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Engagement as a Predictor of Student Achievement 1
Engagement as a Predictor of Achievement in
African-American Suburban Students
Idea Paper for Portfolio III
George Mason University
Jamila Jones Kennedy
Engagement as a Predictor of Student Achievement 2
Engagement as a Predictor of Achievement in African-American Suburban Students
Purpose of the Study
Increasing parent involvement has become a considerable focus of the U.S. educational
system. The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 2001 (ESEA) stressed shared
accountability between schools and parents for high student achievement. Specifically, the No
Child Left Behind Act of 2001, which reauthorized ESEA, brought parental involvement to the
forefront, and placed an unprecedented emphasis on the role of parent involvement in education.
The law defines parental involvement as the participation of parents in regular, two-way, and
meaningful communication involving student academic learning and other school activities,
including ensuring that (1) parents play an integral role in assisting their child’s learning; (2)
parents are encouraged to be actively involved in their child’s education at school; and (3)
parents are full partners in their child’s education and are included in decision-making and on
advisory committees to assist in the education of their child (U.S. Department of Education,
2004). The parental involvement provisions in Title I, Part A of the ESEA stress shared
accountability between schools and parents for high student achievement, including development
of parental involvement plans and building parents’ capacity for using effective practices to
improve their own children’s academic achievement (U.S. Department of Education, 2004).
The U.S. Department of Education’s definition of parent involvement—which empowers
parents to advocate and make decisions on behalf of their children—aligns with the shift from
the use of the term parent involvement to family engagement. Family engagement recognizes
that all family members—and friends and neighbors—contribute significantly to children’s
education and development (Henderson and Mapp, 2002). In addition, engagement is also
characterized by involving parents as school leaders and decision-makers, as opposed to
Engagement as a Predictor of Student Achievement 3
volunteers and fund raisers. Engagement also takes advantage of community resources to expand
learning for the student (Epstein, 2001).
From the school’s perspective, engagement requires commitment from the educators and
administrators, accompanied by professional development and other resources to assist them in
their efforts to engage families and communities. In 2012, the U.S. Department of Education
issued a draft of its revised framework which indicates a shift from traditional parental
involvement to greater family engagement, with a specific focus on building school officials’
capacity to engage with families to increase academic achievement (Mapp, 2012).
Figure 1: Family engagement capacity building framework, U.S. Department of Education.
Engagement as a Predictor of Student Achievement 4
Currently, family-school-community engagement is being discussed in the education
policy arena as an essential strategy for education reform. It is a shared responsibility of families,
schools, and communities for student learning and achievement. It is continuous from birth to
young adulthood; and it occurs across multiple settings where children learn (Weiss, H. B.,
Lopez, M. E., and Rosenberg, H., 2010). As a reform strategy, it should be systemic
(purposefully designed), integrated (embedded into structures and processes), and sustained
(operating with adequate resources). Community engagement refers to the support, services and
advocacy activities that community-based organizations—including businesses and faith-based
institutions—provide in order to improve student learning and promote family engagement
(Weiss, H. B., et al, 2010). To that end, family, school, and community engagement could
become the means by which to not only close achievement gaps, but also build a pathway to
college- and career-readiness in today’s competitive global society.
This paper will present an argument for the need to conduct research on specific types of
parental engagement in the African American suburban community. The goal of the proposed
study is to better understand which parental engagement behaviors will lead to African American
students’ success so their parents can maximize the impact on their children’s academic
potential.
Models of Parent Involvement and Engagement
Several parent involvement models have been developed that are accepted in the field.
Discussed here are two well-known models that form the framework for the proposed study.
Epstein (2001) introduced six types of parental involvement: (1) parenting, (2) communicating,
(3) volunteering, (4) learning at home, (5) decision making, and (6) collaborating with the
community. Epstein’s framework is based, in part, on Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems
Engagement as a Predictor of Student Achievement 5
Theory, which states that the development of children is affected not only by factors within the
child but also by their family and surrounding world (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Epstein’s six
parent involvement typologies are:
Type 1—Parenting: Assist families with parenting and child-rearing skills, understanding child
and adolescent development, and setting home conditions that support children as students at
each age and grade level. Assist schools in understanding families.
Type 2—Communicating: Communicate with families about school programs and student
progress through effective school-to-home and home-to-school communications.
Type 3—Volunteering: Improve recruitment, training, work, and schedules to involve families as
volunteers and audiences at the school or in other locations to support students and school
programs.
Type 4—Learning at Home: Involve families with their children in learning activities at home,
including homework and other curriculum-linked activities and decisions.
Type 5—Decision Making: Include families as participants in school decisions, governance, and
advocacy through PTA/PTO, school councils, committees, and other parent organizations.
Type 6—Collaborating with the Community: Coordinate resources and services for families,
students, and the school with businesses, agencies, and other groups, and provide services to the
community (Epstein, 1997).
Epstein’s model is comprehensive and helpful but it is focused on the educator’s side of
the process. Since the main actor in parental involvement is the parent, the parent’s perspective
should be a major domain in a model if their involvement is to be analyzed and enhanced. The
Ecologies of Parent Engagement (EPE) framework includes parent’s views as an important part
of the model. The framework incorporates how and why parents engage, and how the process of
Engagement as a Predictor of Student Achievement 6
engagement relates broadly to parents’ experiences and actions in and outside of the school
community. Moreover, EPE uses the term engagement rather than involvement to reflect a more
authentic relationship between parents and schools. Parent engagement is perceived as a
phenomenon that relies on activity networks and the importance that space and capital play in the
relative success parents have in engaging in school settings (Barton, A. C., Drake, C., Perez, J.
G., St. Louis, K. and George, M., 2004; Howard and Reynolds, 2008). The EPE framework is
relevant to the proposed study because parents of suburban students may have the “space” and
“capital” to navigate school and community relationships.
Current Research on Parental Involvement and Student Achievement
This section will address current research on parental involvement and academic
achievement as it is relevant to this proposed study. Three strands of research inform my
approach to conducting this research. The first strand covers the research linking parent
engagement with student achievement, including specific types of engagement. The second
strand reviews studies that analyze the impact of family-school-community partnerships and
collaborations on student achievement. The third strand covers empirical research on factors that
predict student achievement.
Engagement and Achievement Outcomes
Research and conventional wisdom suggest that parent involvement is positively
correlated with academic success for most students, and that the more parents are involved in a
child’s education, both at home and at school, the more academically successful the child will be
(Aronson, 1996; Baker and Soden, 1998; Christenson, Rounds and Gorney, 1992; Coulombe,
1995). Regarding African American and other minority students, two meta-analyses of the
existing evidence found in the literature by Jeynes (2003, 2007) add credible arguments for the
Engagement as a Predictor of Student Achievement 7
case of parent involvement leading to increased student achievement. The first meta-analysis
(Jeynes, 2003) found that parental involvement affected academic achievement for all minority
groups under the study, but in different ways. Although the effect sizes of African Americans
were positive for parental attendance and style, they were not statistically significant for other
groups (Jeynes, 2003). The second meta-analysis (Jeynes, 2007) included 52 studies focusing
exclusively on urban secondary students and found that parental involvement has a significant
influence on student achievement for minority secondary school children.
Engagement Behaviors
There is disagreement among researchers about the strength of evidence and causal
relationship between different forms of parent involvement and student outcomes, especially for
racial/ethnic minority populations (Hong and Ho, 2005; Juvonen et al, 2004; Yan and Lin, 2002).
Many studies argue that parents can help a child’s learning and transition. However, other
research suggests that certain aspects of parent involvement are more closely related to
achievement than others. In particular, parent involvement in the form of communicating with
the school, volunteering, and attending school events appears to have little effect on student
achievement (Henderson and Mapp, 2002). The three studies, described below, examined
specific types of parent involvement and their effects on African American students.
Ingram, Wolfe and Lieberman (2007) conducted a study to construct a model of parent
involvement that could improve student achievement, even in schools considered at risk due to
high numbers of minority and impoverished students. Specifically, the authors used survey
methods to determine which of Epstein’s parent involvement typologies were consistently
present in high-achieving, at-risk schools. It further examined how the components of parent
involvement were evidenced in those schools, and how the parents defined and interpreted their
Engagement as a Predictor of Student Achievement 8
roles and impact on their children’s performance. The authors used the Family Involvement
Questionnaire (Fantuzzo, Tighe and Childs, 2000) that identified three family involvement
dimensions as framed by Epstein’s typologies: home-based involvement, school-based
involvement, and home-school conferencing. The authors sent more than 1,000 surveys to
approximately 800 families at three at-risk public schools in Chicago, IL. In all, 220 surveys
were completed with response rates of 20 percent, 19 percent, and 39 percent, respectively, at
each of the three schools.
Ingram, et al (2007) assumed that all six of Epstein’s typologies would be present at the
schools under study. Instead, the authors found that Type I - Parenting and Type IV - Learning at
Home were identified as the most common practices of parent involvement in the schools. There
were eight survey questions pertaining to specific Parenting practice, including limiting the
child’s television time, keeping a regular morning and bedtime schedule, and praising a child for
schoolwork, among others. Parents in all three schools consistently indicated that they always
participated in 7 of the 8 parenting activities addressed on the questionnaire. There were nine
questions on the survey pertaining to learning-at-home activities, including reviewing
schoolwork, taking children to the library, and spending time on reading, writing, and number
skills. The most common response across all nine questions and all three schools was 4 (always),
meaning respondents always participated in the learning activities at home as identified in the
questionnaire.
The study provides evidence that a link clearly exists between parent involvement and the
educational outcomes of their children. With respect to the role of parents in high-achieving
schools serving low-income, at-risk populations, the study suggests that investing resources into
encouraging effective parenting and learning at home will yield the most significant results.
Engagement as a Predictor of Student Achievement 9
However, the biggest limitation of this study is the relatively low response rate at each of the
participating schools. Perhaps more of Epstein’s typologies would have been found in these
schools had the authors obtained data from more parents. Although the study attempted to
examine all six of Epstein’s typologies, only two survey questions—which asked about planning
school trips and classroom activities—focused on decision-making activities. In my view, they
do not fully address the types of decision-making that allow the parent to serve as an advocate
and help improve the quality of education that is offered to the child.
A study by Howard and Reynolds (2008) analyzed the role of parent involvement in the
education of middle-class African American students in southern California. Specifically, the
goal of the study was to examine how African American parents—who sent their children to
middle class schools—conceptualize notions of parent involvement, and if these types of
involvement have any influence on academic performance. Qualitative data were collected from
a series of individual and focus group interviews with African Americans parents whose children
attended schools in a predominately White, suburban community. The authors use Critical Race
Theory as the conceptual framework for examining parent involvement, which offered an
analysis of educational achievement in a more probing manner than other frameworks concerned
with race and theory (Sleeter and Delgado-Bernal, 2003).
According to the authors, the general sentiment that emerged from the focus groups was
that parent involvement typically meant being involved at the school and at home. Yet, a number
of the participants believed that many parents were not as committed to either of these areas, and
they believed that it is imperative to develop a sense of involvement that incorporates both in
school and out of school activities, in addition to a more nuanced relationships between parents
and school personnel (Howard and Reynolds, 2008). Findings from the study also provided
Engagement as a Predictor of Student Achievement 10
three factors that can inform discussions about how to involve middle-class African American
parents: (1) the importance of being informed, (2) the need to question, critique and challenge,
and (3) the importance of collaboration.
Focus group participants stressed the importance of being informed and remaining
inquisitive about their child’s school life. Although parents acknowledged that attending various
school functions was an important start in this process, they stressed going beyond traditional
school events to taking positions of engagement in which parents can have a powerful voice in
the day-to-day operations of their schools. Active membership in Parent Teacher Organizations,
School Site Councils, as well as active participation at local school board meetings give power to
parents and grant access to decision-making authority needed to negotiate the educational
experiences of children (Howard and Reynolds, 2008).
Several participants stated that they often find themselves in positions in which the
individuals with decision making ability orchestrated the space, set the rules and expectations
and produced the artifacts to which the student and parent would be held accountable. Their
social capital was not recognized or valued. Parents who do not question, challenge, and critique
their schools and their practices and fail to advocate for their children are entrusting the fate of
their children to the schools. We discovered that a number of parents received desired outcomes
from schools when they exercised their power as informed parents and demanded greater
accountability. Lastly, the study found that political power to change how and when parents get
involved with schools really rests with parents. Several of the parents from our work stated
adamantly that they have an unrealized powerful collective voice in the educational process of
their children.
Engagement as a Predictor of Student Achievement 11
The findings from this study show that middle class parents, particularly those equipped
with cultural capital valued most by the dominant society, can be a very rich asset for their
children. The factors that emerged from the focus groups can inform the overall discussion on
parent agency, engagement and overall involvement. Further, these factors also align well with
two of Epstein’s parent involvement typologies – decision making and community collaboration
– which implies that these typologies may be well-suited for middle class African American
parents (Howard and Reynolds, 2008).
Lee and Bowen (2006) examined the level and impact of five types of parent involvement
on 415 elementary school students’ academic achievement by race/ethnicity, poverty, and parent
educational attainment. Parent involvement was assessed with a composite of six items on a
survey. Three of the six items related to the parent physically visiting the school and measured
the frequency with which the parent went to the school for parent-teacher conferences,
volunteered at the school or in the child's classroom, and went to the school for fun events.
Through factor analyses, the authors assessed three additional types of parental involvement at
home—discussing educational topics with the child, helping with homework, and managing the
child's time. The dependent academic achievement composite was created by standardizing
scores on four teacher-report measures (Lee and Bowen, 2006).
Results of the correlation analysis showed that parent involvement at school and parental
educational expectations had the highest correlations with academic achievement, while time
management and homework help had the lowest associations with achievement. The authors also
found a relationship between family demographic characteristics and achievement outcomes.
Race/ethnicity and participation in a free or reduced school lunch program were significantly
associated with achievement over and above the effects of parent involvement. The positive
Engagement as a Predictor of Student Achievement 12
effects of parent educational level on achievement, however, appeared to be mediated by parent
involvement. Further, when demographic variables and types of parent involvement were
analyzed, parent involvement at school and parent educational expectations demonstrated the
strongest association with children's educational achievement (Lee and Bowen, 2006).
Family, School, and Community Partnerships
As the definition of parent involvement began to shift to engagement, researchers began
to explore the benefits of family, school, and community partnerships as they relate to student
achievement. These partnerships are viewed as a viable strategy for addressing students’
academic, emotional, physical, and social needs (Ferguson, C., Ramos, M., Rudo, Z., and Wood,
L., 2008). The studies in this section explore the associations between family, school, community
and student outcomes.
Sheldon and Epstein (2005) explored levels of mathematics achievement in schools,
efforts of schools to involve families and communities in students’ mathematics education, and
the impact of these targeted involvement activities on student mathematics achievement.
Specifically, the study addressed the following three research questions: (1) What is the level of
mathematics achievement in a sample of schools in which the school community (staff, parents,
and community members) work to involve families and community members in students’
mathematics education?, (2) How do the schools perceive the effectiveness of specific school,
family, and community partnership activities to improve student achievement in mathematics?,
and (3) What is the relationship between the implementation of specific family and community
mathematics involvement activities and changes over time in school reports of student
performance on mathematics achievement tests?
Engagement as a Predictor of Student Achievement 13
To address the research questions, the authors conducted a baseline and follow up survey
of key contacts in 18 schools that served large numbers of economically disadvantaged students.
The schools were members of the National Network of Partnership Schools at Johns Hopkins
University and were working to improve the quality of family and community involvement and
the effects on specific student outcomes. The baseline survey collected information on school
characteristics, attributes of the student body, planned school–family–community practices that
focused on improved mathematics skills, mathematics achievement test results for a selected
grade level, and report card grades in mathematics for the fall term. The follow-up survey
collected information on the effectiveness of partnership practices and end-of-year mathematics
outcomes (Sheldon and Epstein, 2005).
Partial correlation analyses indicate that only one type of involvement—Type 4,
Learning-at-home activities—consistently related to improvements in students’ performance on
mathematics achievement tests. After statistically accounting for schools’ prior levels of
mathematics achievement, the percentage of students who attained satisfactory mathematics
scores was higher in schools that more effectively assigned homework that required parent–child
interactions (pr = .60) or that offered mathematics materials for families to take home (pr = .59).
After statistically accounting for school level, the percentages of students with satisfactory
mathematics proficiency in 1998 were associated positively with the same home-learning
activities of mathematics homework that required parent–child interactions (pr = .60) and the use
of mathematics materials at home (pr = .55). These findings suggest that need to strategically
plan family-involvement activities that encourage and enable interactions between students and
family members relevant to the mathematics curriculum if they hope to increase student test
performance in mathematics (Sheldon and Epstein, 2005).
Engagement as a Predictor of Student Achievement 14
One limitation of this study, like many others, is the small sample of 18 schools which
makes it difficult to generalize beyond the sample population. Additionally, the authors do not
investigate the relationships between Type 5 (decision making) and Type 6 (collaborating with
community) involvement activities because none of the schools reported decision making
activities and too few schools used Type 6 practices. This is an unfortunate circumstance,
especially since the study specifically sets out to address the role of the community, and because
decision-making and collaborative activities could likely be effective in involving families in
mathematics.
Gordon and Louis (2009) used exploratory factor analysis and regression to examine
democratic participation, which in school contexts, translates to broad practices of community
and parent inclusion in school improvement efforts and decision making. The researchers
addressed three questions: (1) How does leadership style affect principals’ openness to
community involvement?; (2) Is a principal’s openness to community involvement related to
student achievement?; and (3) How are participatory and shared school leadership structures
related to student learning? The data for this analysis come from a principal (N=157) and teacher
(N=4,491) survey administered in 2005–06 as part of a large multiyear, mixed-method study
focusing on the relationship between leadership and student achievement, augmented by
available state 2005–06 math achievement data.
The results show that principals with more diverse leadership teams are more open to
community involvement. Also, teachers’ perceptions of greater parent involvement are positively
associated with student math achievement (Gordon and Louis, 2009). The study relies on survey
data, which means that the authors were unable to examine in detail the processes of democratic
decision making within and across school boundaries. Nonetheless, the findings highlight how
Engagement as a Predictor of Student Achievement 15
principals and teachers can better organize their efforts to involve stakeholders for increasing
student achievement.
Predictors of Achievement
Knowing which parent involvement behaviors predict the achievement outcomes for
certain students is important if the goal is to raise student achievement, but few recent studies
have explored this topic using regression analyses. The two studies in this section focus
specifically on parent involvement activities as predictors of student achievement. The first study
examined the effects of parental involvement on elementary school students’ literacy
achievement. The second study examines specific parental involvement behaviors on
adolescents’ achievement outcomes.
Dearing, Kreider, Simpkins, and Weiss (2006) examined longitudinal data on family
involvement within school environments and literacy performance from kindergarten through
fifth grade for a sample of ethnically diverse low-income children and their families (N=281).
Specifically, we used individual growth modeling and latent growth modeling to address three
research questions: (a) Was average family involvement level associated with average literacy
performance? (b) Was average family involvement associated with changes in literacy
performance?, and (c) Were changes in family involvement within families associated with
changes in literacy performance?
Parents reported on family involvement in children’s school at kindergarten, at third
grade, and at fifth grade. Specifically, eight dichotomous (yes/no) items on a survey were used to
assess involvement at school during the year, one of which asked whether the parent had
attended a Parent Teacher Organization meeting (Dearing, et al., 2006). Children’s literacy
performance at kindergarten, at third grade, and at fifth grade was assessed using the Letter–
Engagement as a Predictor of Student Achievement 16
Word Identification subscale from the Woodcock–Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery—
Revised (WJ–R; Woodcock & Johnson, 1989).
The results indicated that both between-families differences in school involvement and
within-families changes in school involvement were associated with child literacy. Although the
main effect of average involvement in school across the study was not a statistically significant
predictor, its effect did vary by maternal education. Specifically, average involvement was
positively associated with average literacy performance for children whose mothers were
relatively less educated, such that these children displayed higher levels of performance when
their families were more involved. In addition, increased involvement in school within families
was associated with improved child literacy performance, in both of the authors’ multilevel and
latent growth models (Dearing, et al, 2006). The primary limitation of this study was that
attendance at a Parent Teacher Organization meeting was one of eight yes/no items within the
family involvement variable being examined. Thus, there was no way to determine the true
impact of that specific decision-making activity, even though family involvement, overall, had a
positive association with student achievement.
Hayes (2012) examined parental perceptions of involvement (home-based, school-based,
and achievement values) in urban African American adolescents. The specific questions guiding
the study were: (1) Are specific parental involvement behaviors better predictors of achievement
outcomes in urban African American adolescents?; (2) Do specific parental involvement
behaviors impact the achievement outcomes of younger versus older high school adolescents
differently?; and (3) Do specific family demographic variables influence how parents'
involvement behaviors predict the achievement outcomes of urban African American
adolescents?
Engagement as a Predictor of Student Achievement 17
The study used survey data from 145 parents of adolescents in two large urban cities who
responded to questions on family demographics, their level of involvement in their adolescents'
lives in multiple domains, and their perceptions of the achievement of their adolescents as it
related to grades, school attendance, and behavior problems at school. Results from the
correlation analysis indicated that the different parental involvement measures were not all
significantly related to all three achievement outcomes. Adolescents' grades had a statistically
significant correlation with both home-based (r = .22, p ≤ .01) and school-based involvement (r
= .20, p ≤ .05). Additionally, results indicated a statistically significant negative correlation
between home-based involvement and days missed from school (r=-27, p ≤ .001). Finally,
discipline referrals were not significantly correlated with any of the parental involvement
measures examined in the current study (Hayes, 2012).
The author conducted three hierarchical regression analyses to determine which
involvement measure was the most salient predictor of two of the three adolescent outcomes
(grades, days missed, & discipline referrals). First, hierarchical regression analysis indicated that
adolescent age (ß =.18, p ≤ .05), employment status (ß= .23, p ≤ .01), and home-based
involvement (ß= .18, p ≤ .05) were all significant predictors of adolescents' grades. Overall, the
model was statistically significant F(8,136) = 2.9l, p≤ .01, R2 = .15) and accounted for 15
percent of the variance in the grades adolescents received. Next, hierarchical regression analysis
indicated that home-based involvement (ß = -.27, p ≤ .05) was the only significant predictor of
the number of days missed from school. Overall, the model was statistically significant F(8,136)
= 2.04, p ≤ .05, R2 = .11) and accounted for 11 percent of the variance in the number of days
adolescents missed from school (Hayes, 2012).
Engagement as a Predictor of Student Achievement 18
Overall, the study provided evidence that specific parent involvement measures,
specifically home-based involvement, predicts several achievement outcomes for urban African
American adolescents. The benefits of home-based involvement highlight the importance of
daily parental involvement at home rather than sporadic opportunities to engage in on-site school
activities (Hayes, 2012). Both of the studies presented here relied strictly on parents’ reports of
various involvement behaviors and activities. Although parent perceptions have been used in
many studies, the accuracy of parental ratings is questionable (Paulson and Sputa, 1996; Paulson,
1994). Therefore, incorporation of both parents’ and students’ reports of involvement would be
beneficial in future studies.
Limitations in the research
Research examining parental involvement and engagement is burdened by a number of
limitations. First, research on specific types of engagement behaviors—decision making and
collaboration with the community—are underrepresented in literature (Barton, et al, 2004;
California Department of Education, 2011). In addition, no studies that examined the effects of
specific parental engagement behaviors that involve collaborating with the community—that is,
regular church attendance—on African American student achievement have been found.
Lastly, the majority of studies on parental involvement have generally focused on the
general population rather than on urban African American students (Jeynes, 2005; Jeynes, 2007;
Yan, 1999). Therefore, there is a gap in knowledge regarding what kind of parental involvement
is most important in the school achievement of African American students, high school
adolescents in particular, which prevents parents and teachers from effectively engaging in
appropriate parental involvement programs (Fan and Chen, 2001; Hayes and Cunningham, 2003;
Jeynes, 2003). When studies have focused on African American students, they have relied
Engagement as a Predictor of Student Achievement 19
primarily on underprivileged African Americans without consideration of the effects parental
involvement has across various socioeconomic levels of African American families (Müller,
1998, Overstreet, Devine, Bevans and Efreom, 2005). The proposed study will address these
limitations in the research.
The Proposed Study
Parent engagement in a child's education has been found to be positively associated with
a child's academic performance, as described previously. However, the effects of two parent
engagement activity areas on achievement outcomes—decision-making and collaboration with
the community—are underrepresented in the literature, as noted earlier. Therefore, this study will
attempt to investigate the effects of these specific types of involvement on the academic
achievement of students. The proposed objectives are:
1. To what extent do specific parental engagement behaviors—decision making and community
collaboration—predict the achievement outcomes of African American suburban students?,
2. Do these parental engagement behaviors impact the achievement outcomes of students in
elementary school differently than they impact achievement outcomes of students in
secondary (middle and high) schools?
3. Do certain mediating factors, such as the school’s efforts to involve parents and parent
demographics, influence how parents' engagement behaviors predict the achievement
outcomes of African American adolescents?
The proposed study addresses many of the limitations in the literature. Specifically,
results of many studies provided valuable insight into potential forms of parental involvement
with high school adolescents but cannot be generalized to African Americans because the
samples consisted of majority White adolescents and parents. Additionally, the African
Engagement as a Predictor of Student Achievement 20
American families in the proposed study will not all be characterized as economically
disadvantaged, which is often the case when examining parental involvement in African
American families. Next, the current study will examine whether the effects of those types of
parental involvement varied for adolescents at various grade levels (elementary, middle, high).
Finally, the proposed study will examine the influence that mediating variables have on
predicting the achievement outcomes of suburban African American students.
Over the last twenty-five years, an increasing number of African American families have
transitioned from lower to middle class status (Patillo-McCoy, 1999). Along with this transition
in socio-economic status has been the opportunity for larger numbers of African American
students to attend middle class and suburban schools (Ogbu, 2003). As a result, the entrée into
the middle-class has provided many African American parents access to educational
opportunities that are perceived to be more selective and presumably better. Against this
backdrop, the researcher hypothesizes that African American suburban families could potentially
realize the greatest benefit from decision making and collaborating with the community—
particularly for the secondary school level—given the increased social capital and intellectual
capacity that this population of parents offers, as well as an increased potential for untapped
community resources.
Methods
To address the research questions, the researcher will employ survey and hierarchical
regression methods. Parent engagement, for the purpose of the proposed study, is defined as the
exchange of information, purposeful interaction, and meaningful participation between parents
and schools to support student learning and achievement. The researcher proposes developing
and employing a survey of African American parents who regularly attend church services and
Engagement as a Predictor of Student Achievement 21
whose children attend suburban schools in the state of Maryland. The researcher will rely on a
convenience sample of parents that attend the Mount Ennon Baptist Church in Clinton, MD. If
necessary, the researcher will expand its sample to other large, African American churches in
relative proximity to Mount Ennon; for example the First Baptist Church of Glenarden in Upper
Marlboro, MD and the Alfred Street Baptist Church in Alexandria, VA.
The survey will include items that will measure the level and types of decision making
and community collaboration in which the parents engage. Additionally, the researcher will
collect data on other variables that have been associated with student achievement, such as
demographic variables (e.g., student grade level, gender, name of school/district); family
variables (e.g., parent’s educational level, employment status, income), and school and district
variables (e.g., teacher quality, expenditures). The survey will also include questions to gauge the
frequency with which the families attend church services or utilize church resources. Student
achievement will be measured by parents’ reports of their child’s letter grades overall and in
certain subjects, as well as grade point average.
The researcher proposes to examine hierarchical regression analyses to determine
whether decision making and community collaboration are salient predictors of student
achievement for the proposed sample. The researcher will also employ regression methods to
determine whether mediating factors, such as the school’s efforts to involve parents, influence
how parents' engagement behaviors predict the achievement. District- or school-level parent
involvement policies will be content analyzed and the researcher will assign a “score” for each
school represented in the survey that measures its efforts to engage parents.
Engagement as a Predictor of Student Achievement 22
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