What do I think made the most impact on Science and Maths during the 20th Century?

8/9/2019 What do I think made the most impact on Science and Maths during the 20th Century?

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EuropeanPupils

MagazineEmma Foster

Priestley College, Warrington, United Kingdom

[email protected]

There have been numerous important discoveries in

science and maths in the 20thcentury. For example,

scientists discovered that mitochondria were the

powerhouses ofcells, Neils Bohr published a model

ofatomic structure in 1913 and Albert Einsteinsdiscovered the theory of relativity,

E = mc2 in 1905 [1] [A]. Science and maths work to-

gether in many aspects of life for example decision

making, hypothesis testing, medicines and research.

The following discoveries, both applications and

theories had a significant impact on science and

maths in the 20th century. I do not believe that any

of the achievements that were made in the 20th cen-

tury that had a significant impact on science and

maths can be considered as a unique achievement.

To support this idea I have searched many important

theories, discoveries, experiments and techniques

which have helped to improve our knowledge and

have made an important impact on todays societyespecially in education, medicine and business.

There are so many theorems and famous mathemati-

cians in the 20th century therefore; I am only go-

ing to concentrate on the great events in the areas

associated with computing and logic, made by peo-

ple like Hilbert, Gdel and Turing [6].

The discovery that atoms contained electrons origi-

nally came from Joseph John Thompson who

achieved his findings between 1856 and 1937. He

designed a model of an atom later named Thom-

sons plum pudding model of the atom. This model

showed that inside an atom there are many electrons

with a negative charge and a spherical cloud with a

positive charge. He also identified that the negative

and positive charges within the atom cancel one an-

other out [4].Henry Moseley and Ernest Ruther-

ford discovered that the nucleus of an atom con-

tained positively charged particles called protons

during their work from 1888 to 1915. Moseley stud-

ied anx-rayspectrum of elements and then mathe-matically related the frequency of the x-ray to a

number called the atomic number. Rutherfords cal-

culations showed that the charge on the nucleus was

positive. Also, in 1919, he conducted an experiment

whereby alpha parti-

cles were fired at hy-

drogen gas to produce

positive particles, later

called protons [4 ].

James Chadwick,

whose discoveries took place from 1891 to

1974, identified the

neutron. During that

period he discovered

that neutrons have no

charge and they have the same mass as a proton [4].

Neils Bohrs research took place between the

years of 1885 and 1962. His scientific research

showed that electrons orbit the nucleus in energy

levels. Also, energy levels have a fixed energy

value meaning they are quantised. Neils Bohrsatomic structure model is still being studied in the

21st

century and is an important aspect of chemistry

[4]. The findings of Joseph John Thompson,

What do I think made the most impact on

Science and Maths during the 20thCentury?

40

Scientists discovered that mitochondria

were the powerhouses of cells.

Thomsonsplumpudding

model of the atom


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EuropeanPupils

MagazineScience and Maths

during the 20thCentury

Henry Moseley and Ernest Rutherford, JamesChadwick and Neils Bohr together have helped to

shape the classical model of atom. This knowledge

has led to the development of technologies such as

mass spectrometry and infra-red spectrometry. It

has also resulted in numerous medical break-

throughs.

James Watson

and Francis Crick

established the

structure ofDNA in

1953 with the help

o f R o s a l i n d

Franklins x-raydiffraction studies.

Their idea, the semi

- c o n s e r v a t i v e

method, proposed

that each new

molecule of DNA

con ta ined one

p o l y n u c l e o t i d estrand from the par-

ent and one new polynucleotide strand. The semi-

conservative method involves all four nucleotides

being present; both strands of the DNA acting as a

template and the hydrogen bonds between comple-

mentary bases being broken by the enzyme DNA

helicase. Energy is used to activate these nucleo-

tides and the nucleotides are joined together by the

enzyme DNA polymerase [3].

Albert Einsteins theory of relativity is thought

to be one of the most significant scientific advancesof our time [6]. Einsteins contribution was the rec-

ognition that the speed of light in a vacuum iscon-

stant and an absolute boundary for motion[5].The

famous equation, E = mc2 stating that energy is

equal to mass times the speed of light squared, was

derived by Einstein in 1905 [1]. The theory of rela-

tivity has allowed scientists to look at the total solar

eclipse for the first time and analyse starlight near

the edge of the sun. The theory of relativity has al-

lowed astronomers to look at objects travelling at

near light speed [B].Fritz Haber made a breakthrough in 1909, when

he synthesised 100g ofammonia from nitrogen and

hydrogen gases using the following reaction:

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)At the beginning of the 20th Century Germany

needed to produce nitrogen compounds from nitro-

gen gas in the air, however, nitrogen gas is ex-

tremely inactive. Fritz Habers discovery was later

developed in order to produce ammonia gas on an

industrial scale in 1913 by Carl Bosch, a chemical

engineer. Fritz Haber

became the hero of the

agricultural world [4]. He

also contributed to the

development of chlorine

gas and other lethal gases

which were both used as

war weapons [4]. Chlorine

gas was first used by the

German army in April

1915 during WW1. In

1933 Haber was forced

to leave Germany by the

Nazis. Ironically he and

his family were laterkilled in concentration

camps in gas chambers which used the gases he had

produced.

The impact of Gdel's and Turing's break-

throughs in the 1930's is best understood against

Mass spectrometer

Haber process 3H2 + N2 2NH341


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the background of the mathematical ambitions de-finitively expressed by David Hilbert in the 1920's.

[6] Hilbert formulated the Entscheidungsproblem

otherwise known as the decision problem in 1928.

Firstly, he stated that consistency needs to be con-

sidered and the set of axioms should be consistent.

Secondly he took under consideration completeness.

In theory all mathematical truths should be calcu-

lated from those axioms. Thirdly he examined deci-

dability - a clearly formulated procedure should be

used so that when given any statement of mathemat-

ics, it can be established within a finite time whether

or not that statement is followed by the given axi-

oms. Gdels incompleteness theorems were pub-

lished in a famous article in 1931. Gdel proved that

statements about mathematical relationships can be

encoded as statements within arithmetic [6].Turing

later proved that Hilbert's theory was unsolvable

and that any consistent axiomatic theory to enable

the expression and proof of basic arithmetic propo-

sitions could be neither complete nor effectively

decidable[6].Computers have developed dramatically since

their first appearances in the early 20th century. In

1936 Zonrad Zuse invented the first freely pro-

grammable computer [9]. The development ofcom-

puters continued to advance in the 1940s and 50s.

In addition, in 1962 the first computer game was

invented by Steve Russell and MIT called Space-

war. Also, in 1964 Douglas Engelbart established

Windows Mouse & Windows[9] The year1979 saw

the first Word Processors [9]. In 1981 Microsoft

MS-DOS Computer Operating System now a

worldwide computer programme was established.

Finally, in the year1985 Microsoft Windowsbegan

to compete with Apple [9] [C].

Alexandra Fleming discovered penicillin in

1928. Later, Howards Florey and Boris Chain iso-

lated and purified the compound producing the first

antibiotic. Penicillin is now a very important medi-cine that has successfully saved many lives and will

continue to do so in the future despite the fact that it

came as a complete accident when it was noticed

that mould killed a bacteria sample in a Petri dish.

The hormone insulin was discovered by Frederick

Banting [1]. Insulin is a naturally-secreted hor-

mone that the body cannot function correctly with-

out [2]. Insulin successfully helps to balance blood

sugar levels in diabetic patients allowing them to

live a normal healthy life. Before this discovery a

diagnosis ofdiabetes was a death sentence.Electron microscopy was explored by Ernst

Ruska and Max Knoll in the 1930s. In 1931 they

created an electron microscope powerful enough to

view objects as small as the diameter of an atom [8].

It can magnify objects up to 1 million times their

actual size. However, this microscope cannot view

living specimen as they are unable to survive under

a high vacuum [8] [D].

Scientists carried out experiments in the 1960s in

which dogs inhaled cigarette smoke. The dogs that

inhaled unfiltered smoke developed pulmonary dis-ease and early signs of lung disease. From these

experiments many hypotheses could be tested and

one discovery was how smoking leads to the de-42

Penicillin

Zonrad Zuse invented the first

freely programmable computer


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velopment of a tumour. Dr Barnett Rosenberg,Professor of Biophysics and Chemistry at Michi-

gan State University investigated the effect of an

electric current on cells in 1965 [4]. He realised that

when an electric current was passing through the

cells, cell division in the bacteria stopped. In can-

cer patients, cell division becomes unregulated and

can lead to the formation of a tumour. However,

Rosenbergs discovery of Z-platin can stop this

from occurring. Z-platinbinds to the DNA found in

the nucleus which prevents the DNA from replicat-

ing and the cells from dividing [4] therefore, it stops

meiosis and mitosis and overall it can prevent the

spread ofcancer.

Smallpox is the only major human disease that

has been eradicated. Smallpox epidemics inflicted

mankind throughout history and in 1967 between 10

-15 million cases were reported, of these 2 million

died and millions were left either blind, or disfigured

or both. Furthermore, there is no treatment for

smallpox once contracted; therefore, eradication

was extremely necessary. [7]The World Health As-sembly requested that the WHO initiated a world-

wide smallpox eradication programme. The pro-

gramme remains one of the great achievements ofWHO[7].This ensured that smallpox had been eradi-

cated worldwide and the return of the virus was

unlikely.

In 1975 Cesar Milstein and Georges Kohler

developed the technique of using antibodies pro-

duced by a mouse. These antibodies are grown out-

side of the body creating clones. These monoclonal

antibodies originate from animal tissue therefore,they are modified to be suitable for humans, this is

called humanisation [3]. This discovery allows peo-

ple to take antibodies for particular diseases and

has, is and will continue to save lives.

In conclusion, my response to What do you

think made the most impact on science and mathsin the 20th century? is that there are hundreds of im-

portant developments in the 20th century. Overall,

the building of the National Health Service (NHS)

in 1948 has allowed medical research to help in

finding cures forcancer and has allowed the UnitedKingdom to receive medical and dental care; Ein-

steins theory of relativity, E = mc2[5] has allowed

the development of astronomy; Neils Bohr atomic

structure [1] has allowed the understanding of chem-istry to advance: the work of Hilbert, Gdel and

Turing has helped problem solving in mathematics

to be understood [6]: the advancement ofcomputers

[9] has allowed scientific and mathematic software

programmes to run which have helped improve

knowledge and has helped to save lives: the elec-

tron microscope has allowed the smallest of objects

to be seen [8] and the eradication of smallpox has

saved countless lives [7].

Bibliography[1] Discovery Commu-

nications. (2010). 100

greatest discoveries.

Available: http://

science.discovery.com/

conver-

gence/100discoveries/

big100/biology.html.

Last accessed 30th

March 2010.[2] Diabetes.co.uk. (2010). Facts about insulin and

diabetes. Available www.diabetes.co.uk/insulin/

insulin-facts.html. Last accessed 30th March 2010.

[3] Nelson Thornes (2008). AQA Biology. Chelten-

ham: Nelson Thornes Ltd. all.

[4] Lyn Nicholls (2008). AS Chemistry for AQA.

Hammersmith: Collins. All.

[5] All about science. (2002 - 10). Theory of Rela-

tivity. Available: www.allaboutscience.org/theory

-of-relativity.htm. Last accessed 3rd April 2010.

[6] Jon Millican. (2007). Hilbert, Gdel and Turing.Available: www.philocomp.net/home/Hilbert.

Last accessed 7th April 2010

[7] WHO smallpox. (1989). The World Health Or-

ganization Smallpox Eradication Programme.

Available: http://choo.fis.utoronto.ca/fis/courses/

lis2102/KO.WHO.case.html. Last accessed 13th

April 2010.

[8] Mary Bellis. (2000). History of electron micro-

scope. Available: http://inventors.about.com/od/

mstartinventions/a/microscope_2.htm. Last ac-

cessed 13th April 2010.[9] Mary Bellis. (2000). The History of Computers.

Available: http://inventors.about.com/library/

blcoindex.htm. Last accessed 13th April 2010.43

Albert Einstein

What do I think made the most impact on Science and Maths during the 20th Century?

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