returned home to his

kingdom of Ayodhya. The journey from Lanka in the south to Ayodhya in the north took twenty

days. His triumphal return to Ayodhya brought great joy to his people who illuminated the wholecity to celebrate the occasion. This joy and this illumination continues to this day as houses and

cities throughout the India are lit up (traditionally with small earthenware cups or diyas filled

with oil) to commemorate the anniversary. Deepawli signifies the triumph of good over evil and

light over darkness

The battle between Ravana and Rama and the latters victory are celebrated as Dussehra in many

parts of India, twenty days before Deepawali. Dussehra is the day when the effigies of Ravana,

his brothers Meghnath and Kumbhakaran, are burnt. Dussehra is preceded by enactment of the

story of the Ramayana by amateur groups of people in all villages, cities and in localities of the

metropolis throughout India. Practically all-night performances of the Ramayana from the

beginning to the end are enacted, analogous to street plays, and the actors are mainly young boys

who perform the role of the male and the female characters. Immense popularity is reflected by

the large gatherings for these performances known as Ram Lila.

These are simplified accounts of two of the major festivals of the Hindus in India but there are


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many variations and accretions as different people perform different rituals and forms of

worship. For example, in Bengal, the worship of the Goddess Durga precedes Deepawali.

While Goddess Durga is the eminent icon crafted with great devotion in West Bengal, Lord

Ganesha - acknowledged universally in India as the remover of obstacles - who is the central

figure in the celebration of Ganesh Chaturthi in Maharashtra.

Since Independence of India, there is also a definite revival in general of traditions and in

particular of craft traditions. Crafts are an intrinsic part of the religious and ritual traditions in

India as craftsmen often worked for the temples and for providing the appurtenances necessary

for worship. Before Indian Independence, many village crafts languished as the British

implemented the policy of modern industrialization.

There are many gods and goddesses in the Hindu pantheon; different parts of the country give

importance to one or the other. Lord Krishna, the eighth incarnation of Vishnu, is the divine corein the epic Mahabharata. It was he who gave the sermon of the Bhagwat Gita (the song Celestial)

to Arjuna, one of the five Pandava brothers during their battle with the Kauravas at Kurukshetra.

This battle again epitomizes the fight between the forces of evil and good. Lord Krishna,

however, is not a mythical character. Lord Krishna is venerated all over India and there are

temples dedicated to him specifically but in particular, his home ground of Vrindavan and

Mathura where he lived as a boy and revealed his divinity by the miracles he wrought. His love

for Radha has been the inspiration for miniature painters of the Kangra or Pahari school of

Painting, as also for the elaborate style of painting embellished with gold, known as the Tanjore

styles from South India.

The Indian calendar, as opposed to the Gregorian, starts in April. New Years day is April 13,

celebrated as Baisakhi, which coincides with the harvesting of the wheat crop in Northern India,

especially in Punjab. People wear new clothes, sing and dance in joy. In Eastern India the new

year begins on April 14th and again it is a joyous occasion with singing and dancing by young

men and women who don their best silken mekhalas (sarongs) and chaddars (an overwrap) and

dance to the beat of the drum. This festival is known as Rangali Bihu in Assam.

As the Hindu gods and goddesses in their myriad forms were worshipped with elaborate rituals,

many introduced by the priesthood, there appeared on the scene in North India a reformer who

enjoined a simpler form of worship shorn of rituals. He was Guru Nanak Dev, whose teachings

and those of the nine gurus who followed later are collected in the holy book of the Sikhs, the

Granthsahib. The birth anniversaries of Guru Nanak and Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth and last

of Gurus, are very important days and are celebrated with religious fervor and devotion.

Processions are taken out, the scriptures are chanted, without a break, and the Gurudwaras (Sikh

temples), illuminated in most parts of India where Sikh population exists.


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Lord Buddha was born in India and it is from the shores of this land that Buddhism was

disseminated to Sri Lanka and to Tibet. Lord Buddhas birth anniversary is celeberated as

Buddha Purnima. Falling on the full moon day and is a holiday in India for the last so many

years. Buddhists practice their rituals and observe their special religious days all over India.

Christians are equally at home in India. Two important Christian saints came to India many

centuries ago and preached the doctrine of Christianity. It is believed that St Thomas, one of the

twelve apostles of Christ, came to India in the first century AD, and spent the rest of his life in

India preaching Christinanity, particularly in Kerala where a large part of the population were

converted to Christianity. His tomb, St Thomas Mount in Chennai, Tamil Nadu has become a

place of pilgrimage for Christians in India.

The Spanish Catholic missionary, St Francis Xavier, also spent the greater part of his life in Goa

- a small coastal state on the western coastal strip in India. His body, in a glass casket, has beenkept in the Church of Basilica of Bom Jesu in Panjim, Goa. Every ten years, his relics are

exposed to the public, and people from all over the world throng to Goa in order to get a glimpse

and receive the benediction.

The Muslims in India celebrate all their festivals of Id, but they look westwards towards Arabia,

which is their spiritual home, and the Government of India has made special arrangements for

Haj pilgrims who go to Mecca annually. Chartered aeroplanes take them to their destination and

they enjoy this concessional privilege.

Thus, it is evident that all members of this country enjoy the same constitutional rights andprivileges since India got its Independence and their festivals and rituals lend a new dimension to

the many faceted society that is India.

Topography

India is blessed with a wide variety of climates and soil types which permit the growing of many

unique earthy roots, precious woods, aromatic spices, exotic flowers, balsamic resins and scented

grasses. Practitioners of Ayurveda (the traditional Indian system of medicine dating to at least

1000 BC) were well acquainted with the uses to which these plants could be put and prescribed

them to treat the emotional, mental and physical ailments of the people. Sandalwood, agarwood,

spikenard, vetiver, saffron, cinnamon, jasmine, rose, coriander and ginger were but a few of the

aromatic plants recognized by them as being plants possessing pleasing fragrant charm as well as

being plants therapeutic value. These plants and many others were used in food preparations,

medicinal formulas, massage oils, cosmetics, natural sandalwood-based perfumes called attars,

incense, floral wreaths and unguents, each of which served some special function in promoting

the well-being of the people. There is hardly any aspect of Indian life, be it political, social,


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economic or religious that has not been profoundly influenced by these plants.

A person interested in Indias botanical treasures will find there are many fascinating worlds to

discover throughout the country. Flower markets, ayurvedic pharmacies and hospitals, traditional

perfume houses, incense stores and manufacturers, essential oil and attar distilleries, botanical

gardens and parks, temples, spice shops and marriage ceremonies are all good places to

experience the diverse ways in which the wonderful jewels of the natural world permeate Indian

life.

From the pine-clad slopes of the Himalayas to the scrub and thornforests of north west and

peninsular India and from the semi-arid central forests to the ever-green deciduous groves of

Kerala, Bengal, the northeast hills, and the Andaman and Nicobar, Indiasvegetation is tailored

to its diverse topography. Some of the major Indian animals which inhabit its forest and green

areas are: Bengal tiger, monkeys, elephants, foxes, jackals, mongoose, Indian crocodile, the

gharial, and lizards and snakes - including the cobra comprise the indigenous reptile population.Peacock - the Indian national bird joins the ranks of birds from cranes, storks, ibises, hawks,

hornbills, parrots, and the common crow.

History

The spirit of India has thus fascinated the world with its very mystique. A subcontinent with a

5000-year old history. A civilization united by its diversity - India has always been known as a

land where history echoes itself with all its wonders in every piece of stone and every particle of

dust.

Indias first major civilization flourished around 2500 BC in the Indus river valley much ofwhich lies within present day India. This civilization, which lasted for 1000 years, and is known

as the Harappan culture, appears to have been the culmination of thousands of years of

settlement. From around 1500 BC onwards, Aryan tribes from Afghanistan and Central Asia

began to filter into northwest India. Despite their martial superiority, their progress was gradual.

Eventually though these tribes were able to control the whole of Northern India as far as Vindhya

Hills, and many of the original inhabitants, the Dravidians, were pushed into south India. As the

Aryan tribes spread out across the Ganges plain, in the seventh century BC, many of them were

grouped together into 16 major kingdoms. Gradually these amalgamated into four large states,

with Kosala and Magadha emerging to be the most powerful during the fifth century BC. North

India however came to be dominated by the Nanda dynasty in about 364 BC. During this period

however, North India narrowly avoided two other invasions from the west. The first was by the

Persian king, Darius (521- 486 BC) and the second by Alexander the Great who marched into

India from Greece in 326 BC.

The Mauryas were the first ruling dynasty to control large parts of North India and some parts of


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South India, as one territorial unit. Founded by Chandragupta Maurya with the able guidance of

Kautilya, the author of the famous treatise - Arthshastra - he was able to set up ahighly

centralized administrative setup. The empire reached its peak under Ashoka, who left pillars and

rock-carved edicts, which delineate the enormous span of his territory that covered large areas of

the Indian subcontinent; these can be seen in Delhi, Gujarat, Orissa, Sarnath in Uttar Pradesh and

Sanchi in Madhya pradesh . Following the death of Ashoka, in 232 BC, the empire rapidly

disintegrated, finally collapsing in 184 BC.

A number of empires rose and fell, especially in North India, following the collapse of the

Mauryas. The next dynasty worth a mention is that of the Guptas. Although the Gupta empire

was not as large as the Maurya empire, it kept North India politically united for more than a

century from AD 335 to 455.

Following the decline of the Mauryan Empire a number of powerful kingdoms arose in central

and south India, among them Satavahanas, Kalingas and Vakatakas hold precedence. Later onthese regions saw the rise of some of the greatest dynasties of South India in the form of the

Cholas, Pandyas, Cheras, Chalukyas and Pallavas.

The decline of the Guptas, in North India, and the consequent rise of a large but ineffective

number of regional powers made the political situation very fluid and unstable by the ninth

century AD. This paved the way for the Muslim invasion into India during the early half of the

eleventh century. These were felt in the form of seventeen successive raids to North India, made

by Mahmud of Ghazni between 1001 and 1025. These raids effectively shattered the balance of

power in North India allowing subsequent invaders to claim the territory for themselves.

However the next Muslim ruler to invade India achieved the establishment of foreign rule inIndia, in its truesense. This Mahmud of Ghauri attacked India and after some futile resistance by

the local leadership was able to successfully lay the foundation of a foreign empire in India.

Under him, large parts of India came under Muslim rule and very soon his successor Qutub - ud -

Aibak became the first of the sultans of Delhi. His was followed by the rule of the Khaljis and

Tughlaq, also known as the rule of the Delhi Sultanate, who ruled over a large portion of North

India and parts of South India till until the coming in of the Lodis andSayyids and after them the

Mughals who established, what came to be known as the most vibrant era of Indian History.

Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb were some of the most

prominent rulers of the Mughal dynasty. Although the Mughals heyday was relatively brief,

their empire was massive, covering, at its height, almost the entire Indian subcontinent. Its

significance was not only in its size, however. The Mughal emperors presided over a golden age

of arts and literature and had a passion for building, which resulted in some of the greatest

architecture in India. In particular, Shah Jahans Taj Mahal at Agra ranks as one of the wonders

of the world. This apart, the large number of forts, palaces, gates, buildings, mosques, baolis


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(watertank or well) gardens, etc., forms the cultural heritage of the Mughals in India. The

Mughals were also instrumental in establishing one of the most efficient administrative setups in

India. Most noteworthy being their revenue administration, the characteristics of which form the

basics of the revenue and land reform laws in India till date.

The decline of the Mughals saw the corresponding rise of Marathas in Western India. In other

parts of India, however a new trend of foreign invasion under the garb of commercial links had

started from the fifteenth century AD onwards - first, with the arrival and gradual takeover of

Goa by the Portugese led by Vasco da Gama -between 1498 and 1510 AD; and then with the

arrival, and the setting up of the first trading post at Surat, in Gujarat, by the East India

Company.

The British and Portugese were not the only Europeans in India. The Danes and Dutch also had

trading posts, and in 1672 AD, the French established themselves at Pondicherry, an enclave that

they held even after the British had departed. The British represented by the East India Companyestablished their commercial control over vast areas in India, which very soon had an

administrative dimension to it. The British rule in India was however formalized by the direct

takeover of India by the British Crown, through the post 1857 reforms.

Since then uptill independence the history of India is one of constant struggle between the

nationalists - who assumed different names, ideologies, backgrounds and methods - and the

Britishers and their repressive policies in India.

Historians

however, use the beginning of mature agriculture in the Indus and Ganges valleys as the startingpoint of the story of Indian civilization. The calendar reads first millennium BC. By now, iron

had been discovered, and even iron implements for clearing of forests and cultivation had been

fashioned out. Beginning here, the art or science of metallurgy developed very rapidly in India.

India had many copper, tin, lead, brass and silver reserves, not to mention gold mines. Indian

steel was so well known that after the famous battle between Alexander the Great and Porus, the

only gift Porus could think of giving Alexander was steel. Today, apart from many steel plants,

India has held this thread of continuity even in indigenous research in titanium technology and

composites.

Modern India

At that time when man had just about created the right tools to throw up an agricultural surplus,

the population of the area, according to some sources was recorded as one hundred million. No

wonder Indian population figures continue to be staggering. While the southern states of Kerala

and Tamil Nadu have managed to flatten their population growth curve, the Gangetic plains

continue with their upwards-rising graph. Women are being empowered in this traditionally male


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dominated society with literacy, rural banking systems, and vocational skills. Organized

womens movements are gaining ground and this has managed to effect many legislative

changes in the country. The Parliament is facing a bill for the reservation of 33% seats for

women candidates. Of course, this comes against the backdrop of the many firsts in India history.

The first woman president of the General Assembly of the United Nations was Vijaylakshmi

Pandit.

As a matter of fact, the transformation being brought about in the society today, due to both

welfare schemes as well as economic liberalization, makes it comparable to the period where our

story begins. Historians call the 1st century BC the first axial stage and the 20th century AD the

second. The first axial stage set in motion the gigantic transformation of a simple agrarian

settlement into one of the most complex and enlightened cultures. By the 5th century AD,there

was a wealth of material on every aspect of life-religion, philosophy, medicine, astronomy,

mathematics, arts, and crafts, even the art of governance. Today, these treatises are constantly

being sourced for their eternal wisdom.

Accelerating the evolutionary process in the cultural sphere was the birth of two new religions:

Buddhism and Jainism. Hinduism saw a sudden revival of activities and many magnificent

temples came into being. Arrival of Islam and interaction with Greece, Arabia, Persia and

Central Asia further enriched life, which can be discerned even in aspects like architecture and

irrigation technology. Literature was also greatly influenced by these movements.

Equally, the process of communication became varied and spread out. Stories, songs, theatre,

craft were all vehicles of communicating with the people. India has 325 languages and 25 scripts.

Even today, all of them are alive and being used. Tamil is the oldest language using theDravidian script. The ancient language of Sanskrit continues to be ever charming with its highly

developed grammar.

The reason why Indian Languages are not doing the disappearing act as those in many other parts

of the world is because Indians, it has been found, are basically bilingual or even trilingual!

It is from within this society that the struggle for freedom against the British rule grew. The

largest national movement in history took shape. People from every corner of India participated

and all of them followed the path set by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, one of the greatest

visionaries of this century. Naturally, a movement of this order finds many interpretations,

insights and possible causes.

Sustaining a high moral order could not have been easy. History reveals an integrated vision of

the leaders where truth and ahimsa or non-violence were held supreme. Strengthening this vision

was the newly emerging intelligentsia. Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Bankim Chandra, Rabindranath


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Tagore, Subramanya Bharati and Abul Kalam Azad were some of those who enthused the people

through their soul-stirring writings and songs to reach out to nationalism.

There were many who communicated directly with the masses. Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Asaf Ali,

C. Rajagopalachari, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Abdul Ghaffar Khan, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel,

Subhas Chandra Bose, and Sarojini Naidu are some of the great names associated with the

freedom struggle. Jawaharlal Nehru, of course, was the charismatic leader who later became

independent Indias first Prime Minister. Rajendra Prasad became the countrys first President.

In addition, a million others made this movement possible.

Independent India

India moment of glory finally arrived on the midnight of 15 August 1947. People delirious with

joy flooded the streets to welcome the dawn of a new era. There was rejoicing everywhere. And

within the Assembly Hall, Jawaharlal Nehru rose to make his famous tryst with destiny

speech. By the early hours of morning, as the clouds sent a light drizzle to acknowledge theawakening, independent India was all set to transform a colonial society into a liberal polity.

A Constitution was drawn up in a matter of four years. It sought to assimilate different linguistic

regions and religious communities of India into a cohesive Nation-State while, at the same time,

conferring substantial autonomy upon the diverse states of the Indian Union. A concern for the

citizens formed the basic principle for the guiding policies for governance laid down by the

Constitution.

There was foresight in the visualization of the Indian Constitution, at every step. The founding

fathers under the leadership of B. R. Ambedkar based governance of the country upon the freechoice of its citizens. What is it that made them confident of the prudence and capabilities of the

people from a society with modest social development? It was perhaps the strength of the oral

tradition. The other was probably the existence of grass-root governance, a complex system

having all the elements of a modern democracy. The Legislature, the Executive and the Judiciary

started functioning long before such systems were recognized by international thinkers.

Their faith was not misplaced. Time and again, the people of India have shown their ability to

discern: to be able to match immediate interests with the over-arching interests of the nation. The

unfailing mechanism of democracy assured stability for the nation. At another level, the

politicization of the popular classes generated political aspirations. These aspirations were

reflected in various movements, which helped redefine priorities, or in the formation of new

political organizations, which added other dimensions to political thought. And, to the people, it

became a source of hope for a better future.

India in 1949 was gearing up to face many challenges. She inherited a society administered for


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over a century by a civil service answerable to no one but itself. Her predominantly agrarian

economy was stagnant, registering in fact a decline in production. In two phases, India tackled

the situation.

In the first phase governmental planning and action addressed land reforms, improvement of

agricultural marketing techniques and irrigation facilities. Reducing dependency on the fickle

monsoons was a major priority area since most of Indian agriculture is rain-fed.

All this required, in addition to planning, a good deal of research. This was what the second

phase was all about. Moving over to scientific research and development, India raised her

agricultural production to a consistent growth rate of three percent per annum. Improved

methodology and the spirit of innovation of her farmers are holding out dreams of reaching in far

greater strength the markets of Europe, Middle East and Far East in the near future.

Contemporary impressions of India sometimes neglect the fact that the country is a greatmanufacturing nation. Economic charts reveal that many domestic brands of consumer goods, be

they potato chips or trucks, computers or textiles are competing vigorously with global brands.

Simultaneously, India was building a scientific foundation for all her programs, be it agricultural

research or pure scientific research or product designs for the craftsmen. If C. V. Raman,

Subramanyan Chandrasekhar and Hargobind Khorana were recipients of the Nobel Prize, there

were others with equal capabilities like Homi Bhabha, Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar,Jagdish

Chandra Bose, Meghnad Saha Kothari, Krishnan, Vikram Sarabhai and Pal who concentrated

their energies on creating the environment and infrastructure for further academic and

developmental activities..

The Green Revolution of the sixties and the White Revolution of the seventies brought about

amazing results in agriculture and cooperative dairy farming.

Industrial Sector

Indian industrial policy could be broadly divided into two phases. Before 1991, the need of the

moment was seen to be the development of a machinery-producing sector with associated

economic skills. The second part concentrated on creating a protected home market.

In 1991, India threw open the industrial sector to greater internationaland domestic competition.

Financial systems have been strengthened and India are well developed. India in recent years has

emerged as one of the leading destinations for investors from developed countries.

Supporting infrastructure facilities are also being made available. The country has the largest

railway network in Asia and the second largest in the world under a single management. Roads


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