AP European History

Study Guide 2016-17Instructor: Dr. Calabro

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Absolutism in Eastern Europe 6Three Aging Empires Introduction 7The Holy Roman Empire After 1648 9The Republic of Poland about 1650 10The Ottoman Empire about 1650 12The Rise of Austria & Prussia 14The Development of Russia 23Absolutism & Baroque Architecture 28

The Scientific Revolution 31New Knowledge of Human Beings & Society 32The Scientific Revolution Introduction 37Class Notes- Scientific Awakening 45Scientific Revolution Readings 46

Enlightenment 48The Enlightenment Introduction 49The Enlightenment & Absolutism 55

The Expansion of Europe in the 18th century 59Agriculture & the Land 60The Beginning of the Population Explosion 63The Growth of the Cottage Industry 65Building the Atlantic Economy 67

The Changing Life of the People 71Marriage & Family 72Children & Education 74Food & Medical Practice 77Religion & Popular Culture 81

The French Revolution 85Backgrounds 86The Revolution and the Reorganization of France 91The Revolution and Europe: The War and the “Second” Revolution, 1792 105The Emergency Republic, 1792-1795: The Terror 111

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Absolutism in Eastern EuropePalmer pages 189-198 & McKay pages 569-589

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Three Aging Empires IntroductionAfter Peace of Westphalia, lack of modernity in government could be dangerous● Old Eastern Powers: Holy Roman Empire, Republic of Poland, & the Ottoman

Empire● New Eastern Powers: Prussia, Austria & Russia● East & West Europe divided by socioeconomic differencesIn the East:● Fewer towns● Human labor less productive● Middle classes less substantial● Peasants governed by landlords, presence of serfdom● Commercial revolution in Western Europe benefited landlords● Main social unit: agricultural estate

○ Exploited with serfdom or “uncompensated compulsory labor”○ Controlled migrations, marriages, trading, & legal protections

● Landlords=most powerful○ True for New Eastern Powers

Ottoman Empire: ● 50 miles from Vienna to Romania & over the Tartars, also had land in Asia & Africa● Muslim country, closer connected with Middle Eastern traditions despite

Mediterranean trade with EuropeansPolish Republic:

● Baltic sea to Black Sea, & 100 miles east of Berlin to 100 miles west of Moscow● Old connections with Western Europe & Christian religious institutions

Holy Roman Empire: ● Poland & Hungary to the North Sea● Oldest traditions of ChristendomAll:● Very different from each other ● Central authority= weak

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○ One head, & outlying nobles/dignitaries○ Lacked efficient governments & administrations

● Brought down by centralized powers like France● Turkey & Poland= ethnically diverse→ politically weak

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The Holy Roman Empire After 1648● No army, revenues, or strengths in central government ● Ruined by Reformation, as the Protestants & Catholics within the region were

evenly divided● No true expansionist policy that would support the lack of a common nationality

○ Shared boundaries with German states● The destruction from the Thirty Years’ War, the loss of commercial connections &

wartime losses made revival difficult○ Fell behind with the rest of Europe’s expansionist policies○ Burgher class lost vitality○ Diversity in laws, no stock exchange, no overseas colonies○ Lack of flourishing culture except for in music

● After Thirty Years’ War, each German state had its own sovereign rights● Intent on preserving Germanic liberties

○ Germanic liberties- freedom of states from control by the emperor/empire○ Assisted outside powers i.e. France

● Elected the emperor & required the promise of protecting the privileges of the states(capitulation)

○ Made sure imperial power could not be strengthened from generation to generation as each new emperor had to backtrack any of the gains made by his predecessors

■ Allowed for foreign involvement (France)● German states did not allow any authority to the imperial diet(had power to raise

troop & taxes) due to threat to their power○ People comfortable in their enclosed lifestyles & fragmented towns

● Ambitious Rulers in Germany after peace of Westphalia○ Two ways of gaining power: marriage & inheritance; or the politics within the

Empire● Half-Century after the Peace of Westphalia

○ Critical period, nothing set in stone

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○ Austria & Prussia came forward

The Republic of Poland about 1650● King elected & pride in constitutional liberties● Vast size= hard for administrative system=freedom to the lords

○ population=mixed● Recent, less substantial than HRE● 2 main parts: the Kingdom of Poland(west) & the Grand Duchy of Lithuania

○ West = mainly Polish East= mainly German○ Towns were mostly Jewish or German

■ Jews were welcomed by a former king of Poland■ Both resisted assimilation

○ No national middle class, official language= Latin, leading religion=Roman Catholic

● Landed aristocracy prevented growth of absolutism & constitutionalism○ Higher proportion of aristocracy to people in comparison to other countries

■ Considered to possess early form of democracy● Polish Liberties

○ Similar to Germanic liberties■ Fearful of central authority & invited foreign influence■ Also held election, requiring emperor to accept contractual

arguments(preventing accumulation of authority)■ Political division within Poland made it such that there were only two

native kings of Poland● Weakness of Central Government

○ Central diet= ineffective■ No action if any opposition “free veto”

○ Political centers=local○ Regional diets where upper gentry used lesser gentry to their advantage○ Government= not developed

■ No army, court, officials, or income■ Nobility paid no taxes■ Armed force by individual lords who had their own foreign agendas

○ landlords= local monarchs

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○ Rural population= serfdom, no limits to exploitation○ Power vacuum○ Poles allowed for frontiers to weaken as external forces grew stronger○ Much different outcome had Poland stuck together

The Ottoman Empire about 1650● Large, strong, powerful● Viewed as mystery & also a terror- “rougher” of the Muslims● Territories extended far● Based largely on military proficiency

○ Standing army○ Janissaries

■ Created conditions for ideal fighting man(no family or background, etc…)

○ Advanced in the military with strong artillery but fell behind as time passed● Cared little about assimilation of their subjects

○ Cultural traditions were retained within local populations● Law was religious law derived from the Qu’ran● No separation of church & state

○ The Turks applied Muslim law to Muslims○ Non-Muslims subjects settled their own affairs in their own way based on

religious groupings● Relatively religious tolerant in comparison to European states

○ No general conversions, but individuals converted from Christianity to Islam for the benefits of the Ottoman rule

○ Leaders of different religions within France, ie. the Christian Princes paid tribute to the sultan

● The overall administration of imperial policies were controlled by the grand vizier● Since the subject were more beneficial as Christians, the Turks were smart in that

they did not attempt to convert people to Islam● Heterogeneous society because it was not moving towards internal unity● Extraterritorial privileges

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○ Treaty arrangements- traders exempt from laws & judicial court of Ottoman Empire; were free to practice their own religion

○ Modern day diplomacy used in countries that were considered “hostile” to Europeans

● Oppression under the Turkish Rule○ Christians viewed by Turks with contempt○ Arbitrary & brutal○ Worse in 17th century due to corruption by the sultans & the free hand the

governors had with their subject● Disputed Regions

○ Regions adjoining the Empire to Christian states were least connected to the Ottoman Empire

■ Princes of the areas just paid tribute○ Hungary was more a battleground as the Germans, Russians & Poles also

disputed the province○ The Koprulu family’s reign as grand viziers strengthened the Empire’s military

strength & once again served as a threat to Europe■ Repelled by Austria

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The Rise of Austria & Prussia● Despite resistance from the nobles, strong kings emerged as absolute rulers with the

aid of war & the threat of war○ Power struggles within themselves & threats from Asian invaders

■ Nobility power decreased● Absolute monarchs gained & monopolized political power in three key areas:

○ First: they imposed & collected permanent taxes without consent○ Second: they maintained permanent standing armies(policed the country &

fighting abroad)○ Third: they conducted relations with other countries as they pleased

● Prussia vs. Austria Absolutism○ Prussian absolutism= stronger & more effective○ Advantage to Prussia over Austria

■ Long term political impact■ Rising Prussia → unification of German people & imposition of

militaristic Prussian “stamp”

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Austria & the Ottoman Turks● Habsburg efforts post Thirty Years’ War failed, in reality a German Empire● Power in the hands of the 300 individual sovereign states● Habsburgs focused efforts eastward, specifically Bohemia

○ During the Thirty Years’ War had defeated the Protestant majority in Bohemia & redistributed the land to loyal Catholic nobles

■ Bohemian Estates: the representative body of different estates in Bohemia, primarily Protestant before power was reduced by Habsburg king Ferdinand II; had revolted in defense of Protestant rights

○ Useful in reconquering Bohemia● Effect of Reconquering of Bohemia

○ Conditions for enserfed peasantry worsened:■ The robot (3 days unpaid labor/week) became the norm■ Protestantism forced out→ growing religious unity■ Steps towards absolutism

● Habsburg King Ferdinand III(After Thirty Years’ War)○ Centralized government in German speaking Habsburg strongholds(Austria,

Styria, & the Tyrol)○ Creation of standing army→ allowed for fight over Hungary with Ottoman

Turks● The Ottoman Turks

○ Had one of history’s best armies○ Peak: Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent(1520-1566)- most powerful empire in

the world○ Territories: W. Persia to N. Africa to Central Europe○ Enemies with Habsburgs

■ Almost captured Vienna○ Ruled variety of ethnic groups living in the Balkans almost all of Hungary○ Built on non-European concept of state & society

● Ottoman Political Theory○ Absence of private landed property

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■ All the agricultural land was the property of the sultan, who exploited the land as he saw fit

○ No security of land-holding & no hereditary nobility○ Sultan defended peasants from greedy officials so peasants could afford to

pay for taxes & support the state● Expansion of Ottoman Empire→ ability for sultan to impose slave tax on larger

population(successful) ○ Sultan allowed loyal & effective servants to get $ from peasants temporarily○ Christian peasants economically exploited far worse by Christian nobles, but

no serfdom● Disintegration of Power

○ Western advances stopped○ Temporary landowners became stubborn permanent oppressors○ Army & sultan less dedicated to fighting hard on the battlefield○ Slipped behind on western advances

● Ottoman Turks vs. Habsburgs in Hungary○ Turks regained strengths & attacked Vienna○ Balance of Power by Habsburg, Saxon, Bavarian & Polish troops caused Turks

to retreat○ Habsburgs conquered Hungary & Transylvania○ Habsburg military strengthened & sense of unity grew○ Habsburg attempt to create centralized absolute state only partially successful

● Habsburg State○ Three Parts: Austria, Bohemia, Hungary-- tied together by Habsburg monarchs○ Separated by individuals laws & politics

■ Nobled dominated Estates continued to exist in each territory with reduced powers

● Charles VI- last male in Habsburg family○ Sterile due to inbreeding○ Passed Pragmatic Sanction

■ Habsburg possessions were never to be divided & were always to be passed intact to a single heir(female)

● Hungarians in the Holy Roman Empire

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○ Nobility thwarted development of Habsburg absolute monarchy despite reduced power

■ Never won but were never crushed○ Resistance due to Hungarians remaining Protestant despite Catholic wishes of

the Habsburgs○ Had an ally in Turkey○ Most of the people were attached to a national ideal, determined to maintain

independence & local control○ During the Habsburg time of vulnerability, at the defeat of the War of Spanish

Succession, Prince Francis Rakoczy lead another rebellion○ Habsburgs had to accept a definitive compromise in which the privileges of

the Hungarian aristocracy were restored in exchange for recognition of the hereditary Habsburg rule

■ Hungary never became fully integrated into the absolutist Habsburg state as did Austria & Bohemia

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Prussia in the Seventeenth Century● After 1400: Landed nobility= ruling class

○ Little political power for the electors○ The elector of Brandenburg

■ No military strength■ Area completely cut off from the sea■ Lacking in natural defenses■ Land infertile & poor, no supportive of people ■ Separated from cousin, duke of Prussia

● Prussian people were well connected with the Polish peasants○ Initially under the control of the German Empire○ Slowly got more integrated with Poland○ Freedoms in both countries were reduced by noble landlords○ With the death of its leader, Prussia reverted back to the elector of

Brandenburg● The elector of Brandenburg

○ Regions heavily destroyed by Thirty Years’ War■ Population decrease, villages are destroyed■ Foreign armies dramatically weaken political power of Estates→

Absolute Ruler● 1618: The Great Elector- “Frederick William”

○ Unified Brandenburg, Rhine, & Prussia■ Each still had Estates- which had the power of the purse & the ability to

consent to taxation■ Junkers- nobility & landowning class that dominated Brandenburg &

Prussia○ Forced Estates to accept permanent taxation without consent

■ Power of Estates declined rapidly■ Great Elector had financial independence & superior force

○ Revenue, army, population all increased● Contributing factors to the triumphant rule of the Great Elector:

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○ Wars throughout Europe■ Harshness of foreign armies softened the estates & strengthened

urgency to pay more in taxes for the military○ The nobility had power in government affairs but often prioritized their

individual interests before those of the entire town■ Accepted a compromise where the new taxes fell on the towns & there

was no royal authority on the landlords’ gates(reduction in political power of nobles)

■ Liberties of town broken by use of force

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The Consolidation of Prussian Absolutism● By 1688(death of Great Elector): the state was unified but still small & fragile● Successor: Frederick III “the Ostentatious”

○ Weak of body & mind○ Imitated Louis’ style regarding the arts & overall splendor of the state○ Political achievement: Crowned King Frederick I by HR emperor for aid in the

War of Spanish Succession● Successor: Frederick William I “The Soldiers’ King”

○ Reversed all the splendor of his predecessor○ Reformed Prussia & establish Prussian Absolutism ○ Created the best army in Europe(for its size)○ Infused strict militaristic values into the society○ Similar to the Sparta in Ancient Greece, but not as militaristic ○ Believed welfare of the king & the state was dependant on the army○ Appreciated tall soldiers○ Military strength allowed for the expansion of royal absolutism○ Created a strong centralized bureaucracy○ Parliamentary Estates & local self-government disappeared

■ Caused disputes with the Junkers■ Ended up enlisting the nobles rather than destroying them■ New compromise: Junker class= officer class that led the peasants in

the armies & on the estates○ Greatest army with minimal resources

■ Prussia & Prussianized Germany won crucial military battles○ Created an honest & conscientious bureaucracy

■ Almost always at peace despite strong military influence○ Civil society= rigid, obedient & highly disciplined

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The Development of Russia● European? Asian? Non-Western?--- questioning of Russia’s position internationally● Parallels with the West:

○ Slavs converted to Orthodox Christianity■ Main difference from Roman Catholicism is the rejection of the pope’s

authority○ Slavic territories loosely unified under a single ruler

■ Feudal territories divided into a boyard nobility & commoner peasantry○ After 1054: Kievan principality divided into small competing political units

■ Similar fragmentation in Europe during the Middle Ages○ In recovery, Russia created a new system that was virtually unknown in

Europe■ Distance from Europe■ Even absolute monarchy under Peter the Great was different from a

typical European absolute monarchy

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The Mongol Yoke & the Rise of Moscow● Mongols ruled over the Slavs as a result of the cruel expansionist policies under the

Khan dynasty● They forced all the Slavic princes to submit to their rule through threats of death &

enslavement● Allowed for political unification of the Slavic princes under the Mongolian khan, who

was the supreme ruler● The princes were used to suppress rebellion & collect taxes● Ivan I was one of the Muscovite Princes

○ rival = Prince of Tver(had joined forces to rebel against Mongols)○ Was named great Prince for destroying all land laid to Tver

● The princes significantly increased their holdings○ Under Ivan III, the process of gaining territories surrounding Moscow was

completed○ Novgorod principality most important, most widely competed over, gained by

Princes for princely power● The Prince of Moscow was the absolute ruler, the Tsar, this idea of an autocracy was

supported by:○ Ivan III stopped acknowledging the khan as the supreme ruler○ The Fall of Constantinople→ the tsars viewed themselves as the heirs of one

true faith & the sole rightful & holy rulers■ Solidified by Ivan’s marriage to daughter of last Byzantine emperor

● Peasants & noble boyars lost power & influence○ Land confiscated, some for the tsar & the rest for the service nobility

(nobles serving the tsar’s army)

Tsar & People to 1689● Ivan IV “Ivan the Terrible”- declared war on remnants of Mongolian power in Russia● Added vast new territories● Required all nobles to serve in his military to hold land(all nobility→ service nobility)

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● Waged war against Polish-Lithuanian state● Struck down on the boyars with terror

○ Leading boyars killed, their lands confiscated○ Land given to newer service nobility that was dependant on him

● Worked to make all people servants of the tsar● Wars & killings→ depopulation● Cossacks: peasants that fled towards the newer territories, out of the reach of the

tsar’s demonic rule○ Reaction= bound the nobles & the peasants to their land, in order to keep

them under his rule● Urban traders & artisans also bound for tsar’s ability to implement heavier taxes &

control trade & industry○ No job security, dependence on the tsar○ Contrasted with the Western European rising commercial middle class with

strength & security in their private property● Poor impression on foreigners● Death→ chaos & fighting allowing for foreign invasions by Sweden & Poland

○ Cossack rebellion→ unity of the nobility● Successor: Michael Romanov

○ Re-establishment of tsarist autocracy○ Peasants enserfed ○ Nobility’s military obligations= relaxed

● Successor: pious Alexis ○ Military obligations went right back→ round 2 of mass protest○ Unity of Russian Orthodox church broken by religious reforms of patriarch

Nikon○ Church became dependant on the state for its authority○ Cossacks revolted again(state was trying to catch up & place the Cossacks in

serfdom)■ Wanted to have freedom from oppression & aimed to overthrow the

established order■ Soon shut down by government

● Nobles: ○ Made serfdom even more prominent & strict

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○ Held down peasants & maintained the tsar

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The Reforms of Peter the Great● Recovery from war defeats since from Poland & Sweden since Ivan the Terrible● Territorial Expansion

○ Gained Ukraine from weak & decentralized Poland after long war○ Completed the conquest of Siberia

● Military in Russia○ Lacked a standing army→ with few resources, Peter’s military moves were

cautious○ Balance of Power with Poland & Austria against Ottoman Empire

■ Made mistakes but soon conquered Azov● Travels to Western Europe

○ Learnt about England & Dutch militaristic & naval strengths ○ Took home Western technologies in order to westernize Russia

● Secret alliance with Denmark against Sweden○ Sweden Strengths: strong army & absolutist state○ Sweden Vulnerabilities: scattered territories & new/ inexperienced king○ Denmark was immediately defeated & Russia’s attempt was largely

unsuccessful(Great Northern War-- lasted for 21 years)● Despite initial defeat, Peter made reforms that were to increase state power,

strengthen his armies, & be victorious○ Service nobility restored, each noble forced to fight- for life○ Created schools & universities for training○ 14 ranks, everyone started on the bottom & went up based on merit○ Used mercenaries to advance his military

● Serfdom increased under Peter● Warfare took up majority of resources & brought in modest amounts of territory● Ultimate Russian victory in the Great Northern War● Russia viewed as a dominant power in Europe, especially on the Baltic Sea as a result

of victory & reforms● More flow of foreigners into Russia→ new class of educated Russians developed● Social gap between peasants & nobles widened

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● Claimed to act in the state’s best interests as opposed to personal interests

Absolutism & Baroque Architecture● Nobles served their powerful rulers● Inferiority of urban middle class & peasants reconfirmed● Armies larger & more professional● Taxes increased & authoritarian traditions strengthened● The arts & architecture were used for glorification of power & magnificenceBaroque art & culture:● Grew out of revitalized Catholic church● Displayed the power & confidence of the Catholic/Counter Reformation ● Spread throughout Europe in 17th Century & symbolized absolutist power● Provide dramatic emotional experience● “Artistic achievement & political statement reinforced each other”Palace Building:● Used to overawe people with strength of monarch● Visual declarations of equality with the grandness & splendor of Louis XIV● Everyone tried to have their on version of Louis XIV’s life, especially VersaillesRoyal Cities:● Rulers remodeled existing cities or built new ones to reflect their royal magnificence

& the centralization of political power● Distinct features: broad avenues, imposing government buildings, & rigorous

mathematical layout● New avenues brought speed & magnificence to European cities-- carriages became

widely used● Speeding carriages on broad avenues were an endless parade of power & position as

well as the true substance & symbol of the baroque city

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The Growth of St. Petersburg● Illustrates close ties between politics, architecture & urban development● First step: secure the Baltic Sea

○ Military construction=concern● Military & new city had to be Western

○ Showed influence of his travels○ Political goals matched architectural ideas

● “Window to Europe”● Requirements for the city

○ Modern , comfortable city○ Buildings must be conformed to regulations by government○ Each social group lived in different sections of the city

● Creation of capital imposed on every social class○ Imposed most harshly on the peasants ○ Direct tax on the wealthy○ The beautiful city had its foundation set by serfs

● Merchants, artisans, & nobles forced to live in St. Petersburg● Throughout the reigns of several Russian rulers, the city proclaimed the power of

Russia’s rulers & the creative potential of the absolutist state

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The Scientific Revolution Palmer pages 240-250 & McKay pages 595-605

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New Knowledge of Human Beings & Society● The discovery & exploration of the world changed European views of human cultures

& human nature, & in general, the European way of thinking● Questions about religious traditions, history of languages & origins of human

civilizations● Europe undermined the ideas of other cultures, just as other cultures undermined

European ideas● The Europeans were the first to know about the globe as a whole, to establish colonial

outposts worldwide, or to realize the variety of the human race & its diverse customs & manners

The Current of Skepticism● Realization of human differences

○ A new sense of relative nature of social institutions developed○ Harder to believe in any absolute rightness of one’s own ways

● Ways of Non-Europeans might be good as suggested by Jesuits & many others○ China & Siam were civilized centers of learning, tolerance & wise ethical

traditions○ Islam was a religion to be respected

● Pierre Bayle- Greatest spokesperson for skepticism- holding that all beliefs are relative varying with time & place

○ Influenced by scientific discovery (Realized that many common beliefs were without any scientific foundation)

○ Comets were supposedly “supernatural omens of future events,” ■ Bayle argued against such beliefs stating that there was no evidence

besides human credulity○ He conveyed that truth is a mere opinion, people are very gullible, many

things firmly believed are ridiculous, & that it is foolish to hold too strongly to one’s views

○ His books conveyed that no opinion was worth burning your neighbor for○ His views made for toleration in terms of religion

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The New Sense of Evidence● Europeans generally not content with skepticism

○ Not possessed by a mere negative & doubting attitude● Humanities

○ Looking for understanding, wanted means from telling true from false○ Took the form of a new sense of evidence○ Evidence allows something to be held true or more true than some other

theory○ If no evidence is irrational, then evidence is scientific & trusting in the human

intelligence● English Law

○ Evidence required○ Judges lost some power○ People charged with felony were allowed legal counsel

● Witchcraft○ Ended by the rise of evidence standards○ The sense of self could no longer be used as a form of evidence

■ People were confessing under torture■ Voluntary confessions by psychotic people

○ Except England, legal torture used throughout Europe through the 18th century where the judge believed the accused was guilty

History & Historical Scholarship● History depends on finding & using evidence● The only way to tell fact from fiction in terms of history is evidenceSkepticism about History● History was doubted because it was not mathematical● Historians were viewed as pretentious● Science was becoming the new model for thinking people

New Historical Scholarship● Higher evidence standard caused the need for historians to dig deep into the past &

provide evidence of past events

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● Authentication, identification & deciphering of historical documents○ “On Diplomatics”

Chronology● Age of the world & order of events● Developed due to new historical scholarship● Archbishop James Usher: announced date 4004 B.C. as creation of universe● History of non-European civilizations emerging & contradicting Usher’s claim● Main difficulty in finding correspondence between chronological events of different

civilizations● Use of Christian calendar● Common system of chronology creates sense of historical interconnectedness & &

was useful in practical affairs○ Essential for global economic exchanges & communications○ Due to predominance of Europe○ Sign of growing unity

The Questioning of Traditional Beliefs● Historical sciences= more knowledge of past ● Increased geographical knowledge= more diversity● Agreed with natural science that traditional ideas were erroneous & use of human

mind= more knowledge● Pascal feared skepticism more than science, was a protector of Christian faith● Richard Simon- book condemned by Louis XIV & church

○ Applied textual criticism to Old Testament○ Doubted the Old Testament & pointed out contradictions

● Increased doubt & skepticism centering the Old Testament● Baruch Spinoza one of the skeptics

○ Drew on scientific & humanistic ideas○ Believed God had noe existence apart from the world

■ Everything itself was an aspect of God- Pantheism● Theory considered to be atheistic

○ Believed few governments were just○ Really skeptical regarding religion & God, in any faith○ Symbol for impiety

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● John Locke- summarized intellectual trends of the time○ Strong influence for the future○ Combined practical experience with theoretical interests in a philosophy that

dwelled on the merits of common sense○ Kept in touch with the sciences○ Advocated an established church that tolerated all except Roman Catholics &

atheists○ Softened friction between religion & natural knowledge○ Shut out supernatural & merged religious feeling into an unruffled common

sense○ Faced how to know anything with certainty & how certain knowledge was

arrived at■ Answer: certainty derived from experience

○ Echoes Bacon-- both become pillars of empirical philosophy & insisting on observation & experience as source of truth

○ Denied Descartes’ ideas○ mind = blank slate shaped by social environment○ Fundamental to liberal & reforming thought

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The Scientific Revolution Introduction● Worldview changed by science● Science became independent & primary in 18th century, a change from its

background position in the medieval intellectual life● Modern science had a long term significance● “Scientific revolution was the real origin of the modern world & modern mentality”

Scientific Thought in 1500● Started with astronomy & physics● Ideas based primarily off of Aristotle

○ Earth was motionless & at the center of the universe○ Heaven beyond the ten Suns, the farther away from Earth the more heavenly

■ Adam & Eve○ Spheres had a fifth essence ○ Light elements(air & fire) went up; dark elements(water & earth) downwards○ A uniform force moved an object at a constant speed & the object would stop

as soon as the force was removed● Aristotle’s views subtly revised over time

○ Offered understandable, commonsense explanation for what the eye saw○ Fit Christian doctrines

■ Established a place for God & God’s souls○ Science was a branch of theology & reinforced religious thought

The Copernican Hypothesis● The desire to explain God’s work led to a departure from the medieval system● Ptolemy- last great ancient astronomer

○ Explained the minor irregularities in the movement of planets

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● Ptolemy’s rules & mathematical sense influenced Copernicus to believe in a heliocentric theory

○ Being cautious, he revealed his thoughts on his deathbed● The Copernican Hypothesis: scientific & religious implications

○ Put the stars at rest, movement due to Earth’s rotation■ Destroyed reason for believing in crystal spheres

○ Suggested universe of staggering size■ Destroyed Aristotelian idea that the earthly world was different from

the heavenly one● Protestants(Luther & Calvin especially) & eventually Catholics backlashed against his

ideas● Slow reaction showed slow progress of his theory

○ Appearance of comets & stars changed ideas & created skepticism

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Frome Brahe to Galileo● Brahe(1546-1601):

○ Built observatory○ Observed stars & planets○ Limited by lack of mathematical understanding○ Part Ptolemaic & part Copernican, believed in heliocentric &

geocentric(centered around earth)● Kepler(1571-1630):

○ Three laws of planetary motion:■ Demonstrated that the orbits of the planets are elliptical not circular■ Planets do not move at a uniform speed in their orbits■ The time it takes for a planet to make its complete orbit is related to

the distance it is from the sun● Galileo(1564-1642)

○ Experimental method: conducted experiments to seek truth○ Showed that gravity produced a uniform acceleration○ Formulated the law of inertia

■ Rest was not the natural state of objects■ Objects continue in motion forever unless stopped by an external force

○ Astronomy■ Discovered first four moons of Jupiter

○ Theologian views overturned by modern scientific methods○ New method learning was the greatest accomplishment of the period

Newton’s Synthesis● Accomplishments of other scientists had taken effect by 1640● No more Aristotelian way of thinking● Findings not fused together ● The fused synthesis was the work of Isaac Newton

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● United experimented & theoretical- mathematical sides of modern science● Not the perfect rationalist● Integrated Kepler, Galileo, & Copernicus into findings● Used a set of mathematical laws that were complex● Key feature: law of universal gravitation

○ Everybody in the universe attracts every other body in the universe in a precise mathematical relationship, where the force of attraction is proportional to the quantity of the matter of the objects & inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them

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Causes of the Scientific Revolution● Medieval intellectual life & universities

○ Philosophy increased○ Separated from theology○ Used abstract theories○ Science was a small branch of philosophy○ Prestige was low, but thinking was applied to scientific problems○ Universities useful for thinkers like Newton & Galileo

● Renaissance stimulated scientific progress○ Recovery of ancient Greek mathematics○ Improved mathematics significantly○ Recovery of ancient texts showed variety in opinion in terms of mathematics

■ Europeans worked to resolve the conflict in opinion○ Patronage of the sciences was common

■ Medici supported Galileo● Navigational problems during long sea voyages of overseas expansion

○ Need for accurate system of charting location ■ Risks in international trade reduced

○ King of Portugal in 1484 appointed mathematicians to help voyagers find latitude

■ Resulted in the first European Navigation manual○ Longitude problems more difficult to fix

■ People in England turned to science for answers■ Gresham College gave scientists an esteemed role in society

● Main center of scientific activity● Caused the establishment of the Royal Society of London which

published papers & held meetings based on the sciences○ Allowed for development of new scientific instruments

■ Telescope, barometer, thermometer, pendulum clock, microscope & air pump

○ New instruments→ new observation→ new knowledge

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● Better instruments→ the development of better ways of obtaining knowledge about the world

○ Improvements best represented Bacon & Descartes● Bacon

○ Greatest early propagandist for experimental method○ Rejected Aristotle & medieval methods○ Believed in experimental research to compare & contrast subjects

■ Allowing general principles to emerge○ Formalized empirical method into theory of inductive reasoning known as

empiricism■ Used by Brahe & Galileo before Bacon

○ Would result in a greater amount of highly practical useful knowledge○ Provided a radically new & effective justification for private & public support of

scientific inquiry● Descartes

○ Discovery of analytic geometry○ Greatest achievement: developed initial vision into a whole philosophy of

knowledge & science○ Doubt everything that can be reasonably doubted & then use deductive

reasoning from self-evident principles to discover new scientific laws○ Reduced all substance to mind & matter, spiritual & physical

■ His theory came to be known as Cartesian Dualism● Bacon & Descartes

○ Theories combined to form modern scientific method■ Joined observation & experimentalism with the search for general laws

in mathematics & logic to form modern scientific method○ Bacon: Lack of appreciation for mathematics & obsession with practical results○ Descartes: Inadequacy in opinionated belief in rationalism

● Role of Religion ○ All religious authorities, Catholics, Protestants, Jews, opposed the Copernican

system until about 1630○ The Catholic Church was initially less hostile ○ After Counter-Reformation, became harsh opposition to sciences, led to

decline in sciences in Italy

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○ Protestant countries more “proscience”- especially with lack of a strong religious authority

● Role of Religion in England○ Religious conflicts so intense that there was a lack of religious unity on

anything, even science○ Only neutral topics discussed to avoid religious & political disputes○ Bacon’s work helped solidify neutrality & independence of science

■ His theories were open-minded & independent of philosophical or religious ideas

○ Neutral science became accepted part of life in England after 1640

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Consequences of the Scientific Revolution● Rise of international scientific community

○ Expansion of knowledge= primary goal○ Science→ competitive field

● Introduced information about nature & the modern scientific method○ Higher evidence standard developed

● Not many consequences for economic life○ Few economic applications despite aid in terms of international trade

● The scientific revolution was first & foremost an intellectual revolution

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Class Notes- Scientific Awakening● Why is it so bad moons move around Jupiter?

○ everything is supposed to move around earth, also disproves geo-centric idea● Why is important Venus has phases?

○ If it is moving around the earth, the different phases wouldn’t be seen● Stellar Parallax

○ Mountain & trees example, what is closer moves faster in the other direction, what is farther looks as if it is moving much slower

● Bruno executed because he believed universe was infiniteGalileo● Galileo's falling bodies arg. - Inertia● Galileo writes a satire● When brought to trial, he recants

○ Salvati- copernicus defender○ Simplicio- ptolemy defender○ Sagredo- intelligent but uninformed

● Relativity: relative motion, galileo doesn’t explain gravity fully● Beginning of modern science, use of mathematics● Scientists were natural philosophersNewton● Religious fanatic, obsessed with religion● 1660- Fled to his farm, due to the black plague, → discovered theories of physics &

optics; “Why isn’t the moon falling”● Leibniz- invented calculus● Assumes force of gravity, can explain moon’s orbit

○ Not mechanical

Scientific Revolution ReadingsGalileo Readings● Church came up with weak arguments against Galileo’s observations

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● Used telescope & physical evidence for his observations● Disproved the idea of perfect heavenly bodies● Religious vs Science

○ His evidence takes away biblical foundation● Beginning of question of God’s role● Natural philosophers-- shows lack of distinction between science & philosophy● Skepticism in terms of interpretation of the BIble

Newton Reading● Rule: Everything has a purpose● Occam's razor● Same result means the same cause● Known things can be used to make conclusions about unknown things● A conclusion is true unless proven otherwise● Law 1: inertia● Law 2: change in motion is proportional to force ● Law 3: for every action, there is an equal & opposite reaction● Countless applications, increased his prominence● Developing new way of learning things, new methods of deduction with scientific &

mathematical reasoning● Discovered mathematical laws:

○ They apply everywhere○ In stars, terrestrial, everywhere

● Brings it all together

Bacon Reading● Disliked Aristotelian ways of thinking ● Wanted to create a new scientific method● Inductive: conclusion not certainly true● Disappointed in the lack of progress in terms of the sciences● Metaphor: You should be a honeybee out ant, spider, or honeyweb. Go out in the

world, gather evidence, use processes, to form something beautiful(honey) or for man, knowledge.

○ Scholastics were the spiders

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○ Modern day spiders: religious or political supporters that do not use evidence

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Enlightenment McKay Pages 605 to 655

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The Enlightenment Introduction● Caused by scientific revolution● Grew out of conflicting & yet rich mix of ideas● Three Central Concepts: reason/rationalism, social science, progress● Methods of natural science used to understand aspects of life

○ Rationalism led to conflict with churches● Scientific method capable of discovering laws of human society & human nature

○ Birth of social science● Led to growth of progress

○ Belief to create better societies & better people■ Economic & social life improvements contributed to idea

● Secular spirit● Revived & expanded Renaissance spirit & concentration● Profound effect on wealthier classes but not on the poorer ones● Peasants struggled to survive & despised the Enlightenment’s way of destroying

fundamental beliefs & values

The Emergence of Enlightenment● Broad intellectual & cultural movement● Gained strength gradually, peak= 1750● New generation = generation of change, provided a new outlook on life

○ Popularized hard=to understand scientific achievements● Bernard de Fontenelle= most influential popularizer

○ Made science entertainment○ Concept of progress

● Believed in idea of intellectual progress from ancient beliefs● Writers also instrumental in the start of science vs. religion conflict

○ Scientists believed their discoveries made God an even higher force, did not see antireligious implications in their work

■ I.e. Isaac Newton

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○ Writers, like Fortunelle for example, was skeptical about claims of organized religion

■ Exploited the theme of rational scientists against prejudiced priests● Works reflected crisis in European thought at end of 17th century

○ Roots in intellectual uncertainties & dissatisfaction● Causes of uncertainty:

○ Demolition of Aristotelian mindset○ Also the question of religious truth- people asked if ideal conformity in religion

was necessary & if religious truth could ever be known for certain(conclusion: it could not)

■ Most famous skeptic: Pierre Bayle● French Huguenot found refuge in Netherlands● Found that nothing can ever be known beyond all doubt &

humanity’s best hope was open-minded toleration● His skepticism= very influential

○ Growing travel literature on Non-European lands & cultures■ Truth & morality=relative, not absolute

○ John Locke’s Essay Concerning Human Understanding- dominant intellectual inspirations of the Enlightenment

■ How human beings learn & form ideas■ Denied view of Descartes(people born with certain basic ideas & ways

of thinking)■ Mind= blank slate shaped by social experience & environment■ Human development determined by education & social institutions

whether for good or for bad

The Philosophes & the Public● Europe still attached to traditional beliefs● Later, educated elite had embraced new ideas

○ The work of the philosophes● France is where Enlightenment reached its peak

○ Cultural leadership■ French= international language■ Education across Europe in the hands of French tutors

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■ Most wealthy & most populous country in Europe ○ After Louis XIV death, absolutism & religious orthodoxy= strong but not too

strong○ French philosophes asked questions about meaning of life, God, human

nature, good & evil, etc. ■ Not content with abstract arguments or speculations■ Aimed to influence the public(French economic & social elites)

● Gap between the public & the people was vast○ The people were believed to be doomed to superstition & confusion because

they lacked the money & leisure to look beyond their poverty● In fear of their books being burned or banned, writers wrote with wit & double

meaning in satires to spread their message to the public without being caught● Montesquieu

○ In his book has a complex comparative study of different types of government, a great pioneering inquiry in the emerging social sciences

○ Focused on conditions that would promote liberty & prevent tyranny○ Argued despotism could be avoided by separation of powers

■ Strong independent upper class=important■ Impacted French wealthy, well-educated elite

● Voltaire○ Mixed glorification of science & reason with an appeal for better individuals &

institutions○ Worked under Louis XIV & Frederick the Great○ Concluded that the best one could hope for was a good monarch since human

beings are rarely worthy to govern themselves○ Didn’t believe in socioeconomic equality in human affairs○ Challenged church & Christian theology○ Views were influential & reflective of Enlightenment○ Hated religious intolerance

● Madame du Châtelet○ Educated scholar limited by her female gender○ Spread the ideas of others, i.e. Newton

● Philosophes strength in number, dedication & organization● Encyclopedia

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○ Compilation of Enlightenment ideas○ Set out to teach people how to think critically & objectively about all matters○ Showed humans could use reasoning to expand knowledge ○ More knowledge would mean more happiness & more progress in all aspects○ Extremely influential throughout Europe

The Later EnlightenmentHarmony of the philosophes broken down by d’Holbach, Hume, Caritat, & Rousseau● D’Holbach

○ Human beings= machines determined by outside forces○ Free will, God & immortality=myths○ Atheism & hostility towards Christianity= severe blow to Enlightenment unity

● Hume- similar to Locke○ Human mind nothing but impressions○ Reason cannot tell anything because sense experiences are the only things

that can affect our way of thinking○ Undermined Enlightenment belief in reason

● Caritat○ Transformed Enlightenment belief into fanciful utopianism○ Hypothesized 9 stages of human progress that had already occurred, 10th

would bring perfection● Rousseau

○ Committed to individual freedom but attacked rationalism & civilization○ Basic goodness of individual had to be protected from civilization○ Ideas influenced early romantic movement & the development of child

psychology & modern education○ Political concepts of general will & popular sovereignty○ Popular sovereignty: the people are the holders of sovereign power○ General will: sacred & absolute, it reflects the common interests of all people

■ Fits the needs of the people in the long run despite opposition

Urban Culture & Public Opinion

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● Books & discussion had a profound transformation on culture● European market for books grew dramatically

○ Books on religion decreased, arts & sciences increased● Books were smuggled into France to circumvent censorship● Reading involved many texts, constantly changing & commanding no special respect● Reading revolution linked with the rise of a critical world view● Immanuel Kant: if serious thinkers were granted freedom to exercise their reason

publicly in print, then enlightenment would surely follow● In other places, people resorted to discussion to circumvent censorship● Elite women influenced artistic taste that came to be known as rococo● Feminine influence led to emergence of polite society & attempt to civilize rough

military nobility● Philosophes promoted greater women’s rights but not equal rights● Salons created an independent cultural realm freed from religious dogma & political

censorship

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The Enlightenment & Absolutism

● Believed political change must come from the ruler● Royal absolutism=fact of life● Benevolent absolutism offered best opportunities for improving society● Art of government→ science● Aimed to enlighten monarchs to encourage them to make good laws & promote

happiness● Distrusted “the people”● Rulers tried to govern in an Enlightened manner

○ Variations of their enlightened rulers

Frederick the Great of Prussia● Conquered Silesia, part of Habsburg dominions → doubled Prussian population &

Prussia = European Power● Led his army brilliantly against joint forces of Austria, Russia & France● Enlightenment Moves:

○ Allowed religious & philosophical tolerance○ Promoted advancement of knowledge○ Laws simplified, torture of prisoners abolished, judges were impartial○ Officials= hardworking & honest○ Reconstruction of agriculture & industry after 7 Years’ War○ Justified monarchy through his actions

● Non-Enlightenment Moves: Didn’t change social structure○ Condemned serfdom but accepted it in practice○ Extended privileges of nobility○ Didn’t end oppression of Jews

Catherine the Great of Russia● Smart woman, cared for the crown

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● Three main goals as an Enlightenment ruler:○ Bring sophisticated Western culture into Russia

■ Patroned the arts & the philosophes■ Westernized the thinking of the Russian nobility

○ Domestic reform■ Better laws■ Restricted torture & allowed limited religious toleration■ Improve education & strengthen local government

○ Territorial Expansion■ Got rid of the last of the Mongols & Tartars ■ Began conquest of Caucasus■ Gained Poland through deal with Austria & Prussia

● Rebellion by serfs & Pugachev= turning point for domestic reform○ She gave nobles absolute control over serfs○ Formalized nobility’s privileged position, no taxes & no state service○ Serfs entered most oppressive phase

● Her territorial conquests kept the nobility happy

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The Austrian Habsburgs

Maria Theresa ● Determined to make the state stronger & more efficient● Three aspects= most important

○ Limiting papacy’s political influence○ Administrative reforms that would smooth out provincial differences, revamp

tax system, & tax the nobles○ Improve lot of agricultural population, reducing power of lords over the serfs &

partially free peasant tenants

Joseph II ● Controlled the church more closely to produce better citizens● Religious toleration & civic rights to Protestants & Jews● Abolished serfdom● Made peasant labor obligations paid in cash

○ No one, not even peasants, agreed with this policy● Upon death, all his reforms were reverted due to turmoil & need for order

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Absolutism in France● Enlightenment influence complex on France● Death of Louis XIV→ Absolute rule challenged● Duke of Orleans, regent ruler, strengthened nobility

○ Restored high courts of France governed by nobles, positions were hereditary● Seen in Louis XV’s rejected 5% income tax despite tax exemptions due to the cost of

war○ Happened again later & also questioned the basis of the king’s rule○ King angered & hires chancellor to crush the opposition○ Reforms were made but the hatred grew nationally

● Louis XV, want to be loved, took away the reforms & reinstated the high courts○ Financial crisis & political chaos pursued

The Overall Influence of the Enlightenment● France absolute rule declined

○ Liberal critique of royal authority● Eastern leaders acted on Enlightenment principles

○ Joseph, Catherine, & Frederick○ Believed in change from above & tried to enact needed reforms

■ Not entirely successful○ Wanted reforms that would strengthen the state. Especially militarily○ Progressive reforms, religious toleration, simplifying laws, & promoting

practical education○ State over individual interests

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The Expansion of Europe in the 18th century

Chapter 19 McKay

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Agriculture & the Land

● Economy=agrarian● Money spent on land, but output low, harvests inconsistent

○ Weather problems & inconsistency= catastrophe● People used famine foods- substitutes to avoid starvation

○ Made people more susceptible to illness & epidemics○ 1690s: Death rates very high due to malnutrition & disease

The Open-Field System● Medieval system divided land within a village into strips for peasants to cultivate ● The higher classes owned the strips but did not till● Community effort● Problem=exhaustion of soil

○ Three year rotations, different crops grown each year● Traditions allowed for common lands- meadows open for hay & natural pasteurizing

○ Followed by gleaning of grain: backbreaking work for women● Taxes & rents ran high as peasants had little earnings left, exploitation● Peasants in East worse off

○ Social conditions easier in West but life still difficult(especially with poverty)

The Agricultural Revolution● With the French Revolution coming, peasants in France able to improve their position

with radical mass action● Tech progress= alternative● Agricultural revolution

○ Number of crops systematically grown increased○ Scientific farming

● Farming improvements effects: ○ More for animals→ more animals→ more meat & better diets

■ Also more manure→ more fertilizer→ more grain

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● Enclosure- opposite of open field system, enclosing of individual strips, for technological progress

○ Opposed by peasants, “price too high”

The Leadership of the Low Countries & England● Methods of agricultural revolution initiated in low countries

○ Dutch methods were very helpful ○ Drainage, enclosed fields, rotations, heavy manuring○ Agriculture specialized & commercialized

● Farming grew ○ Dutch: dense population○ Growth of towns & cities

● English learnt from the Dutch● Famous Dutch Engineer: Cornelius Vermuyden

○ swamps→ land● Charles Townsend: learnt from the Dutch & inspired agricultural improvements in

England● Jethro Tull:

○ Selective breeding○ Distributed seeds

● Surge of agricultural production in England

The Cost of Enclosure● Momentum for enclosure came from aristocracy, whom it was most beneficial for ● Parliament’s action completed the wave of enclosure that had already occurred

throughout England● Landless laborers no substantially greater● Distinctive landownership: few large landowners & large mass of landless cottagers

who worked for a wage○ In the middle was the declining independent peasant farmer group

● Tenant farmers: used technological advances○ Eliminated common rights & reduced access of poor people to the land

● Historical developments:

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○ Rise of market oriented estate agriculture○ Emergence of landless rural working class○ Development of proletarianization: extensive transformation of large numbers

of small peasants into rural landless wage earner■ Cost of change heavy & unjust for peasants

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The Beginning of the Population Explosion

● Affected existing order of life● Forced economic changes

Limitations on Population Growth● Pop. grew slowly & followed an irregular cyclical pattern● Black Death→ drop in pop. & prices & number of workers

○ Caused reinstitution of serfdom in East○ Increased standard for peasants & artisans○ No warfare & power struggle→ well-being

● Population Explosion○ Peasant & artisan well-being eroded○ Outnumbered agricultural production○ Less food/person○ Food prices higher than wages

■ Intensified by uneven European price revolution○ Decline for majority of the people

■ Especially urban & rural poor○ Strained resources & poverty

● Population Growth slowed○ Birth & death rates balanced○ Birth rate still high, but not as high as before○ Death rate also high, but lower than birth rate○ Modest growth

■ Depended on how developed the territories were, ie. New England & Russia

○ 1% increase one year indicates 16x people in 300 years○ Necessary to recover from Black Death & population explosion

● War, famine, epidemic disease caused major population changes○ War: organized killing, lack of food & disease

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○ Famine: poor farming methods & disease○ Disease: independent factor with large impact

The New Pattern of the Eighteenth Century● Increased growth everywhere

○ Basic cause: fewer deaths■ Severity of war, famine, disease reduced■ Disappearance of plagues, stricter quarantines■ Improvements in water supply & sewage→ better public health

● Reduction of diseases & insects● Preserved food supply against famine● Advances in transportation(roads & canals)

○ Lessened impact of crop failures○ Emergency supplies= available

● Wars less destructive, less disease spread● New crops from Americas● Not progress, imbalance between people & economic opportunities available

○ Less jobs

The Growth of the Cottage Industry● Pop. growth→ increased number of farmers with little/no land

○ Needed to do other jobs as well for a decent wage○ Employed at low rates by capitalists○ Manufacturing with hand tools=Rural industry

■ Overwhelmed urban artisans● New system- “cottage industry”

○ Rural industrial development preceding factories○ Renewed interest in European industrial system

The Putting-Out System● Participants: merchant capitalist & rural worker● Merchant gaw raw materials● Workers returned the finished product

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● Type of capitalism○ Merchants sold in distant areas, seeking profits & an increase in capital

● Competitive advantages= growth○ Low wages for people due to underemployment○ Production unregulated= change in procedures happened○ Many kinds of goods produced

● Spread unevenly throughout Europe○ Started in England

● France○ Colbert: revived guilds to controlled cities & taxes○ Later, growth of cottage industry due to underemployment

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The Textile Industry● Employed most people● Improvements in loom ● Family enterprise● Everyone had a job● Imbalance: 4 spinners needed to keep one weaver

○ Weaver & wife hired people & became small capitalist employers● Conflicts between merchant & workers● Rural labor cheap, unorganized, scattered→ hard to control

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Building the Atlantic Economy● Growth of world trade● Great Britain, France, Netherlands benefited most● U.K.= leading maritime power

Mercantilism & Colonial Wars● U.K. Mercantilism: system of economic regulation serving private interests & the

public needs of the state(war)○ Result: mercantile system of the Navigation Acts○ Other countries just wanted to increase the power of the state & put that

above all● Navigation Acts: gave British merchants a monopoly on trade with British Colonies

○ Mutualistic relationship between colonies & mother country○ Form of economic warfare

■ Especially on the Dutch● France remained a rival- fought wars with U.K. to determine which country would be

the maritime power & ultimate controller of Europe’s overseas exploration● War of Spanish Succession: U.K.= major winner(Peace of Utrecht)● War of Austrian Succession: No change in territory in North America● Seven Years’ War:

○ Decisive round in the fighting between U.K. & France○ Treaty of Paris 1763: France lost all of its possessions of mainland North

America to the U.K. & most of its holdings in India■ Britain gained Florida from Spain

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Land & Labor in British America● Outlet for surplus population

○ Limited poverty in the U.K. ● Settlers shared rights in European conquest & had access to free & unlimited land

○ Could keep most of what they produced● Came as settlers, indentured servants, prisoners & convicts, & got land as soon as

they got their personal freedoms● Cheap land & demand for labor→ slavery

○ Slave exploitation→ tremendous growth in production(tobacco especially)○ Uncommon in the North

● Mercantile system benefitted white colonists● Free land→ increase in pop.

○ No poverty○ Higher standard of living○ More economic equality

The Growth of Foreign Trade● Mercantile System benefits:

○ Expanding market for English goods○ Profit & wealth

● Self-producing markets across Europe made the Americas even more beneficial to England

○ Atlantic markets rescued England● Exports more balanced & diversified● The need for products across the Americas, all from the U.K. → new & improved

methods of production

The Atlantic Slave Trade● Key element in Atlantic system● After 1700: Britain= leader of slave trade● Less focus on war, more on commerce● Quicker methods of slave trade developed

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● Increased demand→ higher prices for slaves● Wars in Africa in attempts to secure best slaves pursued, more guns purchased● Dahomey- monopoly over slaves● As Europe pop. increased, African pop. decreased● Slavery less popular in Europe

○ Abolishment of slavery due to mass protest in ENgland happened in 1807 despite its continuation in the Americas until much later

Revival in Colonial Latin America● Revitalization in Madrid led to success in the colonies● Protected itself successfully from other countries● Political success= economic improvement

○ Mining improved■ Encouraged food production

● Creoles(Spanish blood, born in the Americas) controlled trade○ Used the Native Americans to serve their needs○ Aimed to become European aristocracy○ Debt peonage: form of serfdom to keep the indigenous people in debt

● Population:○ Mestizo: mixed Indian & Spanish blood & Whites(50%)○ Mostly Indian & some black slaves

Adam Smith & Economic Liberalism● Reaction against mercantilism

○ Regulations○ Loss of exclusive trading rights

● Independent merchants wanted a bigger position in overseas commerce○ Campaigned against monopolies & called for free trade

● Freedom of Enterprise-Adam Smith ○ Established basis for modern economics○ Critical of 18th century mercantilism○ Mercantilism was a combo of government regulations & unfair privileges○ Free competition= best, protect consumers & give opportunities to citizens

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○ Duties of government: provide defense against foreign invasions, maintain civil order with courts & police protection, sponsor private works & institutions that are not profitable

● Adam Smith○ Enlightenment thinker○ Relied on reason to unlock secrets of secular world○ Applauded rise in workers’ wages○ Made self-interest a source of harmony that would lead to gradual progress’○ Disciplined greed & increased wealth of rich & poor○ International impact of writings, basis for economic liberalism

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The Changing Life of the People McKay pages 661- 688

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Marriage & Family● Family conditions the child● Families evolve through history

Extended & Nuclear Families● Most families are extended families

○ Provide security for everyone in a traditional agrarian peasant economy○ Everyone has a place

● Nuclear families- industrialized & urbanized family○ Adult children live & raise their kids separate from their families○ Created after Industrial Revolution in Europe

● People did not marry young○ Didn’t marry until supported themselves economically

● Prudence, law & custom prevented marriages- community controls○ Helped maintain balance between population & available economic resources

● Late marriage & nuclear family= characteristic of European society

Work Away from Home● Young people often worked at home● Some had apprenticeships: work hard, little pay, no marriage

○ Foundation for economic independence● Economic fluctuations & unemployment were always a threat● Girls also left- opportunities more limited● Service in another household= common- part of growing up

○ Little independence, no limit to exploitation, prey for sexual attack

Premarital Sex & Community Controls● Premarital sex common, illegitimate children not● Community controls- marriage force if woman was pregnant● Village & family weighed in on relationships

○ Adulterers humiliated

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● No birth control

New Patterns of Marriage & Illegitimacy● Between 1750 to 1850, illegitimacy rose● Premarital intercourse occurred, but no marriages ● Sexual & cultural transformation

○ Growth of cottage industry created new opportunities for earning a living(not related to land)

○ Needs of growing population sent young people into urban areas for employment

■ mobility= less community controls■ Women looked to marriage as an escape from hard work as a servant

or textile work○ Economic burdens of a wife & a child scared men away from marrying

■ Romantic but practical

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Children & Education● Married late but rapid in bearing children● Disease affected newborns often causing death● Childhood was dangerous due to adult indifference, neglect & abuse● Schools played a modest role in people’s lives● Low & basic literacy in lower classes, more education in upper classes

Child Care & Nursing● Breastfeeding in lower classes

○ Less fertility○ Provided immunity to baby

● No breastfeeding in upper classes○ Used wet nurses

● Wet nursing = widespread industry○ Accused of killing kids or providing them flaws

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Foundlings & Infanticide● Girl babies killed if too many mouths to feed● Though punishable by death, it still occurred● Women couldn’t support the baby

○ Abortions illegal & dangerous○ Often left baby on doorsteps of a church (so baby could at least be baptized)

● Number of babies left on doorstep so high, homes were established for foundlings○ Number of foundling homes increased throughout Europe○ They were often a favorite charity of the wealthy○ Example of Christian charity & social concern in an age of poverty & inequality○ Didn’t cure the problem at hand

■ Deaths still occurred at foundling homes, high death rates, ■ Foundling homes were called “legalized infanticide”

Attitudes Towards Children● Indifference towards children in all classes● Influenced by frequency of death among children

○ Risk of emotional devastation● Medical establishment seldom interested in the care of children● Neglected because they were likely to die, likely to die because they were neglected-

a vicious cycle● If not neglect, it was abuse in order to discipline the child & control them● Two polar ideas- indifference & strict abusive discipline● Children beaten when put into factories & labor● Enlightenment caused changes in human attitudes towards children

○ More freedom of movement through change in attire○ Parents expressed delight in love of child○ Had pleasure raising their offspring

● General growth of humanitarianism & optimism about human potential - characterized Enlightenment

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Schools & Popular Literature● Schools & formal education increasingly important● Jesuit schools for aristocrat children● Schools for common students emerged later, teaching basic literacy & religion● Religious movements encouraged literacy

○ Borders where several religions predominated had higher literacy● Many common people did not receive a formal education● Prussia: universal education● Scotland: study of religious texts for salvation● England, France, Habsburg states also made efforts to provide education for the poor

○ Led to tremendous growth in literacy between 1600 & 1800○ Women also increasingly literate

● Literacy promoted reading○ Though, the Enlightenment texts did not appeal to the lower classes○ Religious texts, i.e. the Bible, were among the favorites○ Entertainment, or fiction, was also very popular○ Informational books, almanacs, were used frequently for practical purposes

● Books for common people did not foster social or religious criticism, reinforced traditional values

Food & Medical Practice

Diets & Nutrition● Grain= staple diet; people highly dependent on it● Believed in “just price”- prices should be fair, & beneficial to both consumers &

producers, can be imposed by the government○ Clashed with free market philosophy of unregulated supply & demand, favored

by those in the upper classes (and Adam Smith)● Clash resulted in riots & disturbances● Poor also ate vegetables(the poor man’s food)

○ They ate less meat & eggs as population & prices increased○ Not allowed to shoot game

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● Milk not drunk● Aristocrats lived differently, frequently had sweets & cheeses & different meats & lots

of drinks● The middle class had a great variety of foods, from vegetables to meats & grains● Dietary differences across Europe

The Impact of Diet on Health● Foods of the poor complemented each other in nutrition well by modern standards

○ Deficiency in vitamin A & C○ Got scurvy

● Foods of the rich also had nutritional issues due to being overfed○ Disdain for green vegetables→ vitamin A & C deficiency→ gout

● Those in the middle classes=best off● The introduction of the potato provided nutrition, a slightly varied diet, & vitamins A

& C○ Replaced the grain in some places○ Was a new staple

● More variety in fruits & vegetables● Affluent families: bread went from black/brown to white, reducing nutritional value● Growing consumption of sugar also unhealthy

Medical Practitioners● Small role in improving health● Enlightenment→ rise in research● More medical practitioners

○ Medical breakthrough spread rapidly as a result● Healing arts had several competing professions

○ The role of women in healing arts gradually declined● Faith healers- drove out the demons that caused disease

○ Frequent by the countrysides● Apothecaries gave complex prescriptions of herbs & drugs● Traditional medical practices were questionable, often leading to death

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● Physicians○ Prosperous families○ Little contact with lower classes○ Took apprenticeship & university courses as training○ Open to progress but unable to make any due to traditional practices

● Surgeons○ More progress○ Especially on the battlefields○ Simplest wounds often lead to death

● Midwives○ Helped deliver babies ○ Dealt with female problems○ Ministered to small children

● Advancements in technology, the forceps, gave surgeons more power over midwives○ The role of midwives was not declining despite the negativity the surgeons

portrayed them with● Medical Thinkers

○ Put together a collection of information & misinformation○ Goal: systematize medicine around basic principles○ Little improvement

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Hospitals & Medical Experiments● Hospitals not safe ● No isolation of patients● Nurses often ignorant & drunk● Fresh air harmful, various infections ran rampant● The poor were worse when they came out than when they went in● Movement for hospital reform

○ Results beneficial, infection spread somewhat reduced● Mental hospitals- disciplined more than cared● Late 18th century, medicine became experimental, these experiments were costly &

odd○ Peasants were probably better off○ Some experiments were helpful○ Conquest of deadly smallpox○ Smallpox inoculations grew safer & contributed to a decline in death○ Breakthrough: those who had cowpox didn’t get smallpox; cowpox was very

mild.○ Led to the first vaccination against smallpox

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Religion & Popular Culture

● Ordinary people remained committed to Christianity○ Promised salvation & eternal life○ Gave comfort & courage○ Embedded in local tradition, everyday social experience, & popular culture

● Religious tensions→ vigourous religious revival

The Institutional Church● Parish= basic religious unit

○ Woven into the fabric of community life● Had important administrative roles● Tasks the responsibility of resident priests/pastors● Priest was the last link in a powerful church-state hierarchy● The Protestant Reformation resulted in a bureaucratization of the church & local

religious life in Protestant Europe● The Reformation also increased the practical power of Catholic rulers over the

country’s churches● The state was less subject to papal influence● Indication of state power & papal weakness

○ Churches in Spain subject to the authority of the ruler○ Jesuits were dissolved in some areas as a result of the enemies they made

from their strong political influence● Catholic rulers believed that clergy should have a more practical contribution to

religious & social life● Maria Theresa & Joseph II

○ Controlled the church○ Edict of Idle Institutions by Joseph II: abolishment of contemplative orders,

only orders that taught, nursed, or did practical work were permitted

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○ Seized dissolved monasteries to provide higher salaries & wealth for charitable causes

Protestant Revival● Reformers suppressed medieval practices considered erroneous● The public needed a return to its original inspiration● Protestant Revival

○ Known as Pietism ○ Began in Germany

● Aspects that explained its appeal○ Called for warm, emotional religion for all, enthusiasm in everything was the

key concept○ Reduced the gap between ordinary people & the official clergy, as Luther had

originally called for○ Believed in practical power of Christian rebirth in everyday affairs

■ Reborn christians came from all social classes & led good, moral lives● John Wesley

○ Troubled about salvation, like Luther■ Caused by problems of faith in Church of England

○ Properly purified religion was separated from local customs & social life○ Enlightenment skepticism high in upper classes as deism increased○ Found salvation & believed that anyone despite class, can achieve the same

blessed assurance○ Rejected Calvinist predestination○ Preached that all that earnestly sought salvation might be saved○ Message of hope, joy, free will & universal salvation○ Won new converts & resulted in his own denomination

Catholic Piety● Catholic religion different from Protestant religion

○ Baroque art & splendor in Catholicism & a lack of such things in Protestantism● Strength of religion reflects its integral role in community life & popular culture

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○ Events were traditional, religious, but also recreational for the community ● Superstition often combined with strong Christian faith

○ Priests sought to purify popular religious practice against these superstitions● Protestants used state to conquer church practices, Catholics preferred compromise

between theological purity & people’s piety○ Realization that line between divine truth & superstition not easily drawn

● Attack on Catholicism varied ● Growing tension between attitudes of the educated elite & common people

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Leisure & Recreation● Carnivals: combination of religious celebration & popular culture

○ Preceded Lent- time of fasting & penitence○ Time of excess partying where people let out their aggressions○ Class differences did not matter at this time

● Normal day to day social leisure:○ Socializing in groups○ Culture still more oral despite high literacy rates○ Cozy family activities along the fireplace in winter○ Women gathered to socialize

■ Sometimes called suitors for their daughters○ Men talked & drank in public as means of socialization

■ Hard liquor more common due to dropping grain prices● Urban Amusements

○ Leisure activities like today, shows, food, performances, etc. ■ Had to be paid for

○ Spectator sports gained popularity○ Blood sports remained a favorite○ Initially elites enjoyed, but later looked down upon urban amusements as

vulgar, sinful & disorderly■ Especially due to Enlightenment way of thinking■ Example of intellectual gap between social classes

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The French Revolution Palmer Chapter 9: pages 349 to 394

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Backgrounds The Old Regime: The Three Estates● Old Regime indicates the pre-revolutionary society of France

○ Still legally aristocratic and in some ways feudal● Various Estates determined legal rights and personal prestige

○ Were aging in terms of political and social importance■ Had not met in Estates General since 1614■ Did not correspond to distribution of interests

The Church- The First Estate● Deeply involved in social system● Greatest of all landowners(owned 5-10% of France’s land)● Income from property divided inequally

○ Most given to aristocrat leaders and officials of the churchThe Nobility- The Second Estate● Uplift since Louis XIV

○ Distinguished offices monopolized by the nobility during Louis XVI reign○ Nobility blocked plans for taxation, desired to control the state’s policies

● The bourgeoisie and the nobles○ Bourgeoisie: upper middle class○ Bourgeoisie resented the distinctions between themselves and the nobles

■ Financial distinctions: nobles had immediate tax exemption from the taille whereas bourgeoisie had to obtain the exemption with more effort

■ Social distinctions: resentment due to superiority and arrogance of the nobles; customary respect was humiliation

○ Rising nobility and rising aristocracy had varying interests, whose collision caused the Revolution

Everyone Else- The Third Estate● As well off as people in other countries but not well off compared to the upper classes● Wage earners did not share in prosperity ● The prices increased significantly but the wages did not

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○ Difficult times followed○ Wage earning population was in trouble

The Agrarian System of the Old Regime● 80% population=rural● No serfdom

○ Peasants owed no labor to the lord ● Manor retained some aspects of the feudal age that were beneficial for the nobles

○ Hunting rights○ Monopoly over local businesses for fees called banalites○ Powers of jurisdiction from which fines and fees were collected

● Eminent property○ Every owner of the manor possessed this right○ Meant that lesser landlords owned their land (could buy, sell, inherit freely),

but were to pay rents and transfer fees to the owner of the manor due to eminent property rights

● Land-ownership was widespread○ Peasants: 40%○ Bourgeoisie: 15%○ Nobility: 25%○ Church: 15%○ Commons/wastelands…: remainder

● Collective rights○ Ability to use land for purposes such as running the animals or cutting

firewood, etc. ○ Not enclosed or private

● Property○ Very important for the time○ Bourgeoisie invested heavily in land and owned almost as much as the nobles

● Revolution changed the law of property ○ Freed private ownership of land from indirect hassles such as manorial fees,

church tithes, communal agricultural practices, and eminent property rights

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○ Abolished older forms of property such as property in public office or masterships in guilds(were to the advantage of the privileged)

○ Defined and established the institutions of private property○ Benefited bourgeois and landowning peasants the most

● The Feudal Reaction○ Peasants worked all the land on their own risk and initiative○ Land was divided and leased to peasants in small parcels○ France= country of small farmers no big agriculture○ Manorial lords lived by receiving countless dues and fees, no real role on the

manor■ Faced with rising living costs and higher standards of living■ Collected dues more frequently and revived old fees

○ Fees not favorable to peasants■ Resentment to the feudal dues and the lords grew■ Peasants viewed themselves as the real owners of the land and the

lord as someone who just benefitted off of their land for no reason○ Property system not related to real economic usefulness

● Political Unity and Patriotism○ Cause of the revolution○ Any social condition led to national agitation, discussion, and legislation○ Centralized state existed in France○ Reformers just had to remodel the centralized state○ Revolution stirred a sense of membership into a passion for civic rights and

the use of the state and its sovereignty for the public good

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Political Culture and Public Opinion after 1770● The Revolution and the Enlightenment

○ Critical culture created by the 18th century writers allowed for resentments to explode

○ Enlightenment thought provided a way for people to express their dissatisfactions with the obstacles blocking ambition

■ While philosophes favored enlightened social reforms they were not revolutionaries

● Political theory not that popular■ Contributed to new forms of criticism■ Challenged traditional authority of nobles and French king

● Critical spirit○ Last two decades of Old Regime= political controversy○ Critical spirit spread rapidly into public sphere of political debate○ Lawyers appeal to public sentiment in their arguments

■ Injustice of inherited privilege= common theme○ Voltaire: “Opinion governs the world”○ Campaigns to influence public opinion became powerful political forces

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The Revolution and the Reorganization of FranceThe Financial Crisis● Revolution provoked by financial collapse

○ Government overburdened by war costs■ ¼ of income spent on armed forces■ ½ spent on debt

○ Debts similar to England’s debts and debts from 75 years ago○ Problem was that the money spent was more than the money earnt

■ Not due to poverty but due to tax evasions and exemptions○ Lack of system

■ Much of what the taxpayers paid never came into the treasury○ Taille only paid by peasants○ Church too was exempt, sometimes gave gifts of land that did not equal the

money that they avoided in exemptions○ Country prosperous, treasury empty○ People did not pay taxes corresponding to their income

■ Paying taxes was a sign of inferior status● Need to tax the privileged emerged in the minds of officials and some royals

○ Necker: Louis XVI dismissed his actions because of desire to be loved○ Calonne proposed:

■ A general tax to fall on all landowners without exemption in place of the taille

■ Lightening of indirect taxation■ Abolition of internal tariffs to stimulate economic production■ Confiscation of properties of the church■ Establishment of assemblies where all landowners represented without

regard to class or estate● Give landowners greater interest in government

○ Resistance of nobles to Calonne■ Proposal may have prevented Revolution and solved fiscal problems

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■ Struck at tax exemptions and hierarchical organization of society■ Calonne convened assembly of notables to endorse his ideas

● Not successful● Successor: Brienne

■ Brienne tried to push the same program● rejected , only estates general could allow new taxes

■ Tried to replace Estates General with modern judicial system● Led to revolt of nobles

■ Government standstill● Louis XVI called Estates General ● Classes invited to elect representatives and list grievances

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From Estates General to National Assembly● Voting system where each Estate met in separate units and only had one vote had

backlash because Third Estate would always be outnumbered○ Was passed by Parliament

● Aims of the nobility○ Initially an aristocratic fight for power from the king○ Were liberal in their desires(constitutional government, free speech, willing to

give up privileges, personal liberty, etc. )○ In exchange desired to be the dominant political element of the state○ Wanted the Estates General to govern(same voting system where Third Estate

was outvoted)● Reaction of Third Estate

○ No desire to be governed by lords○ Inspired by American revolution○ Sieyes: nobility a useless caste that could be abolished without loss, Third

Estate= necessary element of society■ Caused fear and suspicion between lords and commoners

○ Class antagonism made peaceful reforms impossible and threw bourgeoisie into radical and destructive mood

● Meeting of Estates General○ Third Estate: One meeting hall, everyone votes as an individual for an overall

house vote■ Would be advantageous to the Third Estate

○ Deadlock maintained○ Third Estate declared itself a National Assembly when a few priests came and

joined their chamber from the First Estate○ Oath of Tennis Court: revolutionary; verified existence of national assembly

and pledged to remain until constitution drafted■ Assumed sovereign power or a body that had no legal authority

● King chooses the nobles○ Failed to make use of loyalty of the Third Estate

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○ Lacked strong leadership○ Third Estate grew to be even more fearful of the nobles

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The Lower Classes in Action● Lower classes out of hand

○ Grievances rose to the surface○ Harvest low prices high○ Unemployment spread○ Food prices up○ Masses were restless○ Refused to pay manorial dues and taxes

● Economic and social crises became political○ Antagonism of aristocrats

● The Storming of Bastille● Parisians armed themselves in self-defense against troops coming in● Entire third estate took part● Crowds looked for weapons

○ Came to Bastille○ Requested governor to furnish them with arms and remove the cannon○ Refusal led to assault on on fortress and murders on both sides○ Army in Paris did not stir- unaccustomed to opening fire on the people

● Capture of Bastille= unintended○ Saved the Assembly○ King accepted the situation and recognized a citizens committee as the new

municipal government ○ Sent away troops○ Commanded nobility and clergy to join Assembly○ Bourgeoisie and national guards established to keep order○ Lafayette: fused old regime colors with colors of Revolution to form French

tricolor flag● The Great Fear of 1789

○ Rural conditions worsened○ Vague insecurity rose○ Peasants intended to destroy manorial regime by force

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The Initial Reforms of the National Assembly● Conflict of interests:

○ Necessary to please peasants○ Bourgeoisie owned manors○ Bourgeoisie interests differed from peasants interests○ Night of August 4: serfdom remnants ended, tithes abolished, privileges given

up, eminent property compromise adopted○ Eminent property compromise: dues abolished but compensation to be paid

by peasants to former owners ■ Compensation repealed ■ Peasants got rid of manorial obligations without cost to themselves

● The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen○ Feudalism is abolished○ Legal privilege replaced with legal equality○ Affirmed principles of new state

■ Rule of law, equal individual citizenship, and collective sovereignty of the people

○ Rights of man a motto for revolutionary ideas○ Applied to all human beings though legal equality between the sexes was not

fought for○ Boys and men generally benefitted most in all matters and voting rights

● The Rights of Woman○ Gouges: The Rights of WOman applied explicitly to women○ In France, some felt women deserved greater opportunities in education○ Few reforms to improve social rights○ Redefined marriage as a civil contract and legalized divorce○ Inheritance laws changed to include females○ Condorcet: argued for legal equality of the sexes○ Revolutionaries thought politics, government war were masculine○ Revolution restricted influence of women

■ Manly opposition to female corruption of Old Regime

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● Revolutionary Leadership○ Leadership fell apart during planning of new government○ Strong veto power of king with two legislative body versus delaying vote of

king and one chamber of representation(suspicion of aristocracy)■ Deadlock pursued■ Debate interrupted by violence■ One chamber legislative body won

○ King hesitant to accept claims of Assembly and his brother strongly aristocratic

● Jacobins○ Conservative Revolutionaries felt revolution was falling into unworthy hands○ Counterrevolution gaining strength○ Those who wanted to move forward organized in clubs

■ Most important= the Jacobin club○ Jacobin club= exclusive, did not include lowest classes○ Used the club to discuss ideas, policies, and lay out plans○ Remained a middle class group○ Women were present

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Constitutional Changes● Assembly had to simultaneously destroy remnants of Old Regime, govern the

country, and devise a written constitution● Discarded political and legal institutions that had governed french affairs in the past● Burke: appalled at thoroughness of destruction of national institutions

○ Answer: everything contributed to the system of privilege and unequal rights, all had to go for equal citizenship under national sovereignty

● France divided into uniform municipal organization○ Same government, varying only on size○ All officials elected locally○ Administratively, country decentralized in reaction to Old Regime bureaucracy○ Proved ruinous during war○ Became traditional in France to keep local officials under the control of

officials in Paris● The Constitution of 1791

○ Sovereign power of nation was to be exercised by the Legislative Assembly ■ Unicameral and elect, king given only a suspensive veto

○ Executive branch kept weak■ Distrust of Louis XVI

● Louis XVI Attitude○ Hostility disoriented the revolution○ Made impossible the creation of a strong executive power○ Left the country to be ruled by a debating society

■ More than usual number of hotheads● Equal rights

○ Women did not receive the right to vote or hold office○ Principles of Declaration modified for practical reasons limiting true equality

between men of different classes○ Illiterate men were assumed to follow the views of his employer, therefore a

passive citizen○ Distinguishment between active and passive citizens

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■ Same civil rights■ Only active citizens had the right to vote

● Voted for electors who then voted for national legislature and local officials

○ Active citizens:■ Above 25 years of age■ Wealthy enough to pay small direct tax■ Plenty could be electors■ Limiting factors for most to go from active citizens to electors: interest

and education

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Economic and Cultural Policies● Economic policies favored middle class most

○ Revolutionary leaders never disowned past debts of Old Regime■ Reason: bourgeoisie were the people to whom the money was owed

○ Confiscated property of the church to secure the debt and pay for the expenses of the government

■ Issued assignats● Assignats

○ Initially bonds and given in large denominations○ Later used as currency and issued in small bills○ Could be used to buy former church lands

● Peasants could not buy land as easily○ Did receive land through middlemen○ Had to compensate for old manorial fees○ Were aroused when enclosure was encouraged

● Free Economic Individualism(Adam Smith ideologies) favored○ Believed special interests bad for society and all prices and wages should be

determined by free arrangement between the individuals concerned○ Constituent Assembly abolished guilds which were monopolistic organizations

concerned with keeping prices up, they were opposed to new machinery and methods

● Organized Labor Movement○ Guilds were hereditary and favored the privileged○ Journeymen formed their own trade unions called pagnonnages

■ Organized locally or nationally○ Collected dues and maintained officers○ Dealt collectively with guild masters or employers in the form of organized

strikes● Organized strikes

○ Common even during Revolution○ Business decreased during disorder

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● Banning Labor Organizations○ Assembly renewed prohibition of pagnonnages and restated abolishment of

guilds, promoted free trade○ Although not desired, it remained a part of French law

● Revolutionary Political Culture○ Transformed Old Regime rituals and culture

■ New flag, language, monuments, clothing, etc…○ Symbols of traditional monarchy disappeared○ Festival of Federation: celebrate new liberties of the French people

● New artwork, new ways of displaying patriotism(different clothes, liberty trees and caps)

● France represented by the female symbol of liberty, Marianne○ Replaced Catholic Virgin Mary

● Gave everyone a new vision● Understand that national sovereignty and liberty had replaced the king and church at

the symbolic center of French political life

● Revolution created a new national identity and nationalized the French People

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The Quarrel with the Church● Confiscation of church lands=shock to clergy

○ Loss undercut religious order and ruined schools○ Material wealth not the problem○ Assembly believed church subordinate to the sovereign power

■ Poor needed religion to respect wealthy○ Generous projects mapped out for education(little accomplished)

● Civil Constitution of Clergy went towards setting up a French national church○ Bishops elected by electors○ Other religions could take part in the election○ Archbishops abolished○ Number of dioceses reduced○ Salaries from the state○ Bishops held no papal authority w ithout government permission○ Ways for church to support nobility done away with○ No religious vows○ Monastic houses dissolved

● The Assembly and the Church○ Clergy willing to accept the Civil Constitution if they had their own authority

separate from papal authority○ Assembly unwilling to concede so much jurisdiction○ Assembly appealed to the pope, but the pope ended up insulting the entire

Revolution○ Assembly responded by forcing all forcing all French clergy to take an oath of

loyalty to the constitution ■ ½ accepted, 1/ didn’t

● Two churches in France○ One official, one unofficial○ Unofficial(refractory): official clergy consists of careerists not true clergy○ Official(constitutional): protecting the rights of man, French church has always

enjoyed liberty from papal authority

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○ Followers ended up turning on Christianity because of its lack of support for the Revolution

● Refractory○ Good catholics, i.e. the king and former aristocrats○ More reason for distrust of Louis XIV○ Aristocrats put aside Enlightenment ideas for new piety○ Also favored by peasants that were not interested in the Revolution after their

purpose was served○ Same case for urban working class families○ Assembly did not know how to deal with the refractory clergy

● Civil Constitution considered biggest mistake of the Revolution○ Consequences unfortunate and widespread across Europe○ 19th century: church= anti-democratic, democrats= anticlerical○ Main beneficiary=papacy

■ French church thrown into the arms of the pope● Constituent Assembly disbanded after constitution

○ Before dissolved: none of its members could take part in the Legislative Assembly

○ Constitutional monarchy in which a unicameral Legislative Assembly confronted a king unconverted to the new order

The Revolution and Europe: The War and the “Second” Revolution, 1792

The International Impact of the Revolution● Other countries reluctant to become involved involved despite pressure, especially

with the exportable ideas of the Revolution○ Universal philosophies○ Cited by Hungarian and Poland as inspiration○ English: French imitating us

● Inspiration of the Revolution ○ Excluded classes must inspired

■ The young, the officers, the military men

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■ Revolts aimed at privileged○ Several future leaders inspired

● Anti-Revolutionary Sentiment○ Edmund Burke:

■ Predicted anarchy and dictatorship for France■ Advised English to accept an adaptation of their own English liberties■ For the world: denounced abstract principles of right and wrong but

rather that a country should be governed based on national circumstances, history and character

■ Preached the necessity of war■ Long term: modern conservative thought■ Short term: fell on willing ears

○ Catherine of Russia appalled■ Only wished to involve her neighbors, not herself■ Radishchev: packed off by pointing out evils of serfdom

○ Nobles immigrated out of France■ Desperately desired their manorial rights■ Preached a holy war against the evils of the revolution■ Preferred Count of Artois over Louis XVI, two brothers

● All Europe related territories were divided○ Each country was fearful of its pro-revolutionary groups

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The Coming of the War, April 1792● William Pitt- British Prime Minister- focused on domestic reforms that would be ruined

by war○ Insisted internal affairs of FRench government were not of concern to the

British government● Leopold II

○ Told Marie to adjust herself to conditions in France○ He resisted demands of the emigres(immigrant nobles from France that used

their international aristocrat connections)● French influence in international territories

○ Encouraged mischief and troubles across Europe○ Tendency to settle affairs on their own

■ Annexed Avignon due to local revolutionaries without the permission of the pope

■ Alsace● Arrest of Louis XVI showed monarchs were prisoners of revolutionaries● Declaration of Pillnitz

○ Leopold would take military steps to restore order in France IF all the other powers would join

○ Leopold knew this would never happen with Pitt’s attitude but wanted to hush the emigres

○ Emigres used the declaration as an open threat to their enemies in France● Reaction to the Declaration

○ Revolutionaries alarmed○ Ignorant of what Leopold really meant and took the threats literally○ Enraged French revolutionaries against leaders of Europe

● Political advantage to Girondins■ Condorcet, Roland, Brissot, Paine, Cloots, ■ Party of international revolution

○ Believed that once war comes, people of states at war wouldn’t support their own governments

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■ Historical precedent○ Wanted to enter neighboring countries and unite with local revolutionaries,

overthrowing established government and creating a federation of republics● Lafayette also favored war, his group wished to curb the Revolution by holding it at

the line of constitutional monarchy○ Believed that war might restore Louis XVI’s popularity, put down the Jacobins

and unite the country under a new government● Leopold II death, successor = Francis II

○ More inclined to yield to the emigre’s demands○ Negotiations with Prussia

● All that were dreadful of the Old Regime listened to the Girondins● April 20, 1792: Assembly declares war on the Austrian Monarchy

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The “Second” Revolution: August 10, 1792● War intensified unrest in the lower classes● Peasants and urban workers felt that the Constituent Assembly and Legislative

Assembly had done little to support them ○ Inadequate measures for land distribution○ Soaring prices- economic crisis○ Assignats lost value○ Scarcity combined with the falling value of money drove up the price of living

significantly● Fearful during war of return of the aristocratic emigres and the restoration of the Old

Regime○ Support Revolution but not the revolutionary government

● The War○ Initially: unfavorable for France ○ Prussia allied with Austria and were at the point of invading France○ Brunswick Manifesto- proclamation to French people declaring that if any

harm was done to monarchs the inhabitants of Paris would face harsh retribution

■ Played into hands of violent activists○ Bourgeoisie Jacobin leaders led French masses in patriotic excitement

■ Turned against the king, who was associated with anti-Revolution● Agitation and Violence in Paris

○ Recruits streamed in and stirred up agitation○ August 10, 1792: Working class rose in revolt○ They seized and imprisoned the royal family and king○ A commune was set up○ Histeria , anarchy, terror ○ September massacres: mobs killing enemies within the country before killing

enemies on the frontiers■ 1100 people killed

● August 10, 1792- Constitutional Convention

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○ Elected by universal male suffrage○ Took over powers of Legislative Assembly○ Forced the revocation of the constitution and the election ○ Planned to govern France and prepare a new more democratic constitution

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The Emergency Republic, 1792-1795: The TerrorThe National Convention● Spread of the Revolution

○ September 20, 1792: National Convention met■ Proclaimed year one of French Republic■ Sit for 3 years

○ Also a day for a moral Victory for French■ Made Prussian commander inclined to give up his march on Paris

○ France soon occupied the Austrian Netherlands, Savoy(Austrian allies), Mainz and other cities on German Left Bank

■ Sympathizers appealed for French aid○ Nation Convention gave assistance

■ Order all occupied areas should be dissolved of old governments, etc. ○ Revolution spread in the wake of successful French armies

● International Involvement○ British and Dutch prepared to resist

■ Pitt couldn’t tolerate French control over Austrian Netherlands(Belgium)

■ Began conversation with Prussia and Austria■ French declared war on them in February 1973

○ Prussia and Russia partitioned Poland■ Caused Austrian anxiety about control in Eastern Europe

○ France saved due to weakness of the Coalition■ Land forces weak■ Prussia and Austria jealous of each other and preoccupied with Poland

● The Jacobins Split○ Girondins no longer most advanced revolutionaries○ New group sat in highest seats of the hall, dubbed the “Mountains”○ Girondins: came from great provincial cities

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○ Montagnards: represented Paris and owed political strength to radical elements of the city

● The Sans-Culottes- revolutionists outside of the Convention○ Wor long trousers○ Working class of pre-industrial age○ Demanded equality○ Called for effort against foreign powers○ Denounced the king and queen for collusion with the Austrian enemy ○ Convention=too moderate○ Favored direct democracy○ Dismissed by Girondins as anarchists○ Mountain willing to work with them

● The Execution of the King Louis XVI○ On trial for treason○ Immediate execution

■ All who voted in favor of this could never allow the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy

■ Those who did not vote in favor were called moderates or Girondins■ Those who wanted more from the Revolution looked to the Mountain

wing

Background to the Terror● April 1793: French General changed sides to support Austria

○ Regain of Belgium and threat to France once more○ Counterrevolutionaries rejoiced○ Prices up, currency down, food scarce, working classes restless○ Sans-culottes demanded: price and currency controls, rations, legislation

against food hoarding■ Denounced bourgeoisie■ Mountains supported

● Commune(pressure from sans- culotte) invaded Convention and forced arrest of Girondin leaders

● Mountain ruled in Convention, Convention ruled very little○ Emigres bent on destroying Convention

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○ Convention’s power rejected within France ○ Peasants revolted

■ Angered by enlistment and led by priests, British agents, and people of Count of Artois

■ Lyons, Bordeaux, Marseilles also rebelled■ Led by fleeing Girondins who also became counter-revolutionaries

● Attackers of the Convention○ Extremists of the left○ Enrages- excited militants○ Men and women outside of the Convention declared parliamentary methods

were useless■ Women involved due to sensitivity towards food scarcity and high

prices○ Revolutionary Republican Women- helped mobilize the sans-culottes○ Activists worked through local government units, popular societies, and

provincial clubs○ They formed revolutionary armies- searched peasants, scoured for food,

denounced suspects, and preached revolution● Robespierre

○ Jacobin○ Did not desire anarchy and revolution forever○ Led the Revolutionary ideals for one year○ Debated figure: some say he was a bloodthirsty fanatic and dictator others

say he was a patriot and idealist○ Was honest and maintained his integrity○ Was passionate about the Revolution○ Lawyer, Elected to sit in the Third Estate○ Attention due to views against capital punishment and for universal suffrage,

pleaded against war during the Revolution

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Rise of the “Isms” and Revolutions McKay pgs. 755 to 782

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The Peace Settlement● Russia, Austria, Prussia, and UK determined to keep France in line● Met at Congress of Vienna

The European Balance of Power● Most concerned about France● Agreed to restoration of Bourbon Dynasty● Were lenient after Napoleon resignation and exile● Borders of 1792 for France

○ No war reparations, but strong defensive measures● Checked the power of France by creating stronger neighbors

○ Dutch Republic created, consisted of Belgium and Holland○ Prussia became France’s eastern border

● Motivated by ideas of self interest and balance of power○ Metternich=foreign minister of Austria○ Talleyrand =foreign minister of France○ Castlereagh=foreign minister of U.K.○ Discouraged war or complete European dominance by any one government or

ruler● Used the balance of power at the Congress of Vienna to settle disputes

○ U.K. Gained Colonies ○ Prussia gave up some lands in exchange for others, including a parts of

northern Italy and Poland and many more● How were Prussia and Russia to be compensated ?

○ Russia wanted Poland and Prussia wanted Saxony○ This was not agreeable to Austria and U.K. Due to unbalancing power○ Signed secret alliance w Talleyrand which posed the possibility of war○ Desires were moderated:

■ Russia received part Poland and Prussia took part of Saxony○ France was able to become a great power and ended its diplomatic isolation

● France had to compensate with money and occupation of troops within France ● Congress of Vienna was the beginning of Congress system

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○ Settled international crises w balance of power diplomacy

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Intervention and Repression● Holy Alliance-Austria, Prussia, Russia alliance to repress revolutions across Europe, in

1815● 1820- Revolutionaries forced monarch of Spain And Southern Italy to sign liberal

constitutions against their will● Austria and France restored monarchies ● Metternich continued to battle against liberal movements

○ Could not undo some things but was very effective until 1848○ Dominated German confederation, Italian peninsula, and Austria○ German Confederation was divided up into 38 sections.

■ This included Austria and Prussia and who were important in the execution of repressive measures

○ 1819- Metternich’s Carlsbad decree required the 38 German states to root out subversive ideas in their universities and newspapers

■ They also established committee with spies to investigate and punish any liberal or a radical organizations.

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Metternich and Conservatism● Metternich was an aristocrat and foreign minister of Austria from 1809 to 1848

○ He defended the rights and privileges of aristocrats ○ He regarded tradition is the basic source of human institutions and believed

that proper state and society was that of Paris 1789 before the French Revolution

○ He felt the government was to be a blend of the monarchy, bureaucracy, aristocracy and respectful commoners

○ Believed liberalism was because of bloodshed and suffering across Europe○ He blamed liberal middle class from the revolutionaries for stirring up the

lower classes that he believed desire nothing more than peace and stability○ Liberalism was a threat to Austria Empire, Central Europe with its

revolutionary ideas and national self determination● Austrian empire had several different ethnicities

○ Germans, Hungarians and Czechs made up some major groups○ There were also Italians, Poles, Ukrainians were present in large numbers○ Due to its various ethnic groups, the empire differed in languages, customs,

and institutions○ Strong due to large populations and vast territories ○ Weak due to many dissatisfied nationalities○ Metternich had to oppose liberalism and nationalism him because Austria was

unable to accommodate ideologies of the dual revolution

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Radical Ideas and Early SocialismLiberalism● Successful American revolution and partially in the French Revolution● Posed a radical challenge

○ Demanded representative government, as opposed to monarchy ○ Equality as opposed to separation of the classes

● Idea of liberty meant individual freedoms:○ Speech, Assembly, Press, Arbitrary arrest

● Already in some parts of Europe○ France:Constitutional Charter○ England: Parliament

● Criticized for economic principles○ Laissez faire- unrestricted private enterprise and no government interference

in the economy■ Advocated for originally by Adam Smith■ Britain promoted this principle, because it strengthened economic

growth during the Industrial Revolution○ Labor Unions outlawed

■ Restricted free competition and individual’s right to work● Favored representative government but had property qualifications attached to right

to vote● Some felt liberalism didn’t go far enough

○ Some called for universal male suffrage○ Democrats and republicans more radical than liberals○ Could join forces w liberals against conservatives

Nationalism● Origins in French Revolution and Napoleonic wars● Each people had their own cultural unity

○ Common language, history and territory

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● Problems with this idea○ Local dialects differed based on education and class○ Divided people as much as it united them○ A variety of ethnic groups shared territories

● Cultural unity→political unity○ Sought to have each cultural identity had its own borders within a nation-state○ Idea boomed in places with too few or too many states

● Rise of nationalism due to rise in urban and industrial societies and mass education which required better communication

○ Promoted need for national language○ When minority population=large, push for separation

● Nations are the product○ Creation of national cultural identities

● Common faith important in linking nationalism w liberalism○ People must be united culturally for successful self-government and

overcoming of class differences

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