Chapter 24Napoleon III in france

- early nationalism=o liberalo idealistico often democratico radical

- 19th c ideas of nationhood + pop sovereignty posed a fearful rev threat to conservatives (Mett)- from our POV, nat can be:

o narrowly libo democratic + radical (Guiseppe Mazzini + Jules Michelet)

- nat can flourish in dictatorial states tooo communisto fascisto conservativeo may impose social + econ changes from above

- Nap I already combined nat with authoritarian ruleo Nap III extended this merger

FRANCE’S SECOND REPUBLIC- Louis Nap Bonaparte played no role in FR politics b/f 1848

o BUT UMS and pop support gave him 3x as many votes as the 4 other pres. Candidates combined in the FR election of 1848

- Reasons for this outcome:o 1) he had the name of his uncle, whom roms had transformed from a dictator into a demigod after 1820o 2) as karl marx stressed, mid class and peasant prop owners feared the soc challenge of urban workers, and

they wanted protection from a tough rulero 3) 1848- he had a positive program for FR, which was in pamphlets b/f election and guided him through his

reign. - Louis Nap believed that the gov should represent the ppl + should try to help them economically

o Parliaments + political parties not the answer (acc to LN) FR politicians represented special interest groups (mc)

o The answer: a strong, authoritarian national leader (like Nap I) A reformer Would serve all ppl (riche + poor) Linked to each citizen by direct democracy Sovereignty uncorrupted by politicians

These ideas meshed with LN’s vision of nat unity and social progress- state + leader had duty to

o provide jobso stimulate econ

these would benefit all classes- Ln’s polit + soc ideas were vaguely understood by Fr peasnats and wrkrs in 1848- Common ppl voted for him

o Appeared a strong mano Forward looking champion of their interests

- Elected for 4 yrs by a majorityo Shared power with conserve nat assembly (acc to const.)o Increased the role of the cath church in primary and secondary educo Approved a law depriving poor ppl the right to vote

Reasons for conserve measures: Wanted assembly to vote funds to pay his debts Change the const so he could run for a 2nd term

- 1851- assembly did not cooperateo LN conspired with key army officerso Illegally dismissed assemblyo Seized power in coup d’étato Armed resistance in pariso Insurrection in country and south

Protests crushed by army

- He Restored UMSo Said he stood above bickering + divisive politicianso Called on FR ppl to legalize his actions

92% voted to make him pres for 10 yrs next year: 97% in plebiscite made him hereditary emperor

NAPOLEON III’S SECOND EMPIRE- emp nap III- success + failure btwn 1852-1870

o greatest success: econ 1850s gov encouraged new invest banks + RR construction that were at the heart of indust rev on cont gov fostered econ expansion through public works

rebuild paris to improve urb environo Results of econ improv:

profts of business ppl soared wrkr’s wages kept up with inflation unemployment decline greatly

- he hoped that econ progress would reduce soc and polit tensionso partially realized

- until mid 1860s o support from FR’s unhappiest group: urban wrkrs b/c nap III:

regulation of pawnshops support of credit unions better housing for wrking classes

- 1860s- wrkrs had right to form unions and the right to strike o important econ rights denied by gov b/f

- at first, polit power was in hands of napIIIo he chose ministers, they had freedom of actiono NAPIII restricted, did not abolish assembly

Members elected by UMS /6yrs LN and gov took elections seriously Tried to entice notable ppl (even ppl who opposed regime) to be candidates

b/c they wanted to expand base of support gov used mayors and officials to spread the word that

election of gov’s candidates + defeat of opposition=o key to roado tax rebateso thousand other concerns

- his system worked and produced electoral victories- 1860s- his system disintegrated- napIII was a nationalist

o wanted to organize Europe on principle of nationalityo gain influence + territory for fr and himself

instead: probs in Italy + rising Prussia = criticism from home and catholic supporters national supporters

mid class libs who wanted less authoritarian regime continued to denounce his rule- sensitive to public mood

o public opinion always wins last victory- 1860s- responded by liberalizing him empire

o assembly got more powero opposition candidates more freedom (used to good advantage)

the opposition in 1869 republicans monarchists libs

o polled 45% of vote (opp)- 1870- NAPIII granted a new const

o combined a parliamentary regime with hereditary emp as chief of state

o in the final plebiscite on the night of the war with Prussia: 7.5 mill fr ppl voted for const 1.5 mill against

- attempt to reconcile a strong nat state with UMS was going in a democratic directionNATION BUILDING IN ITALY AND GERMANY

- old ruling classes in euro had new model in polit with LNITALY TO 1850

- Italy never united prior to 1850o Pt of rome’s emp in ancient timeso Ital. penin was divided in Mid Ages into city-states that led

Commercial revival Curltural revival of west

- Battleground for grt pwrs aftr 1494- Ital. was reorganized in 1815 by congress of Vienna

o N. provinces of Lombardy + venetia taken by mett’s austo Sardinia and piedmont: Italian monarcho Tuscany (capt: Florence): shared n. central ital. with smaller stateso Cent. Ital. and rome: ruled by papacy

Thought that ind polit existence was necessary to fulfill spiritual missiono Naples + sicily: ruled by bourbons

- 1815-1848o goal of a unified ital. nation

3 approaches: 1) radical program of patriot Guiseppe Mazzini

o preched centralized dem repub based on UMS + will of ppl 2) Vincenzo Gioberti

o cath priest o called for federation of existing states under presidency of progressive pope

3) program of those who looked for leadership to autocratic kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmonto strengthened by failures of 1848 (Austria smashed Mazz’s republicanism)o Sardinia’s new monarch victor Emmanuel

Retained lib const granted by his father in 1848 Const combined

Strong monarchy Civil liberties Parliamentary gov Deputies elected by limited franchise bsd on income

To some ital. mid classes, Sardinia appeared to be: Liberal Progressive state Suited to drive aust out of N ital. Lead a free ital. of ind states

- mazzini’s republicanism seemed to radical + quixotic- papacy:

o cautious support for unification by Pius IX gave way to fear after he was driven from rome in 1848

- papacy was opposed to nat unif and modern trends- Pius IX- Syllabus of errors

o Denounced rationalismo Denounced Socialismo Denounced Separation of church and stateo Denounced Relig lib

CAVOUR AND GARIBALDI IN ITALY- Cavour

o Statesman of Sardiniao Dominant figure in sard govo Was in business bf politicso National goals: limited and realistic

Sought on unity for states of N and central Italy in an expanded kingdom of sard

o 1850s- worked to consolidate sard as a lib constitutional state capable of leading N ital.o program of

highways railroads civil liberties opp to clerical privilege

all of this increased support for sard throughout N ital.o realized that sard could not drive aust out of N ital. w/o help of an allyo worked for a secret diplomatic alliance w/ NapIII against aust

- succeeded in 1858o goaded aust into attacking sardo napIII defended sardo after the victory of the franco-sard forces, napIII did an about-face

b/c he was worried abt criticism from fr caths for supporting the pope’s enemy abandoned Cavour made a peace with aust at willafrance

o sard only got lomabrdy (area around Milan) from aust- rest of ital. map= unchanged- Cavour resigned- His plans salvaged by his allies in a moderate nationalist movement- While there was War against aust in the N

o Pro-sard nats in Tuscany + cent. Ital. held popular revoltso mc nat leaders controlled pop enthusiasm in cent ital. and called for fusion with sard

great powers didn't want this to happeno Cavour returned in 1860

Gained napIII’s support by giving savoy and nice to fro Ppl of central ital. voted to join sard under Emmanuel

- Cavour achieved his goal of a N ital. state- Garibaldi

o Superpatrioto Unification was only ½ doneo Personified the romantic, rev nationalism and republicanism of Mazzinio Led a corps of volunteers against austo Emerged as an ind force in ital. politics

- Cavour o Secretly supported Gari’s plan to liberate the kingdom of the two siciles to use him/get rid of him

- Gari’s guerilla band of 1000 red shirts (his guerr band) landed at sicilyo Captured imagination of the Sicilian peasantry

Rose in a rebel against landlordso Outwitted 20,000 men royal armyo Guerr leader

Won battles Got volunteers Took Palermo

- Gari crossed to mainlando Went to napleso Prepped to attack rome + pope

- Cavour sent sard ppl to occupy papal states, not rome To intercept gario but realized that attacking rome would bring war with fr

feared gari’s radicalism + pop appealo organized a plebiscite in conquered territories

gari did not oppose cav, despite urging of radical supporterso ppl of south voted to join sard

- gari + Emmanuel rode through naples o symbolically sealed union of N and S, monarch + nation state

- cav succeededo controlled gario turned pop nationalism into a conserve direction

- kingdom of ital.:

o venice in 1866o rome in 1870o parliamentary monarchy under Emmanuel

not radical, not democratic politically unified

o only 500,000 out of 22 mill ppl could vote propertied classes + common ppl= divided social and cultural gap separated

progressive, industrializing N from the stagnant, agrarian south ital. was united on paper, but divisions remained

THE GROWING AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN RIVALRY1848

- germ states in a polit stalemateo after aust + rus blocked prus’ attempt to unify Germany

tension grew btwn aust and prus each pwr sought to block the other within the germ confed

- econ forces contributed to aust-prus rivalryo Austria was not included in the zollverein

Founded to stimulate trade +increase revenue of member stateso By 1853

Aust was only state in germ confed that did not join zoll- mc + business grps in zollverein

o enriching themselveso found econ reasons to boost their support of nap unification

- prus’ leading role in zoll gave it an advantage in the struggle against ast’s supremacy in germ affairs- prus had a parliament

o wealthy lib mc patriotic longing nat unification wanted to establish that the parl (not the king) had ultimate polit power + army was responsible to

pru’s elected reps- 1859

o national uprising in ital. made an impression on WILLIAM I

thought that polit change + war (with aust or fr) were possible- WILL + his military advisers

o Raised taxeso Increased defense budget to double size of army

- The prus parl o Rejected military budget

Reflected the mc’s desire for a less militaristic society- Libs triumphed in new elections- WILL called Bismarck to head a new ministry + defy parl (good choice)

BISMARCK AND THE AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR- Bismarck

o Master in politicso Devoted to prus sovereigno Desire for power

In his strive to get power for himself + prus, he was flexible and pragmatic Kept his options open Pursued one policy, then another Moved with skill + cunning toward his goal

o Honed polit skills as a high-ranking diplomat o 1862

took office as chief minister made a strong, unfavorable impression

his speeches: a sensation + a scandal said that gov would rule w/o parl consent

o lashed out at mc oppositiono denounced for his view: might makes right

o had prus bureaucracy collect taxes even if parl said noo he reorganized the army

- voters of prus expressed their opp by sending lib majorities to parl- opposition at home= search for success abroad

o question of Schleswig-Holstein provinces that belonged to Denmark, but part of germ confed

o provided a good opportunity- when Danish king tried to unite them in a Danish state w/o consent of germ confed

o prus + aust had a war against denmark they won

- bismark wanted to control the N prot part of germ confedo he had to expel aust from germ affairs

his maneuvering meant that he could force Austria out by waro knew that war with aust had to be localized that would not promote an alliance against pruso he neautralized rus and fr

he was in a position to engage in his own war- AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR

o Lasted 7 weekso Used RR to mass troopso Breech-loading needle gun for firepowero Prus overran N germ and defeated aust at the battle of sadowa in bohemiao Bismarck offered aust a realistic peace term b/c he anticipated prus’ future needs

Aust paid no reparations Lost no territory to prus Venetia was ceded to ital.

- Germ confed was dissolved- Aust agreed to withdraw from germ affairs- Prus got small states N of main river

o Dominated principalities of N germ confedo Cath states of S still independent, but formed alliance with prus

- His goal of expansion was being realizedTHE TAMING OF THE PARLIAMENT

- Bismarck was convinced that the old order should make peace with the lib mc and nat movement- Thought that nationalism was not hostile to conserv gov- b/c of 1848, germ mc could be led to want a nat unity under conserv leader rather than battle for lib institutions

o identified prus with “nat development of germ”- after his victory

o made a federal constitution for N germ confed each state had its own gov king of prus= pres of confed chancellor= Bismarck, responsible only to pres fed gov= WILL and Bismarck

controlled army controlled foreign affairs

legislature members of low house elected by universal, single class male suffrage radical innovation

o opened the door to pop participationo possibility of going over the head of mc directly to the ppl, like NAPIII

- dominant power still in hands of prus, king, and army- in Prussia:

o bismarck held out an olive branch to parl opposition asked parl to pass an indemnity bill to approve after the fact all the gov’s spending btwn 1862-66 libs wanted to cooperate

they repented their sins- constitutional struggle in prus was over- germ mc accepted bism’s monarchial authority + aristocratic superiority- bf 1914

o values of aristo army officer replaced those of mc lib in public esteem set the social standard

FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR- patriotic war with fr would drive S germ states into his arms- the issue:

o whether a relative of prus’ WILL would become king of spain diplomatic pretext

- 1870- fr leaders of 2nd empireo aggravated by Bismarck o alarmed by their powerful neighbor on the rhineo decided to teach prus a lesson with war

- 1870o war begano bism had support of S germ stateso other govs were neutralo bismarcks generosity with aust in 1866 helpedo germs under prus defeated the fr army at SEDAN in 1870

LN captured Fr patriots in paris proclaimed another repub

Vowed to continue to fight After 5 months, paris surrendered

- France accepted prus’ harsh peace terms- S germ states agreed to join germ empire- WILL proclaimed emp of Germany in Versailles at the hall of mirrors

o 19th c germ sun king- like in 1866 constitution

o king of prus + ministers had all power in germ empireo lower house of legislature was elected by UMS

- franco-prus war- euros saw it as a test of nations in a pitiless Darwinian struggle for existence- released a surge of patriotic feeling in germ- themes trumpeted during + after war:- bism’s genius- prus army- solidarity of king + ppl in a unified nation- weakest of great powers in 1862- prus became most powerful state in euro- most germs were proud- imagined that they were the fittest of the euro species- triumphed in germ:

o semi-authoritarian nationalism o new conservatism

based on alliance w/ propertied classes sought support of wc

THE MODERNIZATION OF RUSSIA AND THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE- experienced polit crises in 19th c- rus nor ott emp wanted to build a single powerful state out of their principalities

o already multi-national states built on trad of military conquest + absolutist rule by elites from dominant ethnic grps

Russians Ottoman turks

- Early 19th co Governing elites opposed to representative gov +

National self-determinationo Concentrated on

Absolutist rule Competition w/ great powers

- Power politics led to troubleo Had to embrace modernization

Changes that enable a country to compete effectively with leading countries at a given time- Modernization

o Fits Russia after Crimean waro Explains developments in ottoman emp

THE GREAT REFORMS IN RUSSIA- 1850s

o Russia was Poor Agrarian society Rapidly growing pop Industry= little developed

- 90% of pop lived off the land- peasnt serf

o bound to the lordo hereditary basiso slaveo serfdom: great moral + polit issue for gov in 1840s

- CRIMEAN WARo Dispute with fr over who should protect Christian shrines in ott empo War brought crisiso Fighting in the Crimean peninsula of black sea

So rus’ weak transpo network of rivers + wagons failed to supply rus armieso Fr and GB

Aided by sard + ott emp They all deafeated rus

o Demonstrated that rus had fallen in indust nations of west euro in many areas Rus needed: (if it was to maintain international position)

RRs Better armaments Reorganization of army

o War caused hardship + raised peasant rebellion Reform of serfom= imperative

- Military disaster forced Tsar Alexander II + his ministerso Along path of social change and

General modernization- 1st reform

o freeing of serfs 1861o human bondage= abolishedo emancipated peasants got ½ of the land

they had to pay high prices for their land b/c land was owned collectively, each village was responsible for payments of all fams in village collective ownership + responsibility= difficult for peasants to improve agri methods or leave village

- old patterns predominated, effects of reform were limited- most reforms were halfway measures- gov established the zemstvo

o new institution of local govo members elected by a 3 class system of

towns peasant villages noble landowners

o zemstvo exec council dealt with local probso rus libs hoped that this would lead to an elected nat parlo zemstvo was subordinate to bureaucracy + nobility

- reform of legal systemo independent courtso equality before the law

- education + policies toward rus jews were liberalized sort of- censorship was relaxed (not removed)- until 20th c

o greatest strides to modernization: economic, not political- transpo and indust (vital to military) were transformed in 2 indust surges

o 1860s- gov subsidized private RR companies + supported them RR enables rus to export grain + earn money for econ develop

- Indust suburbs grew around Moscow and st Petersburgo Class of mod fac wrkrs took shape

- Rus’ military forces o Strengthened by indust developmento Seized territory in the south and east

Excited rus nationalists + superpatriots Gov’s most enthusiastic supporters

- Indust development + proletarian class contributed to spread of Marxism + transformation of rus rev movement after 1890

- 1881- alexander II killed by anarchist terroristso era of reform ended

- Alexander IIIo Determined reactionary

- Econ modernization sped forward for 2nd timeo Massive indust surge from 1890-1900

The key leader: Sergi Witte Tough Competent minister of finance Inspired by Friedrich list Thought that harsh reality of indust backwardness was threatening rus’ power + greatness

o Under witte, gov built state-owned RR rapidly Doubling the network to 35,000 miles by end of century High protective tariffs to build rus indust

o Put the country on gold standard of civilized world in order to strengthen rus finances Greatest innovation:

He used westerners to catch up with westo Encouraged foreigners to build facs in ruso Enticed westerners to locate facs in rus

Successful in S Russia E Ukraine:

o Foreign capitalists + engineers built huge + modern steel & coal industry

- 1900- peasantso majority of pop

- Russia was industrializing and catching up with the west THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION OF 1905

- catching up meant territorial expansiono age of western imperialism

- 1903o rus had influence in chinese Manchuria + eyed N koreao when diplomatic protests in japan were ignored:

japan launched a surprise attack in 1904 japan won

o brought polit upheaval in rus- business + profess classes wanted representative gov- urban fac wrkrs

o had grievances of early industrializationo organized in a radical, illegal labor movement

- peasants gained little from reformso suffered from poverty + overpop

- nationalist sentiment- emerging among minorities + subject nationalitieso the poleso Ukrainianso Latvians

All wanted self rule- Army was in Manchuria, and all of discontent merged in the rev of 1905- 1905

- wrkrs + their fams converged peacefully on the palace in st. Petersburg to present a petition to the tsar- troops opened fire, killed hundreds- Bloody Sunday massacre

o Turned wrkrs against the tsaro Produced a wave of indignation’o Triggered a rev that overturned absolutist rule

Made Russia into a constitutional monarchy- outlawed polit parties came out- summer 1905-

o strikeso peasant uprisingso revolts among minority nationalitieso troop mutinies

- the rev surge culminated in a general strikeo forced gov to capitulate

- the tsar issued the “October manifesto”o was result of the strike in 0ct 1905o granted full civil rightso promised a popularly elected duma (parl) with legislative power

elected indirectly by UMS controlled by tsar and conserv classes

- split the opposition- mc leaders helped the gov repress the uprising + survive as a constitutional monarchy- may 1906

o eve of opening of the first duma gov issued a const

“fundamental laws”o tsar retained powero duma (elected by UMS + upper house) could debate + pass lawso tsar had absolute vetoo tsar appointed ministers, did not need to command majority in the duma

- mc libso disappointedo largest group in dumao thought that the const was a step backwardo efforts to cooperate with ministers broke down

- tsar dismissed dumao he and reactionary advisers rewrote the law to increase power of propertied classes

in upcoming elections, he knew there would be a loyal majority in the new duma- his chief minister:

o agrarian reforms to break down collective village ownership of land to encourage enterprising peasants

- 1914o rus was partially modernizedo conserv const monarchyo peasant based, industrializing econ

DECLINE AND REFORM IN THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE- high point: Suleiman the magnificent 16th c- by 18th c- falling behind w. euro in

o scienceo indust skillo military tech

- rus occupied ottoman provinces on the Danube river- danger that great powers would conquer ott emp was real- b/c of nap wars + lost territory to rus

o forced to grant Serbia local autonomy- ott emp losing territory + power

o 1830- greek independenceo fr’s conquest for Algeria

- another threat: from withino rise of Muhammad Ali

ott gov in Egypt his french-trained forces occupied Syria, Iraq, and then was ready to depose the ott sultan:

Mahmud IIo He survived bc the euro allies forced Muhammad to withdraw

- Euro pwrs (minus fr) o Wanted weak + dependent ott state instead of a strong muslin entity under Muhammad

- The lib ott statesmen launched an era of radical reformso Culminated in a const and parl

Tanzimat “regulations” or “orders” designed to remake the emp on a w euro model intended to bring rev modernization permitted partial recovery, but fell short b/c

o 1) lib reforms did not halt nationalism among Christian ppl in Balkans resulted in defeats that undermined reform

o 2) ott initiatives did not restrain appetite of w. imperialism secured a domination on ott econ

o 3) equality bf the law for all ppl + relig communities increased relig disputes

worsened by interference of euro powers embittered relations btwn relig communities distracted gov from reform mission split muslims into:

secularists relig conservs

o conserv muslims hated relig reforms: impious departure from Islamic trad and holy law

o most dependable support of Sultan Abdulhamid abandoned euro liberalism

o high point of reform: Sultan Abdul Mejid’s Imperial rescript 1857

Equality bf the law Modernized admin + military Relig freedom for

o Christianso Muslimso Jews

- New policy of toleranceo Commercial laws allowedo Free import of foreign goodso Foreign merchants could operate freely throughout emp

- The elite + upwardly mobileo Embraced Western education o Accepted secular values to some extent

- Combo of declining int. power + conserv tyranny=o Resurgence of modernizing impulse among turk exiles in euro

Young army officers in Istanbulo Called the Young Turks

Fervent patriots Got power in rev of 1908 Forced sultan to implement reforms Failed to stop anti-ott nationalism in Balkans Helped prep for modern secular turkey after collapse of ott emp in WWI

THE RESPONSIVE NATIONAL STATE- central + w euro:

o unification of ital. + germ= end of nation building- after 1871- euro organized into national states- ppl still strive for nat unity + polit ind in:

o Irelando Aust-hungaryo Ott emp

GENERAL TRENDS- domestic politics had a common framework:

o the established national state- common themes:

o mass politicso mass loyalty toward the nat state

- the reason: the masses of industrializing, urbanizing society felt more loyalty to their govso more ppl could vote

by 1914- UMS was the rule, not exception psychological + polit significance

o ordinary men no longer denied the right to vote bc they didn't have money/educo felt that they countedo they could influence gov somewhato becoming “part of the system”

- women’s suffrage movemento made some gains

1913- women could vote in 12 of W. USA 1914- Norway: most women could vote

o English Emmeline Pankhurst: militant in their demands Heckled politicians Held public demonstrations Efforts failed bf 1914

o Triumph after WWI- Politicians and parties represented ppl more as vote spread

o Multiparty system Parl majorities built on shifting coalitions of diff parties Gave indiv parties leverage to obtain benefits for supporters

- Govs passed laws to alleviate general probso More legito More worthy of support

- Less positive side to building pop support for strong nation-stateso Govs could manipulate nat feeling to

Create sense of nat unity Divert attention away from underlying conflicts

- Conserv + moderate leaders found thato Wrkrs who vote socialist would

Rally around flag in diplomatic crisis Cheer when territory in Africa/asia was seized

- After 1871- govs used anti liberal/ militaristic policieso Helped manage domestic conflicts

Expense: increase nat tensions in WWI + Rus rev- Fanatics + demagogic polit leaders

o Built nat movements by whipping up public animosity toward imaginary enemies, esp Jews Anti-semitism: most negative aspects of euro nationalism

THE GERMAN EMPIRE- politics in germ 1871

o reflected general euro developments- germ emp:

o federal union of prus and 24 smaller stateso business + gov conducted by separate states

- BUT there was a nat gov with chancellor Bismarck (until 1890)o + a pop elected low house: the Reichstago bism refused to be bound by parl

but tried to maintain one gave polit parties opportunities

- until 1878- bism relied mostly on nat libs

o they supported legislation useful for econ and legal unification of the countryo they backed the kulturkampf

bism’s attack on cath church aimed at making cath church subject to gov’s control

only limited success in prot prus b/c caths voted for center party:

o blocked national laws hostile to churcho resulted in Pius IX’s papal infallibility 1870o “struggle for civilization”o cath church asked germs to put loyalty to church (foreign) in front of their unified nationo 1878- bism abandoned his attack

- instead: he courted the cath center partyo the supporters: cath small farmers in W. and S germ

- made high tariffs on cheap grain from USA Canada Russia

o Won over cath center + prot junkers b/c they had landholdings in the east

o bism won cath + conserv support through tariff- other govs followed bism- 1880s-90s

o return to protectionism in Europe- france

o high tariffs to protect agri indust peasants manufacs

all from foreign competition- euro govs responding to econ prob and winning gr8ter loyalty- protectionism:

o dangers of self-centered nationalism tariffs= international name calling, trade wars

- socialismo bism tried to stop its growth

feared rev language + allegiance to a movement surpassing nation-state

- 1878o after 2 attempts on the life of WILL I by rads, not socialists

bism used a nat outcry to pass a law that controlled soc meetings + publications outlawed soc demo party

o driven underground- germ socs still had influence- bism tried another idea

o used Reichstag to enact state-supported social measures to win support of wc ppl

o big business + conservs accused bism of creating state socialism

- bism’s conserv nation state pioneered in soc welfare o pushed through Reichstag to

make the first modern soc security laws for wage earners national sickness + accident insurance old-age pensions retirement benefits

- sick, injured, retired wrkrs had benefits from the state- nat soc security system

o paid for by contributions from wage earners

employers grants from the state

- did not discourage wrkrs from voting socialsto gave them small stake in the systemo protected them from urban indust world

- this was a product of polit competition + gov efforts to gain pop support - issues in germ domest polit:

o socialismo Marxian social democratic party

- WILL IIo Opposed bism’s idea to renew the law outlawing the soc demo partyo Wanted to

rule in his own right + earn support of wrkrs

o forced bism to resign- germ foreign policy changed

o for the worse- gov passed laws to

o help wrkrso legalize soc polit activity

- soc demos got more seats in the Reichstago germ’s largest single party in 1912

- electoral victory shocked aristos + conserv mc o fears of socialist upheaval

- socs becoming less radical in Germanyo broadened by adding a more patriotic tone

greater military spending imperialist expansion gradual social and polit reform

REPUBLICAN FRANCE- france divided again b/c of war with Prussia- patriotic repubs

o proclaimed 3rd republic in paris after sedano defended paris

lived off of rats + zoo animals until germ armies came in 1871

- nat elections sent mostly conservs + monarchists to nat assemblyo new leaders had to give up Alsace and Lorraine to germ

Parisians proclaimed the paris commune in patriotic frustration Vaguely radical Wanted to govern paris w/o interference from conserv fr countryside

- Nat assemblyo Led by adolphe thiers

Told French army to crush commune 20,000 ppl died paris vs. provinces

- fr formed a new nat unity- achieved stability bf 1914

o reason: luck- monarchists in repub nat assembly could not agree who should be king

o the bourbon candidate refused except under absolutist ancestors

which was not possible for supporters of moderate const monarchy- Thier’s destruction of commune showed provinces + mc that

o 3rd repub will be moderate + socially conserv- fr kept being a republic- stabilizing factor:

o skill + determination of moderate repub leaders most famous: leon Gambetta

lawyer turned into politician

- most ppl of upper and low houses of nat assembly were repubs- 3rd repub had firm foundations- the moderate repubs

o preserved their creation by winning over the next generation trade unions: legalized france acquired a colonial empire free compulsory educ for girls + boys

expanded public tax-supported schools- throughout west world:

o expansion of pub educ served as a critical nation-building tool in 19th c- france:

o most elementary + secondary educ had traditionally been in parochial schools of cath church hostile to

republics secular life

o free compulsory educ became secular republican educationo educ reforms disturbed fr caths

but many rallied to the republic in 1890s- limited acceptance of modern world by POPE LEO XIII

o more liberalo eased tensions btwn church + state

- the dreyfus affair changed it allo jewish capitan in fr armyo falsely accused of treasono his fam thought he was innocento support of republicans + intellects (emile zola)o the case split fr aparto the army, anti-semites, caths (against dreyfus) vs civil libertarians, radical repubso he was declared innocent

revived repub feeling against church- 1901-1905

o gov severed ties btwn state and cath church salaries of priests + bishops= no longer paid by gov churches given to lay catholic communities cath schools lost 1/3 of students, put on their own financially

- state schools’ power was strengthened - only the soc movement (diff, secular ideology) stood in the way of patriotic, repub nationalism

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND- GB=

o Peaceful, successful polit evolutiono 2 party parl guided the country from classic liberalism to democracy

1832- right to vote to males of solid mc opinion leaders + politicians wrestled with uncertainties about going further

- 1867- THE SECOND REFORM BILL of Benjamin Disraeli and the conservs o extended vote to all mc males + best paid wrkrs

to broaden base of conserv party’s trad aristo + landed support- eng polit parties = more modern- lower orders voted as responsibly as their betters- THIRD REFORM BILL

o Vote to almost every adult male- House of commons

o Drifted toward democracy- House of lords

o Tried to reassert itselfo Acted as supreme court of the lando Against labor unions In 2 decisions:

1) after lib party came to power, lords banned measures passed by commons: the people’s budget

o designed to increase spending on soc welfare

the lords capitulated like with reform bill o (king threatened to create new peers to pass the bill, and aristo yielded to pop

democracy) result: social welfare measurs were passed in a rush btwn 1906-1914

- the lib partyo inspired by david Lloyd Georgeo raised taxes on rich ppl

part of the people’s budgeto helped gov pay for

nat health insurance unemployment benefits old-age pensions other stuff

- state integrated social masses socially and politically- question of Ireland brough GB to the brink of civil war

o irish famine fueled irish rev movemento eng granted concessions

abolition of privileges of anglican church rights for irish peasants

- William Gladstoneo Lib prime ministero “my mission is to pacify Ireland”o bills to give ire self-gov

failed to pass- 1913- ire nats in brit parl gained a home-rule bill for ire- on the brink of getting self-gov- ire was composed of 2 ppls

o ire cath majority in SOUTH wanted home ruleo Ire prots of ulsters in NORTH opposed it

Motivated by fears + hostilities of generations Did not want to submerge themselves in cath ire

- Ire caths didn't want to submit to prot Britain- Ulsterites

o Resisted home rule in No 100,000 armed volunteers supported by eng public opinion

- 1914- libs of house of lordso created a compromise home-rule bill that did not apply to N ire

betrayed promises made to home-rule natso it was rejectedo September- the original bill was passed, bust suspended bc of WWI

- Ire developments illustrated:o Power of national feeling + national movements in 19th co Govs could not elicit loyalty unless they could control the national feeling

- GB had lots going for ito Powero Parliamento Prosperity

Did not matter bc of nat conlicts btwn caths and prots in N ire- Sweden could not stop Norwegian nat movement

o Norway became independent in 1905- Hopeless case of ott emp

o Serbso Romanianso Bulgarians

They would all break awayTHE AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN EMPIRE

- Magyar nationalism drove hung patriots to declare ind hung republico Crushed by rus and aust armies

- 1850s- hung was ruled as a conquered territory

- francis josepho tried to centralize the stateo + Germanize lang and culture of diff nationalities

- after defeat of prus in 1866o aust compromised, and established a dual monarchyo empire: divided in 2

Magyars gained ind for hungaryo Each half dealt with its own ethnic minorities

- Joined only by o a shared monarcho common ministries for

finance defense foreign affairs

- Austria: o Ethnic germs: 1/3 of popo Germs threatened by

Czechs Poles Slavs

o Emotional issue in the aust parl: Lang in local gov + elementary educ at the local lvl

o The parl was so divided that the ministries could not obtain a majority, and ruled instead by decreeo Efforts by conservs and socialists to defuse nat antagonisms by stressing ethnic econ issues= unsuccessful

- In Hungaryo Magyar nobility restored const of 1848

Dominated Magyar peasantry + minority popo Wealthiest ¼ of males could vote

Parl= Magyar eliteo Laws promoted use of Magyar (hung) lang in school + gov

Resented by croatians + romanianso Magyar extremists:

Wanted total separation from austo Radical leaders of subject nationalities wanted freedom from hung

- Austro-hung emp was weakened by nationalismJEWISH EMANCIPATION AND MODERN ANTI-SEMITISM

- rev changed in polit and nationstate brought rev changes in jew life in w. and central Europe- turning point: 1848

o jews were part of the rev vanguard in Vienna & berlin the Frankfurt assembly endorsed full rights for germ jews

- const of new germ empo consolidated jew emancipation in cent. Euro

abolished restrictions of jew marriage choice of occupation residence property ownership

but: still exclusion from gov and discrimination in social relationso emancipation gave jews challenges + opportunities

trad jew occupations: court finance agent village moneylender peddler

o all undermined by free market reforms- careers in… opening to the jews

o businesso professionso arts

- euro jews active in o finance

o RR building- Excelled in

o Wholesaleo Retail tradeo Consumer industo Journalismo Medicineo Law

- 1871- majority of jews

o improved econ positiono entered mco identified with their nation-stateso saw themselves as patriotic citizens

- after stock market crash 1873o anti-semitism returned, beginning in central Europe

drawing on long trads of relig intolerance ghetto exclusion anti-jew riots + expulsions

- anti-semitism was a modern developmento built on the reaction against liberalismo resentment against jew achievement + financial control

- fanatics claimed thato the jew race (not relig) posed a biological threat to the germ ppl

- anti-semit beliefs popular among:o conservs o nationalistso ppl who felt threatened by jew competition

shopkeepers officeworkers professionals

- anti-semites created polit parties to attack the jewso aust Vienna: karl lueger

Christian socialist Won electoral victories Mayor of Vienna

Popular Combo of anti-semite rhetoric w/ municipal ownership of basis services

Appealed to germ-speaking low mco Also adolf hitler

- Theodor herzl o Turned from germ nationalism to polit Zionism + creation of jew state

- Anti-semitism most oppressive in central euroo Jews suffered poverty

- Rus empo No emancipationo 4 mill of euro’s 7 mill jews lived in ruso officials used ant-semi to channel pop discontent away from gov and toward jewso denounced as foreign exploiters, corrupting nat tradso violent massacres in s. Russia

peasants destroyed jew property army + police didn't care

o some jews turned to self-emancipation + vision of a Zionist settlement in Palestine emigrated to w. Europe + USA

2.75 mill left E Europe 1881-1914MARXISM AND THE SOCIALIST MOVEMENT

- nationalism: new unifying principle- soc parties

o generally Marxian parties dedicated to int. proletarian rev- prosperous + conserv ppl troubled by soc movement- historians said that bf 1914 was a time of increasing conflict btwn

o rev socialism o and nationalist alliance of conserv aristo + prosperous mc

THE SOCIALIST INTERNATIONAL- bism’s antisocialist laws + social security did not prevent growth of soc demo party

o espoused Marxian ideology- 1912

o millions of followers from wco largest party in Reichstag

- grew in other countries, but mostly in germ- 1883

o rus exiles in Switzerland rus soc democratic party

o soc parties unified in 1905 in fr workers internationalo Belgium, Austria-hungary also had soc parties

Eventually all linked in an int system- Marx

o Urged proletarians of all nations to uniteo Founded 1st international of socialists

Int. working men’s association Controlled his organization

Used the annual meetings to spread his realistic, scientific doctrines of socialist rev BUT he embraced the paris commune + their conflict with nat assembly as a step toward soc rev

Frightened many of his supporters (mostly moderate brit labor leaderso 1st international collapsed

- YET int. proletarian solidarity was important for Marxists- 1889

o soc leaders formed the 2nd international lasted until 1914

o federation of national soc partieso every 3 yrs, delegates from diff parties came to interpret Marxist doctrines + plan coordinated actiono May 1 (may day)

Annual international 1 day strike Marches, demonstrations

o Permanent exec for the int. was establishedUNIONS AND REVISIONISM

- socialism was not radical- as soc parties grew,

o looked more to gradual changeo steady improvement for the wco less toward revolution

- euro socialism: militantly moderateo combo of radical rhetoric w/ sober action

- wrkrs less inclined to following radical programso reasons:

as they gained the vote + participate politically in nation state, focused more on elections than on revs

as wrkrs got real benefits furthered the process

wrkrs not immune to patriotic educ and indoctrination during military service responded to parades + foreign policy as they voted for socialists

wrkrs not a unified social group wrkrs standard of living rose gradually b/c of indust rev

GBo Wrkrs could buy 2x more with their wages in 1906 than 1850o Most increase came after 1870

On cont:

o Similar gradual increases Not so much in Russia

Quality of urban life improvedo For all of these reasons, wrkrs became militantly moderate

Demanded gains, but did not put up barricades to get them- growth of labor unions: reinforced moderation

o unions were usually prohibited by law in early stages of indst rev- law of fr. Rev

o declared guilds + unions illegal in the name of liberty- GB

o Wrkrs uniting were criminal conspiracies after 1799- Other places also hampered union development- Unions:

o Subversive bodies to be crushed- GB

o Unions had right to exist Not the right to strike

o After Robert owen’s collapse to form a big unon New, practical unions appeared

Limited to highly skilled wrkrs:o Machinistso Carpenters

o Model unions concentrated on winning better wages + hours through collective bargaining + compromise Helped give full acceptance in GB 1870s

o After 1890 Unions for unskilled workers developed

- GERMANYo Most industrialized

Socialized Unionized

Cont country by 1914o Germ unions not granted rights until 1869o Until anti-soc law repealed in 1890, unions harassed by gov as socialist fronts

Result: 1895

o only 270,000 union members in male indust workforce of 8 millo when legal harassment was eliminated, union membership skyrocketed

3 mill ppl in 1912o the expansion reflected changing character of germ unions

focused on bread and butter issues wages hours working conditions

o rather than pure socialist doctrineo collective bargaining

opposed by socialist intellects as a sellout was desirable by germ trade union congress when employers unwilling to bargain:

strikes changed their minds 1913

10,000 collective bargaining agreements benefited 1.25 mill ppl- germ trade unions were revisionists

o revisionism: an effort by socialists to update Marxist doctrine to reflect realities of the time sins in the eyes of the aggressive Marxists

- eduard Bernsteino socialisto 1899 evolutionary socialism

marx’s predictions were false

socialists should reform their doctrines + tactics should combine w/ other forces to get evolutionary gains for wrkrs through

legislation unions more econ development

o denounced as heresy by germ soc demo party also by 2nd international

- revisionism gained support gradually by germ socialistso mostly in trade unions

- FRANCEo Jean jaurès

Socialist leader Repudiated revisionism to establish a unified socialist party But remained a gradualist and optimistic secular humanist

- RUSSIAo Question of rev split up rus Marxistso Bf 1914- soc parties had clear nat characteristicso Rus + socialists in austro-hungarian emp were most radical

- Germ party talked rev + reformismo Influenced by trade union movement

- French partyo Talked rev and tried to practice ito Unrestrained by weak, radical trade-union movement

- Englando Non-marxian labour party

Socialist Well-established union movement Committed to gradual reform

- Spain + ital.o Socialism was weako Anarchism (wanted to smash the state, not bourgeoisie)

Dominated radical thought - Socialist policies varied from country to country- Socialism was nationalized behind façade of int. unity- All soc leaders + wrkrs supported the gov