What Matters to What Matters to Student Success?Student Success?Lessons for ANAC Lessons for ANAC

InstitutionsInstitutions

George D. KuhGeorge D. KuhElon UniversityElon UniversityJune 13, 2007June 13, 2007

We all want the same thing—an We all want the same thing—an undergraduate experience that undergraduate experience that results in high levels of learning results in high levels of learning and personal development for all and personal development for all students.students.

OverviewOverview

Essential learning outcomes Why engagement matters Lessons from high-

performing institutions

Advance OrganizersAdvance Organizers

To what extent do your students To what extent do your students engage in productive learning engage in productive learning activities, inside activities, inside andand outside the outside the classroom? classroom?

How do you know? How do you know? What must you do differently -- or What must you do differently -- or

better -- to enhance student better -- to enhance student success? success?

Student Success in CollegeStudent Success in College

Academic achievement, Academic achievement, engagement in engagement in educationally purposeful educationally purposeful activities, satisfaction, activities, satisfaction, acquisition of desired acquisition of desired knowledge, skills and knowledge, skills and competencies, competencies, persistence, attainment persistence, attainment of educational of educational objectives, and post-objectives, and post-college performancecollege performance

Association of American Colleges and UniversitiesAssociation of American Colleges and Universities

Narrow Learning is Not EnoughNarrow Learning is Not Enough——The Essential Learning Outcomes The Essential Learning Outcomes

Knowledge of Human Cultures and Knowledge of Human Cultures and the Physical & Natural Worldthe Physical & Natural World

Intellectual and Practical SkillsIntellectual and Practical Skills

Personal and Social ResponsibilityPersonal and Social Responsibility

Integrative LearningIntegrative Learning

Most Important Skills Employers Look For In New Hires

Teamwork skills

Critical thinking/ reasoning

Oral/written communication

Ability to assemble/organize information

Innovative/thinking creatively

Able to work with numbers/statisticsForeign language

proficiency 3%

9%

20%

21%

30%

33%

44%

RecentGrads*

38%

37%

37%

10%

21%

4%

6%

* Skills/abilities recent graduates think are the two most important to employers

What Really Matters in College: What Really Matters in College: Student EngagementStudent Engagement

Because iBecause individual effort and ndividual effort and involvement are the critical involvement are the critical determinants of impact, determinants of impact, institutions should focus on institutions should focus on the ways they can shape their the ways they can shape their academic, interpersonal, and academic, interpersonal, and extracurricular offerings to extracurricular offerings to encourage encourage student student engagementengagement. .

Pascarella & Terenzini, Pascarella & Terenzini, How College How College Affects StudentsAffects Students, 2005, p. 602, 2005, p. 602

Foundations of Student EngagementFoundations of Student Engagement

Time on task Time on task (Tyler, 1930s)(Tyler, 1930s)

Quality of effort Quality of effort (Pace, 1960-70s)(Pace, 1960-70s)

Student involvement Student involvement (Astin, 1984)(Astin, 1984)

Social, academic integration Social, academic integration (Tinto,1987, 1993)(Tinto,1987, 1993)

Good practices in Good practices in undergraduate education undergraduate education (Chickering & Gamson, 1987)(Chickering & Gamson, 1987)

Outcomes Outcomes (Pascarella, 1985)(Pascarella, 1985)

Student engagement Student engagement (Kuh, 1991, (Kuh, 1991, 2005)2005)

Student Engagement TrinityStudent Engagement Trinity

What students What students dodo -- time and energy -- time and energy devoted to educationally purposeful devoted to educationally purposeful activitiesactivities

What institutions What institutions dodo -- using -- using effective educational practices to effective educational practices to induce students to do the right induce students to do the right thingsthings

Educationally effective institutions Educationally effective institutions channel student energy toward channel student energy toward the the right activitiesright activities

Good Practices in Good Practices in Undergraduate EducationUndergraduate Education

(Chickering & Gamson, 1987; (Chickering & Gamson, 1987; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005)Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005)

Student-faculty contactStudent-faculty contact Active learningActive learning Prompt feedbackPrompt feedback Time on taskTime on task High expectationsHigh expectations Respect for diverse learning stylesRespect for diverse learning styles Cooperation among studentsCooperation among students

National Survey of National Survey of Student EngagementStudent Engagement(pronounced “nessie”)

Community College Community College Survey of Student Survey of Student EngagementEngagement(pronounced “cessie”)

College student surveys that assess the extent to which students engage in educational practices associated with high levels of learning and development

NSSE Project ScopeNSSE Project Scope

One million+ students One million+ students from 1,200 different from 1,200 different schools schools

80% of 4-yr U.S. 80% of 4-yr U.S. undergraduate FTE undergraduate FTE

50 states, Puerto Rico50 states, Puerto Rico

35 Canadian universities35 Canadian universities

100+ consortia100+ consortia

NSSE SurveyNSSE Survey

Student Behaviors

Institutional Actions & Requirements

Reactions to People & Environment

Student BackgroundInformation

Student Learning &

Development

In your experience at your institution during the current school year, about how often have you done each of the following?

1

Effective Educational PracticesEffective Educational Practices

Level of Level of Academic Academic ChallengeChallenge

Active & Active & Collaborative Collaborative

LearningLearning

EnrichingEnrichingEducational Educational ExperiencesExperiences

SupportiveSupportiveCampusCampus

EnvironmentEnvironment

Student-Student-Faculty Faculty

InteractionInteraction

Grades, persistence, Grades, persistence, student satisfaction, student satisfaction, and engagement go and engagement go hand in handhand in hand

Does institutional size matter to Does institutional size matter to engagement?engagement?

Yes, Yes, size matters.size matters.

Smaller Smaller isis generally generally betterbetter..

Benchmark Scores for All Students by Benchmark Scores for All Students by Undergraduate EnrollmentUndergraduate Enrollment

Benchmark Scores for All Students by Undergraduate Enrollment Intervals

25

35

45

55

65

0 -1000

1001 -1500

1501 -2000

2001 -2500

2501 -3000

3001 -4000

4001 -5000

5001 -7500

7501 -10000

10001 -15000

15001 -20000

20001 -25000

25001 -highest

Enrollment Intervals

Level ofAcademicChallenge

Active andCollaborativeLearning

StudentInteractionswith FacultyMembersEnrichingEducationalExperiences

SupportiveCampusEnvironment

Academic Challenge, Active Learning, Student-Faculty Interaction by Enrollment

20

30

40

50

60

186 1238 1921 3060 6337 11343 29426Enrollment

Level of Academic Challenge

Active and Collaborative Learning

Student Interactions with Faculty Members

Student engagement varies Student engagement varies more more withinwithin than between than between institutions.institutions.

Student-Faculty Interaction: First-Year Students at Liberal Arts Institutions

0

20

40

60

80

100

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Liberal Arts Institutions

Percentile 10

Percentile 50

Percentile 90

Supportive Campus Environment: Seniors at Master's Institutions

0

20

40

60

80

100

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Master's Institutions

Percentile 10

Percentile 50

Percentile 90

Worth PonderingWorth Pondering

How do we reach How do we reach our least engaged our least engaged students?students?

Behold the Behold the compensatorycompensatory effects of engagementeffects of engagement

What Are Faculty Telling Us?What Are Faculty Telling Us?

Faculty Survey of Faculty Survey of Student EngagementStudent Engagement

(pronounced “fessie”)

FSSE measures FSSE measures faculty faculty expectations and expectations and activities related activities related to student to student engagement in engagement in effective effective educational educational practicespractices

Faculty Priorities and Faculty Priorities and Student EngagementStudent Engagement

AVGAVG STUDENTSTUDENT

AVGAVG FACULTYFACULTY AcadAcad emicemic cchallhallengeenge

ActActiveive --ccollabollab

Diversity Diversity eexperiencesxperiences

StuStu dentdent --ffacacultyulty

AAccadademicemic challchall engeenge emphemphasisasis

ActActiveive --collabcollab practicespractices

EmphEmph asisasis on diversityon diversity experiencesexperiences

EmphEmph asisasis on on hhigherigher orderorder thinkingthinking

ImpImportanceortance enrichingenriching ededucuc eexpxp erienceseriences

12.0

6.7 6.67.3

2.5 2.6 2.72.4

0

4

8

12

Doctoral Univ Bac--Diverse FieldsBac--Liberal Arts Master’s

Hours in a typical week doing research and scholarly activitiesHours in a typical week working with undergraduates on research

Figure 1.Average Weekly Research Hours by Institutional

Type

Faculty Time on Research with Faculty Time on Research with Undergraduates and Probability of Student Undergraduates and Probability of Student

Participation in ResearchParticipation in Research

0

0.13

0.25

0.38

0.50

Pro

bab

ilit

y o

f U

nd

erg

rad

uate

R

esearc

h

0.91 2.17 3.42 4.68 5.93

Faculty Research with Undergraduates (hours)

Faculty View of Importance of Doing Research Faculty View of Importance of Doing Research with Students and Probability of Students Doing with Students and Probability of Students Doing

ResearchResearch

0.13

0.25

0.38

0.50

0Pro

bab

ilit

y o

f U

nd

erg

rad

uate

Researc

h

1.87 2.25 2.62 2.99 3.37

Importance of Undergraduate Research

What to Make of This? What to Make of This?

1.1. When faculty members When faculty members emphasize certain educational emphasize certain educational practices, students engage in practices, students engage in them to a greater extent than them to a greater extent than their peers elsewhere.their peers elsewhere.

2.2. Good things go togetherGood things go together3.3. Teacher-scholars matterTeacher-scholars matter

What does an What does an educationally effective educationally effective university look like?university look like?

Project DEEPProject DEEP

To discover, To discover, document, and document, and describe what high describe what high performing performing institutions do to institutions do to achieve their achieve their notable level of notable level of effectiveness.effectiveness.

DEEP Selection CriteriaDEEP Selection Criteria

Controlling for student and institutional Controlling for student and institutional characteristics (i.e., selectivity, diversity, characteristics (i.e., selectivity, diversity, institutional type), DEEP schools have: institutional type), DEEP schools have:

Higher-than-predicted graduation Higher-than-predicted graduation rates rates Higher-than-predicted NSSE scoresHigher-than-predicted NSSE scores

Region, institutional Region, institutional type, special missiontype, special mission

Project DEEP SchoolsProject DEEP Schools

Doctoral Extensives

University of Kansas

University of Michigan

Doctoral Intensives

George Mason University

Miami University (Ohio)

University of Texas El PasoUniversity of Texas El Paso

Master’s Granting

Fayetteville State University

Gonzaga University

Longwood University

Liberal ArtsLiberal Arts California State, Monterey BayCalifornia State, Monterey Bay Macalester CollegeMacalester College Sweet Briar CollegeSweet Briar College The Evergreen State CollegeThe Evergreen State College Sewanee: University of the Sewanee: University of the SouthSouth Ursinus CollegeUrsinus College Wabash College Wabash College Wheaton College (MA)Wheaton College (MA) Wofford College Wofford College

Baccalaureate GeneralBaccalaureate General Alverno College Alverno College University of Maine at University of Maine at FarmingtonFarmington Winston-Salem State UniversityWinston-Salem State University

Research ApproachResearch Approach

Case study method Case study method Team of 24 researchers review Team of 24 researchers review

institutional documents and conduct institutional documents and conduct multiple-day site visitsmultiple-day site visits

Observe individuals, classes, group Observe individuals, classes, group meetings, activities, eventsmeetings, activities, events

2,700+ people, 60 classes, 30 events 2,700+ people, 60 classes, 30 events Discover and describe effective Discover and describe effective

practices and programs, campus practices and programs, campus cultureculture

Worth NotingWorth Noting

Many roads to an engaging Many roads to an engaging institutioninstitution

No one best modelNo one best model Different combinations of Different combinations of

complementary, interactive, complementary, interactive, synergistic conditionssynergistic conditions

Anything worth doing is Anything worth doing is worth doing well at scaleworth doing well at scale

Six Shared ConditionsSix Shared Conditions

““Living” Mission and “Lived” Living” Mission and “Lived” Educational PhilosophyEducational Philosophy

Unshakeable Focus on Student Unshakeable Focus on Student Learning Learning

Environments Adapted for Environments Adapted for Educational EnrichmentEducational Enrichment

Clearly Marked Pathways to Clearly Marked Pathways to Student SuccessStudent Success

Improvement-Oriented EthosImprovement-Oriented Ethos Shared Responsibility for Shared Responsibility for

Educational Quality Educational Quality

DEEP Lessons: First things first…DEEP Lessons: First things first…

Organizations that improve… Organizations that improve… create and nurture agreement on create and nurture agreement on what is worth achieving, and they what is worth achieving, and they set in motion the internal set in motion the internal processes by which people processes by which people progressively learn how to do progressively learn how to do what they need to do in order to what they need to do in order to achieve what is worthwhile.achieve what is worthwhile.

(Elmore in Fullan, 2001, p. 125)Elmore in Fullan, 2001, p. 125)

1. Get the ideas right1. Get the ideas right

Focus on a real problemFocus on a real problem Persistence Fragmented gen ed program Tired pedagogical practices Poor first-year experience Low academic challenge Connections to real world Capstone experiences Under-engaged students

2. Lay out the path to student success2. Lay out the path to student success

2. Lay out the path to student success2. Lay out the path to student success

a.a. Draw a map for student success Draw a map for student success b.b. Front load resources to smooth the Front load resources to smooth the

transition transition c.c. Teach newcomers about the campus Teach newcomers about the campus

cultureculture d.d. Create a sense of “specialness”Create a sense of “specialness”e.e. Emphasize student initiative Emphasize student initiative f.f. Focus on underengaged studentsFocus on underengaged studentsg.g. If something works, maybe require it? If something works, maybe require it?

Lessons from National Center for Lessons from National Center for Academic TransformationAcademic Transformation

If doing something is important, If doing something is important, require it (first-year students require it (first-year students don’t do ‘optional’)don’t do ‘optional’)

Assign course points to the Assign course points to the activityactivity

Monitor and intervene when Monitor and intervene when necessarynecessary

http://www.thencat.org/Newsletters/Apr06.htm#1http://www.thencat.org/Newsletters/Apr06.htm#1

Teaching the CultureTeaching the Culture

Macalester College students, Macalester College students, faculty and staff understand and faculty and staff understand and articulate the College’s core articulate the College’s core values of academic excellence, values of academic excellence, service, multiculturalism and service, multiculturalism and internationalism. These values internationalism. These values are enacted in the curriculum are enacted in the curriculum and co-curriculum (e.g., “Into the and co-curriculum (e.g., “Into the Streets”).Streets”).

High challenge, high supportHigh challenge, high support 68% first yr & 70% seniors report “working harder 68% first yr & 70% seniors report “working harder

than thought they could”than thought they could” Cannot miss class (or WF)Cannot miss class (or WF) Demanding grading scales requires faculty to engage Demanding grading scales requires faculty to engage

struggling studentsstruggling students Commitment to teaching & availability – enhances Commitment to teaching & availability – enhances

mentoring relationshipsmentoring relationships Comprehensive exam senior yearComprehensive exam senior year 10:1 student to faculty ratio10:1 student to faculty ratio Honor code: Emphasis on academic integrity & strict Honor code: Emphasis on academic integrity & strict

student enforcementstudent enforcement

Academic rigor at Academic rigor at SewaneeSewanee

SSocialization to academic ocialization to academic expectationsexpectations

Wofford first-year students read a Wofford first-year students read a common novel and write a short common novel and write a short essay connecting it to their own essay connecting it to their own lives. The eight best essays are lives. The eight best essays are published and distributed to all published and distributed to all new students, creating the first new students, creating the first class celebrities.class celebrities.

Redundant early warning systems: Redundant early warning systems: “Tag Teaming”“Tag Teaming”

Wheaton first-year student Wheaton first-year student advising team includes faculty, advising team includes faculty, student preceptors, librarians student preceptors, librarians and administrative staff. and administrative staff.

At Ursinus, Miami, and Wheaton At Ursinus, Miami, and Wheaton representatives from both representatives from both academic affairs and student academic affairs and student affairs serve as academic affairs serve as academic advisors. advisors.

3. Align initiatives with: 3. Align initiatives with:

a.a. Student preparation, ability, interestsStudent preparation, ability, interests

b.b. Existing complementary effortsExisting complementary efforts Gen ed reform Carnegie SOTL/CASTL Service learning/Campus

Compact Internationalization and diversity AAC&U: “Greater Expectations,”

“Inclusive Excellence,” LEAPLEAP

Association of American Colleges and Universities

Fayetteville StateFayetteville StateFaculty members “teach the Faculty members “teach the

students they have, not those they students they have, not those they wish they had”wish they had”

Center for Teaching and Learning Center for Teaching and Learning sponsors development activities on sponsors development activities on diverse learning needsdiverse learning needs

Cal State Monterey BayCal State Monterey Bay““Assets” philosophy acknowledges Assets” philosophy acknowledges

students’ prior knowledgestudents’ prior knowledge

““Meet students where they are”Meet students where they are”

Something Else That Something Else That Really MattersReally Matters in College in College

The greatest impact appears The greatest impact appears to stem from studentsto stem from students’’ total total levellevel of campus engagement, of campus engagement, particularly when academic, particularly when academic, interpersonal, and interpersonal, and extracurricular involvements extracurricular involvements are are mutually reinforcingmutually reinforcing……

Pascarella & Terenzini, Pascarella & Terenzini, How College How College Affects StudentsAffects Students, 2005, p. 647, 2005, p. 647

It Takes a Whole Campus It Takes a Whole Campus to Educate a Studentto Educate a Student

4. Promote and reward collaboration4. Promote and reward collaboration

a.a. Tighten the philosophical and Tighten the philosophical and operational linkages between operational linkages between academic and student affairs academic and student affairs

– Peer tutoring and mentoring Peer tutoring and mentoring

– First year seminarsFirst year seminars

– Learning communitiesLearning communitiesb.b. Harness available expertiseHarness available expertisec.c. Make governance a shared Make governance a shared

responsibility responsibility d.d. Form partnerships with the local Form partnerships with the local

community community

Connect campus and communityConnect campus and community

California State University, Monterey Bay (CSUMB) requires all students to complete both a lower and upper-level service learning experience as a means to apply knowledge and connect with the local community.

5. Recruit, socialize and reward 5. Recruit, socialize and reward competent peoplecompetent people

a.a. Recruit faculty and staff Recruit faculty and staff committed to student learning committed to student learning

b.b. Emphasize student Emphasize student centeredness in faculty and centeredness in faculty and staff orientation staff orientation

c.c. Make room for differences Make room for differences d.d. Reward and support competent Reward and support competent

staff to insure high quality staff to insure high quality student support services student support services

““Difference Makers”Difference Makers”

Student success is the product of Student success is the product of thousands of small gestures thousands of small gestures extended on a daily basis by extended on a daily basis by caring, supportive educators caring, supportive educators sprinkled throughout the sprinkled throughout the institution who enact a talent institution who enact a talent development philosophy. development philosophy.

6. Put money where it will make a 6. Put money where it will make a difference in student difference in student

engagementengagement

“…in professional baseball it still matters less how much you have than how well you spend it”

6. Put money where it will make a 6. Put money where it will make a difference in student engagementdifference in student engagement

a.a. Align reward system with Align reward system with institutional mission, values, and institutional mission, values, and prioritiespriorities

b.b. Sunset redundant and ineffective Sunset redundant and ineffective programsprograms

c.c. Invest in activities that contribute Invest in activities that contribute to student success to student success

Effective Educational PracticesEffective Educational Practices

First-Year Seminars and Experiences First-Year Seminars and Experiences  Common Intellectual ExperiencesCommon Intellectual Experiences Learning CommunitiesLearning Communities Writing-Intensive CoursesWriting-Intensive Courses Collaborative Assignments and ProjectsCollaborative Assignments and Projects “ “Science as Science Is Done”; Science as Science Is Done”;

Undergraduate Research Undergraduate Research Diversity/Global LearningDiversity/Global Learning Service Learning, Community-Based Service Learning, Community-Based

Learning Learning InternshipsInternships Capstone Courses and ProjectsCapstone Courses and Projects

Common Intellectual ExperienceCommon Intellectual Experience

Ursinus College’s Common Ursinus College’s Common Intellectual Experience (CIE) is a Intellectual Experience (CIE) is a two-semester course for first-year two-semester course for first-year students. Common readings and students. Common readings and “Uncommon Hour” give students a “Uncommon Hour” give students a shared intellectual experience shared intellectual experience outside the classroom that outside the classroom that complements class activities.complements class activities.

Required Enriching ExperiencesRequired Enriching Experiences

All Ursinus students complete an All Ursinus students complete an Independent Learning Experience Independent Learning Experience (ILE), such as an independent (ILE), such as an independent research or creative project, research or creative project, internship, study abroad, student internship, study abroad, student teaching, or summer fellow teaching, or summer fellow program or comparable summer program or comparable summer research program.research program.

Effective Educational Practices Increase Effective Educational Practices Increase Odds That Students Will:Odds That Students Will:

Invest time and effort Invest time and effort Interact with faculty and peers Interact with faculty and peers

about substantive mattersabout substantive matters Experience diversityExperience diversity Get more frequent feedbackGet more frequent feedback Discover relevance of their Discover relevance of their

learning through real-world learning through real-world applicationsapplications

6. Put money where it will make a 6. Put money where it will make a difference in student engagementdifference in student engagement

a.a. Align reward system with Align reward system with institutional mission, values, and institutional mission, values, and prioritiespriorities

b.b. Sunset redundant and ineffective Sunset redundant and ineffective programsprograms

c.c. Invest in activities that contribute Invest in activities that contribute to student success to student success

d.d. Document performance through Document performance through assessmentassessment!!

Triangulate multiple data sourcesTriangulate multiple data sources

ACT/SAT score reportsACT/SAT score reports BCSSEBCSSE NSSENSSE FSSEFSSE CIRP/CSSCIRP/CSS Noel LevitzNoel Levitz CLACLA ACT CAAPACT CAAP Campus audit (Campus audit (Inventory for Inventory for

Student Engagement and Student Engagement and SuccessSuccess))

DEEP Practice Briefs

Available: www.nsse.iub.edu

Download

the

series!Download

the

series!

7. Focus on culture sooner than later7. Focus on culture sooner than later

Ultimately, it’s all about the Ultimately, it’s all about the culture…culture…

a.a. Identify cultural properties that Identify cultural properties that impede success impede success

b.b. Expand the number of cultural Expand the number of cultural practitioners on campuspractitioners on campus

c.c. Instill an ethic of positive Instill an ethic of positive restlessnessrestlessness

Positive restlessnessPositive restlessness

““We know who we are and what We know who we are and what we aspire to.”we aspire to.”

Confident, responsive, but Confident, responsive, but never quite satisfied… never quite satisfied…

Self-correcting orientationSelf-correcting orientation

Continually question, “are we Continually question, “are we performing as well as we can?” performing as well as we can?”

8. Put someone in charge 8. Put someone in charge

When everyone is responsible for When everyone is responsible for something, no one is accountable something, no one is accountable for it…for it…

a.a. Senior leadership is keySenior leadership is keyb.b. Some individual or group (high Some individual or group (high

profile ‘think force’) must profile ‘think force’) must coordinate and monitor status of coordinate and monitor status of initiativesinitiatives

c.c. Those ‘in charge’ not solely Those ‘in charge’ not solely responsible for bringing about responsible for bringing about changechange

9. Stay the course9. Stay the course

The good-to-great-transformations The good-to-great-transformations never happened in one fell swoop. never happened in one fell swoop. There was no single defining action, There was no single defining action, no grand program, no one killer no grand program, no one killer innovation, no solitary lucky break, innovation, no solitary lucky break, no miracle moment. Sustainable no miracle moment. Sustainable transformations follow a predictable transformations follow a predictable pattern of buildup and pattern of buildup and breakthrough…breakthrough…

(Collins, 2001, p. 186)

9. Stay the course9. Stay the course

Scale up effective practicesScale up effective practices

If it works, consider requiring itIf it works, consider requiring it

Beware the implementation dipBeware the implementation dip

Last WordLast Word

Institutions cannot change the Institutions cannot change the lineage of their students. Campus lineage of their students. Campus cultures do not change easily or cultures do not change easily or willingly. But we can do far more to willingly. But we can do far more to shape the way students approach shape the way students approach college and what they do after they college and what they do after they arrive. arrive.

Do we have the Do we have the willwill to more to more consistently use promising policies consistently use promising policies and practices to increase the odds and practices to increase the odds that more students “get ready,” “get that more students “get ready,” “get in,” and “get through?”in,” and “get through?”

Reality Check: Reality Check: The Expert PanelThe Expert Panel

Gerry Francis, Elon University

Linda McMillan, Susquehanna U

Greg Stinson, Valparaiso U

Questions & Questions & DiscussionDiscussion