hayleydean1.files.wordpress.com€¦ · Web viewCardiac output reflects the ability of the heart...

How

doe

s tra

inin

g af

fect

per

form

ance

? H

ow d

oes t

rain

ing

affe

ct p

erfo

rman

ce?

Bol

ding

Hea

ding

1B

oldi

ng H

eadi

ng 1

Stud

ent C

opy

2015

-201

6St

uden

t Cop

y 20

15-2

016

Core 2 – Factors affecting performance Bold heading 1 – How does training affect performance?

2


3


Glossary of key words-table GLOSSARY TABLE

Account, Account for:

state reasons for, report on. Give an account of: narrate a series of events or transactions

Analyse Identify components and the relationship between them; draw out and relate implications

Apply Use, utilise, employ in a particular situation

Appreciate Make a judgement about the value of

Assess Make a judgment of value, quality, outcomes, results or size

Calculate Ascertain/determine from given facts, figures or information

Clarify Make clear or plain

Classify Arrange or include in classes/categories

Compare Show how things are similar or different

Construct Make; build; put together items or argumentsContrast Show how things are different or oppositeCritically (analyse/evaluate)

Add a degree or level of accuracy, depth, knowledge and understanding, logic, questioning, reflection and quality to (analysis/evaluation)

Deduce Draw conclusionsDefine State meaning and identify essential qualitiesDemonstrate Show by exampleDescribe Provide characteristics and features

4


Discuss Identify issues and provide points for and/or againstDistinguish Recognise or note/indicate as being distinct or different from; to note

differences betweenEvaluate Make a judgement based on criteria; determine the value ofExamine Inquire intoExplain Relate cause and effect; make the relationships between things

evident; provide why and/or howExtract Choose relevant and/or appropriate detailsExtrapolate Infer from what is knownIdentify Recognise and nameInterpret Draw meaning fromInvestigate Plan, inquire into and draw conclusions aboutJustify Support an argument or conclusionOutline Sketch in general terms; indicate the main features ofPredict Suggest what may happen based on available informationPropose Put forward (for example a point of view, idea, argument, suggestion)

for consideration or actionRecall Present remembered ideas, facts or experiencesRecommend

Provide reasons in favour

Recount Retell a series of eventsSummarise Express, concisely, the relevant detailsSynthesise Putting together various elements to make a whole

5


6


7


Expl

orin

g th

e ‘A

LARM

’ Ver

bs

Valu

e Ju

dgm

ents

Wor

ds th

at a

dd ‘o

omph

’

Topi

c, is

sue,

item

, ele

men

t, pr

oces

s, m

etho

d, ta

sk,

proj

ect,

even

t ski

ll, c

ompo

sition

, obj

ect,

loca

tion,

fo

rmati

on, i

nstr

uctio

n, c

once

pt, i

dea,

text

.

Larg

e, ta

ll, lo

ng, m

assiv

e, m

ajor

big

, hot

, col

d, li

ght,

gent

le. S

mal

l, sh

ort,

min

or, l

ow, m

inisc

ule.

Sm

ooth

, sh

arp,

roug

h, b

lunt

, shi

ny, p

atter

ned.

Pun

gent

, bi

tter

, sw

eet,

grea

sy, s

our.

Solid

, gas

eous

, liq

uid.

Fa

st, s

low

, uni

que,

mild

, fre

quen

t, st

rong

, fra

gile

.

Sign

ifica

nt, v

ital,

impo

rtan

t, cr

itica

l, es

senti

al,

influ

entia

l, im

pact

, ins

ightf

ul, d

esire

d.

Lead

s to,

affe

cts,

influ

ence

s, re

sults

in, c

ause

s, is

re

late

d to

, is l

inke

d to

, det

erm

ines

, add

ress

es,

trig

gers

, stim

ulat

es. T

he o

utco

me

is, c

ause

and

eff

ect i

s, is

dep

ende

nt u

pon,

resp

onds

to, r

elie

s on.

Subs

tanti

al, v

ery

signi

fican

t, of

litt

le c

onse

quen

ce,

inco

nseq

uenti

al, s

ubse

quen

tly, t

he o

ngoi

ng e

ffect

is,

in re

latio

n to

, effi

cien

t, op

timal

, ove

rrat

ed,

adva

ntag

eous

, disa

dvan

tage

ous,

det

rimen

tal,

bene

ficia

l.

Clar

ifyin

g q

uesti

ons

Sele

ct th

e on

es th

at a

pply

to y

our s

ubje

ct.

Wha

t is i

ts n

ame?

Wha

t is i

t?W

hat i

s its

mai

n fe

atur

e(s)

?

Wha

t are

its m

ain

char

acte

ristic

s?W

hat d

oes i

t do?

Wha

t doe

s it l

ook,

smel

l. So

und,

feel

, tas

te, m

ove

like?

Wha

t are

its c

olou

rs, s

ize, t

extu

res?

Wha

t is i

t mad

e of

?W

hat i

s it c

ompo

sed

of?

Wha

t is t

he p

roce

ss, c

onst

ructi

on, m

etho

d?

Why

is it

impo

rtan

t? H

ow is

it im

port

ant?

Why

is it

use

ful?

How

is it

use

ful?

Why

wou

ld w

e w

ant

it? W

hy d

oes i

t exi

st?

Wha

t is e

ach

part

doi

ng a

nd w

hy is

it d

ong

it?

Wha

t is t

he re

latio

nshi

p be

twee

n th

e fa

ctor

s? H

ow d

o th

ey w

ork

toge

ther

or i

nflue

nce

each

oth

er, e

ffect

ea

ch o

ther

, im

pact

on

each

oth

er. W

hat d

oes t

his l

ead

to?

Wha

t is t

he re

sult

of th

e re

latio

nshi

p?

How

muc

h is

the

effec

t pos

itive

or n

egati

ve?

How

m

uch

are

the

bene

fits,

adv

anta

ges,

disa

dvan

tage

s?

How

muc

h ar

e so

me

feat

ures

mor

e po

sitive

or

nega

tive

than

oth

ers,

com

pare

and

con

tras

t?

Defin

ition

Wha

t are

you

supp

osed

to d

o?

Sepa

rate

the

topi

c, c

once

pt o

r pro

cess

into

its

com

pone

nt p

arts

or a

reas

of c

onsid

erati

on, l

abel

or

iden

tify

each

par

t the

n te

ll th

e de

finiti

on o

f ea

ch p

art o

r eve

n th

e w

hole

itse

lf.

Diffe

renti

ate

or d

isting

uish

eac

h of

the

vario

us

com

pone

nts,

ele

men

ts o

f the

who

le, o

r eve

n th

e w

hole

itse

lf th

roug

h re

cogn

ising

its f

eatu

res,

ch

arac

teris

tics,

pro

perti

es, a

ttrib

utes

, det

ails,

st

ruct

ure

or q

ualiti

es. L

ist in

ord

er o

f im

port

ance

, if

rele

vant

.

Expr

ess t

he p

urpo

se o

r fun

ction

of e

ach

feat

ure

or c

hara

cter

istic

or e

ven

the

who

le p

roce

ss it

self.

Brea

k up

the

topi

c or

pro

cess

into

its c

ompo

nent

s an

d ex

pres

s how

eac

h on

es a

ttem

pting

to c

arry

ou

t its

pur

pose

, rol

e or

func

tion.

Also

exp

lore

the

fact

ors t

hat l

ead

to th

e to

pic

or

proc

ess a

nd o

ngoi

ng fu

ture

effe

ct o

n ot

her t

opic

s,

even

ts, o

bjec

ts o

r pro

cess

es.

Expr

ess h

ow o

r why

eac

h pa

rt o

r fea

ture

is

achi

evin

g or

att

empti

ng to

ach

ieve

is p

ositi

ve o

r ne

gativ

e. C

ompa

re o

r con

tras

t the

pos

itive

or

nega

tive

impl

icati

ons o

r con

nota

tions

whe

n co

mpa

red

to e

ach

or o

ther

ele

men

ts.

8


Verb

DEFI

NE

The…

Issu

e/Ev

ent/

Item

/Acti

on/

proc

ess/

Obj

ect

DESC

RIBE

Wha

t ? ‘p

aint

a d

etai

led

pict

ure’

.

EXPL

AIN

Sign

ifica

nce

Why

?Ho

w?

ANAL

YSE

Caus

e &

effe

ct,

show

rela

tions

hips

be

twee

n co

mpo

nent

s, w

hat

are

the

impl

icati

ons,

wha

t

CCRI

TICF

ALLY

ANAL

YSE

How

muc

h?

Expl

orin

g th

e ‘A

LARM

’ Ver

bs

Valu

e Ju

dgm

ents

Wor

ds th

at a

dd ‘o

omph

’

Bene

ficia

l, ve

ry im

port

ant,

high

ly si

gnifi

cant

, is n

ot

effici

ent,

is e

ffecti

ve, i

mpe

rativ

e, e

xcep

tiona

l.

High

ly m

inim

ally

, bett

er th

an, w

orse

than

, sim

ilarly

, co

mpa

rabl

e, a

s opp

osed

to, t

o eq

ual t

o un

usua

l, is

appr

opria

te, i

napp

ropr

iate

, hig

hly

effici

ent/

effec

tive,

maj

or, m

inor

.

Clar

ifyin

g q

uesti

ons

Sele

ct th

e on

es th

at a

pply

to y

our s

ubje

ct.

So w

hat i

s its

val

ue?

So w

hat i

s its

wor

th in

rela

tion

to

othe

r com

pone

nts?

How

muc

h do

the

bene

fits

outw

eigh

the

disa

dvan

tage

s, lo

sses

, neg

ative

s.

How

muc

h is

the

impa

ct v

alue

d> so

wha

t is i

ts le

vel o

f su

cces

s, e

ffecti

vene

ss, e

ffici

ency

, im

pact

/ so

wha

t is

mor

e va

lue

–m th

e po

sitive

or t

he n

egati

ve s.

Defin

ition

Wha

t are

you

supp

osed

to d

o?

Expr

ess t

he e

xten

t to

whi

ch e

ach

com

pone

nt,

part

of f

eatu

re is

succ

essf

ul in

serv

ing

its p

urpo

se

or sh

apin

g of

mea

ning

. Mak

e a

judg

men

t, ho

w

good

is it

, ben

efici

al is

it, h

ow in

effec

tive

it is,

ex

pres

s the

ove

rall

qual

ity, v

alue

. Mak

e a

view

poin

t as t

o w

hat e

xten

t do

all t

he

com

pone

nts o

r fea

ture

s suc

ceed

or a

re e

ffecti

ve

in a

chie

ving

thei

r pur

pose

.

Expr

ess a

n ov

eral

l poi

nt o

f vie

w a

s to

wha

t ext

ent

do a

ll th

e co

mpo

nent

s or f

eatu

res s

ucce

ed o

r are

eff

ectiv

e in

thei

r ach

ievi

ng p

urpo

se, f

or th

e w

hole

pr

oces

s to

proc

eed.

Verb

EVAL

UAT

ESo

wha

t?As

sess

, jud

ge,

plac

e a

valu

e on

.

CRIT

ICAL

LY

EVAL

UAT

EBy

how

muc

h?

9


Energy Systems

Key Messages The source of energy for muscle contraction is adenosine triphosphate (ATP).

The body has three energy systems, or pathways, which resynthesise ATP to produce energy: adenosine triphosphate (ATP) - creatine phosphate (PC), lactic acid and aerobic.

The alactacid system provides immediate energy for maximum activity lasting up to 10 seconds. Its fuel source is creatine phosphate (PC) and does not produce any by-products during energy production.

The lactic acid system provides energy for less than one minute of high intensity exercise and to up to three minutes for lower intensity exercise. Its fuel source is glycogen and produces a by-product called lactic acid, which can inhibit performance.

The aerobic system provides energy for rest as well as during sustained work of low to moderate intensity. It uses carbohydrate and fat to provide large quantities of ATP and produces carbon dioxide and water as by-products, neither of which are harmful to performance.

Energy can be defined as the capacity or power to do work, such as the capacity to move an object (of a given mass) by the application of force. Energy can exist in a variety of forms, such as electrical, mechanical, chemical, thermal, or nuclear, and can be transformed from one form to another. It is measured by the amount of work done, usually in joules or watts.

10


Introduction

The body has a constant need for energy. Even at rest, there are essential body processes that need to be maintained – respiration, circulation, digestion – and these require energy. As P.A. levels increase, so too does the demand for energy.

Student Activity:

Look at the diagram below and provide an explanation of what you think is happening.

The basic process of energy prod’n involves the conversion of chemical energy, (taken into body in the form of food), into mechanical energy, (in the form of muscular contraction and movement).

The body does not directly use the energy that is released in the breakdown of food; rather this energy is used to make a chemical compound called adenosine triphosphate. (ATP).

The three nutrients, carbohydrate, fats and protein, all work in different ways to assist with the production of ATP and provide differing amounts of energy per gram.

It is ATP which provides the energy for the muscles to contract.

11


There is only a small amount of ATP stored in the muscle cells and the body must find wats to supply more. The body uses 3 methods of supplying more ATP depending on how fast the ATP is required.

12

Used for muscle contraction

- Adenosine molecule & 2 phosphates

These 3 methods that supply the muscles with more ATP are:

1. The Alactacid Energy System or the ATP/PC Energy System

2. The Lactacid Energy System or the Anaerobic Glycolysis Energy System

3. The Aerobic Energy System or Aerobic Glycolysis Energy System

These three systems will be explained in greater detail further on in this booklet.


13


14


15

Energy Systems

The body uses various energy systems to replenish the ATP needed to provide the body’s energy requirements. As ATP is only in small amounts, (enough for a few seconds of ‘all out’ work and is not produced continuously it must be replenished and recycled. This process is known as resynthesis. This process rebuilds ATP from ADP using one of three energy systems. The energy system used by the body is dependent on:

• how long the activity will take place• the intensity of the activity• how quickly the activity is performed.

The three common energy-yielding processes for the replenishment and recycling of ATP are the:

• alactacid system (also called the phosphagen or ATP–PC system)• lactic acid system (also called the anaerobic glycolysis system)• aerobic system (also called the oxygen or oxidative system).

All three systems work in fundamentally the same way to resynthesise ATP. The energy that is released during the reactions occurring within them is used to recombine ADP and P to form ATP. This process is best described by the principle of coupled reactions. This means that the energy produced in one reaction is used to drive another reaction. The coupled reactions for the resynthesis of ATP are shown in Figure 5.5.

The major difference between the systems is that the alactacid and lactic acid systems both resynthesise ATP anaerobically (without oxygen present), whereas the aerobic system resynthesisesATP aerobically (with oxygen present).

Alactacid System

Source of fuel – Creatine Phosphate

Student ActivityDraw the chemical equation for when the bond breaks between the creatine and the phosphate in the creatine phosphate molecule to release energy.

Draw how the energy from the breaking bond of the CP molecule is used to resynthesise ATP with the ADP molecule.

What would the next step be after ATP is resynthesised?


16


17

Efficiency of ATP productionThis system is very efficient as chemical reactions occur very quickly and are very simple. The breakdown of PC produces energy, which is used to join ADP and P back together to produce ATP, making this system very efficient in producing energy.

Duration of the systemThe amount of PC in muscles is limited. After about 5-10 seconds of maximal work supply is depleted. This reduces its ability to contribute to movement and therefore another energy system is activated. High intensity activity lasting for 10 seconds or less uses the ATP-PC system as the primary source of energy.

Cause of fatigueFatigue is caused by the inability of the system to continually resynthesise ATP as PC stores are exhausted and need time to recover.

By-products of energy productionThere are no by-products of this system that will cause the body to fatigue however heat is produced during the process of muscular contraction.

Rate of recoveryAs the stores of PC are broken down, they are quickly restored. If the individual is resting most of the ATP and PC supplies are restored within 2 minutes. This allows for the activity to be repeated in intense, short bouts, without immediate exhaustion, for example field athletics athletes. The only way PC can be restored is to recombine the P and C release to resynthesise ATP. This is done during recovery. This system represents the most readily available source of ATP for use by the muscles.

Types of EventsExplosive activities such as 100m sprint, kicking a football, and athletic field events are examples of skills/activities that are primarily fueled by the ATP/PC system.

The Lactic Acid System

Source of fuelThe other system that does not require the presence of oxygen to resynthesise ATP in muscles is the lactic acid system, which is also known as anaerobic glycolysis. Following the initial 10 -12 seconds of maximal exercise, PC stores are exhausted and ATP still needs to be produced to provide energy. The body needs to find an alternate fuel and the lactic acid system becomes the dominant supplier of ATP. This system involves the partial breakdown of glucose to form lactic acid in a number of chemical reactions know as glycolysis. The glucose for this process comes from either glucose stored in the blood or from the breakdown of glycogen in the liver or muscle.

2 X ATP molecules + Pyruvic Acid

There is no O2 present so it is converted to:

Lactic Acid (By-product)

Efficiency of ATP productionThe production of energy during this process is very efficient as there is a relatively quick supply of ATP; however it requires large amounts of glucose. Unfortunately, however, this process can yield only 5 per cent of the number of ATPs that are produced by the aerobic system, yet more than the ATP/PC system.

Duration of the systemThe lactic acid system is an important energy system because it provides a very quick supply of ATP for intense, short bursts of activity (usually 30-60 seconds, but may last up to 3 minutes). The duration of the system depends upon the intensity of the activity, therefore the less intense the activity, the longer it will last.

Cause of fatigueFatigue and exhaustion occurs when lactic acid accumulates in the muscle cells. This will usually cause the athlete to decrease the intensity of the activity, or to stop altogether. The speed of lactic acid production depends again on the exercise intensity. Very high levels of lactic acid prevent muscles fibres from contracting and hence a deterioration in performance. There are also suggestions that the accumulation of hydrogen ions, which brings about a decrease in pH and increases acidosis (an increase in the acidity of the blood), causes fatigue.

By-products of energy productionPyruvic acid/lactic acid is the main by-product of the lactic acid system.

Rate of recoveryPost-exercise lactic acid diffuses from the muscle and into the bloodstream. It is then reconverted to glycogen in the liver and once again can be used as a source of fuel. To break down and remove lactic acid may take 30 minutes or up to 2 hours. An active recovery will aid this process, whereby the level of intensity is below that with which lactic acid accumulates.

Types of events400m run; 50m swim

Glucose or Glycogen


18


The Aerobic System

Source of fuelPhysical activity lasting more than 2 - 3 minutes requires the presence of oxygen. Oxygen is not immediately abundant to the muscles when we begin exercise; rather, it gradually becomes available as the oxygen-rich blood fills the muscle cells. This allows the third energy pathway, called the aerobic pathway to become the predominant supplier of ATP. This process of fuel degradation is sometimes called aerobic metabolism.

The major fuels for the aerobic system are:

o glucose (from glycogen stored in the muscle tissue or the liver)o fatty acids (from triglycerides in adipose tissue and blood)o amino acids (from proteins stored in muscles or the liver; but these are not used for energy

production to the extent of the two sources above).

To begin with, glucose is the preferred fuel, however, if exercise continues beyond an hour or so, fat becomes increasingly important as a fuel and becomes the dominant energy source if glycogen supplies become exhausted. It is only in extreme situations where protein is used to fuel the aerobic energy system.

Efficiency of ATP productionThe aerobic system is extremely efficient in metabolising fuel and providing energy. It produces large, almost unlimited amounts of ATP however chemical reactions are slow due to the necessity of oxygen to be present and the intricate chemical pathways involved. Compared to glucose, fats can supply up to 10 times as many ATP molecules but not as quickly as more O2 is needed for breakdown.

Duration of the systemGlycogen stores in the body are usually sufficient for 12 hours of rest or one hour of intense exercise. During intermittent activities, such as netball or touch, glycogen supplies can last for a number of hours. Fat supplies in the body are virtually unlimited and this is then used when glycogen stores are depleted. In well trained athletes, they can train their bodies to use fat earlier so that glycogen is available at a later stage, for example for a sprint finish in a long distance run. To maintain its everyday bodily functions the body predominantly uses the aerobic system.

Cause of fatigueDepletion of glucose/glycogen causes fatigue. However the aerobic system is versatile in fuel usage so it is able to switch to another source if one runs out. Poor respiration and/or circulation, whereby oxygen is unable to be utilised efficiently by the muscles as well as subsequent poor removal of waste products such as carbon dioxide, may also cause fatigue in athletes. It has been recognised that the moment the body switches from using glycogen to fat as a fuel can cause a momentary feeling of fatigue, often termed ‘hitting the wall’. This is due to fat requiring more oxygen for metabolism than glycogen which can in turn increase an athlete’s respiration rate and body temperature.

19

Carbohydrates(then Fats and lastly protein)


By-products of energy productionAs with most fuels that are burnt, by-products are produced, in this case, carbon dioxide and water. Carbon dioxide is breathed out during the process of respiration and the water is available to the cells or is lost through sweat or expiration. Lactic acid does not accumulate during aerobic metabolism because oxygen is present. Heat is also a by-product and is dissipated through the body’s cooling processes e.g. evaporation.

Rate of recoveryLiver and muscle glycogen stores can be restored in 10 hours, however, complete body glycogen stores will need 24 – 48 hours though rest for full recovery.

Types of eventsMarathon, Triathlon, most Sports games e.g. rugby league, netball etc….

20


Student Activity – Energy Systems Summary

Alactacid system or ATP/PC Lactic acid system or Anaerobic glycolysis

Aerobic glycolysis system

How it works

Fuel

Efficiency of ATP production

Intensity

Duration

Cause of fatigue

By-products

Alactacid system or ATP/PC Lactic acid system or Anaerobic Aerobic glycolysis system

21


glycolysis

Recovery

Exercise type most suited for this energy system

Student Activity: Watch Video on ‘click view’:

Video title: Factors Affecting Performance: Energy Systemshttp://online.clickview.com.au/mylibrary/videos/b160adff-2522-78c3-6bb4-d0c521c85293

22


Energy Systems Summary

Student Activity - Using the information below match the correct characteristic to the appropriate energy system by cutting out it out and pasting it into the blank table on the previous page.

How it works During high intensity activity the body breaks down muscle glycogen without oxygen to form ATP. This process is called anaerobic glycolysis.

After muscular contraction ATP is broken down to form ADP. Phosphocreatine (PC) is then broken down to form creatine and phosphate, which when broken off combines with ADP to form ATP. ATP is then available for further muscular contractions.

During continuous activity the body is able to supply oxygen to working muscles. This oxygen can be used to break down muscle glycogen to form ATP. This process is called aerobic glycolysis.

Fuel Carbohydrate-foods are broken down into glucose, which can be used by the body for energy. Glucose may also be stored as glycogen in the muscles and/or the liver. A further source of fuel is fat, which can be used over longer periods of exercise.

ATP and phosphocreatine (PC) - is produced naturally in the body and acts like a bandaid to resynthesise the floating phosphate molecule to an ADP molecule, which reforms ATP

Carbohydrates are the only source of fuel in the form of muscle glycogen or blood sugar.

Efficiency of ATP production

Phosphocreatine (PC) combines immediately with ADP to resynthesise ATP. It is a very efficient process and for each molecule of PC, one molecule of ATP is produced. (1:1)

The aerobic system is the slowest but most efficient form of energy production. It utilises oxygen to metabolise muscle and liver glycogen as well as blood glucose and fatty acids. For each glucose molecule metabolised, there is 36 molecules of ATP produced. (1:36). For each fatty acid molecule metabolised 130 molecules of ATP are produced. (1:130)

The lactic acid system produces ATP very rapidly. However due to the lack of oxygen it is very inefficient. For each molecule of muscle glucose and glycogen, two molecules of ATP are produced (1:2). Note: two molecules of lactic acid are also produced.

Intensity High intensity85–95% maximum effort

Low intensity< maxVO2

Very high intensity95–100% maximum effort

Duration Duration can be virtually unlimited depending on intensity and availability of oxygen.

Has the shortest duration of the 3 systems. Will only last at < 95% intensity for 10 -12 seconds.

Depends on the level of intensity. At high intensity < 90% it has a duration of 30 - 45 seconds.

Cause of fatigue

The muscles stores of phosphocreatine are exhausted after approximately 10 seconds.

Aerobic glycolysis will continue as long as the body has sufficient levels of blood glucose, muscle glycogen or stores of energy (e.g. fat stores) which can be mobilised and used in energy production.

As the level of lactic acid builds up in the muscles it contributes to muscular fatigue and exhaustion.

By-products Lactic acid is the main by-product of this system.

Water and carbon dioxide are by-products. The body also produces heat.

No waste products.

23


Recovery As exercise slows or stops, oxygen begins to break down lactic acid and remove it from the bloodstream. Recovery may take between 20 mins to 2 hours depending on duration and intensity of exercise. A thorough warm-down after exercise will assist in lactate removal.

This system takes the longest time to recover, as fuel stores need to be replenished. After long intensive activity, it may take up to 24 - 48 hours for this to occur.

The body will naturally replace stores of phosphocreatine. After 30 seconds there is 50% recovery, after 2 minutes there is 100% recovery.

Exercise type most suited for this energy system

Athletics throwing events (javelin, shotput), jumping events (high jump), weight lifting, 100metre sprints, track cycling sprint

400 / 800 metre running, 100 / 200 metre swimming, 1000 metre time-trial (track cycling).

Marathon running, 800 / 1500 metre swimming, road cycle race.

24

Contribution of energy systems

Generally, sports performances do not rely on a single energy system to supply ATP for muscle contraction. The relative contribution of each system is determined by the type of performance. For example the phosphate energy system is by far the major contributor to short explosive bursts of energy.

The following graphs illustrate the relationship between the proportion of contributed energy and the actual performance for each of the energy systems.

N.B. The graphs are not intended to be accurate measures of statistics, but simply to indicate the kinds of relationships that exist between energy contribution and performance.

Swimming

Running

100m

200m

400

m

100m

200m

400m

800m

1500

m

Questions:1. From the table, what is the major energy system that supplies ATP for 6 secs of high intensity exercise?

Justify your answer.

2. From the table, when is the Lactic acid system the major contributor of energy for high intensity exercise?

3. At what point of time does the Aerobic system take over as the major system for fuelling high intensity exercise? What other energy system that has a minor role in supplying energy to the working muscles at this point of time?

4. Does the Aerobic system remain the major source of energy after 1 hour of relatively high intensity exercise? Explain your answer.


25

ATP

PC

Anaerobic Glycolytic

Aerobic Glycolytic

The following diagram summarises the energy input required for muscle contraction. Note the significance of the shape and length of the arrows, e.g. the phosphate system supplies large amounts of ATP for a short period of time while the aerobic system supplies smaller amounts but over a longer period.


26


27

Application:

Only two men in history have won the Olympic 400 metres and 800 metres double (in 1906 and 1976).1. Critically analyse the following table and indicate why few athletes compete in both the 400 metres and

the 800 metres at Olympic level.

Student Activity: using ALARM answer the following:

1. How do the energy systems affect performance? Consider the energy requirements of different sports and the interplay of the energy systems for different athletes. How will such factors influence training needs and ultimately performance? Use examples to illustrate your answer.

2. After completing the matrix, re-write as an extended response on separate paper and hand in to your teacher.


Que

stio

ns: H

ow d

o th

e en

ergy

syst

ems a

ffec

t per

form

ance

? C

onsi

der t

he e

nerg

y re

quire

men

ts o

f diff

eren

t spo

rts a

nd th

e in

terp

lay

of th

e en

ergy

syst

ems

for d

iffer

ent a

thle

tes.

How

will

such

fact

ors i

nflu

ence

trai

ning

nee

ds a

nd u

ltim

atel

y pe

rfor

man

ce?

Use

exa

mpl

es to

illu

stra

te y

our a

nsw

er.

Expl

ain

how

mee

ting

ener

gy n

eeds

will

affe

ct

trai

ning

?

Expl

ain

how

eac

h en

ergy

sy

stem

affe

cts p

erfo

rman

ceDe

scrib

e ea

ch e

nerg

y sy

stem

.De

fine:

W

hat a

re th

e en

ergy

sy

stem

s?

Intro

duct

ion:

Iden

tify

the

ener

gy sy

stem

s and

mak

e a

stat

emen

t abo

ut th

e be

nefit

of

trai

ning

the

ener

gy sy

stem

s to

mee

t the

nee

ds o

f the

at

hlet

es/s

port

. Cour

se C

onte

nt

Diffe

rent

ene

rgy

syst

ems f

uel

diffe

rent

spor

ts

Secti

on 1

(can

be

seve

ral

para

grap

hs)

28


Expl

ain

how

mee

ting

ener

gy n

eeds

will

affe

ct

trai

ning

?

Expl

ain

how

eac

h en

ergy

sy

stem

affe

cts p

erfo

rman

ceDe

scrib

e ea

ch e

nerg

y sy

stem

.De

fine:

W

hat a

re th

e en

ergy

sy

stem

s?

Cour

se C

onte

nt

Diffe

rent

ene

rgy

syst

ems f

uel

diffe

rent

spor

ts

Secti

on 1

(can

be

seve

ral

para

grap

hs)

29


Expl

ain

how

the

inte

rpla

y of

ene

rgy

syst

ems w

ill

influ

ence

per

form

ance

?

Conc

lusi

on: L

ink

the

body

of y

our r

espo

nse

back

to th

e qu

estio

n.

Expl

ain

how

this

inte

rpla

y aff

ects

per

form

ance

.De

scrib

e W

hat d

oes t

he in

terp

lay

of

ener

gy sy

stem

s for

a

spor

t/ev

ent l

ook

like?

Defin

e:

Wha

t doe

s thi

s mea

n?Co

urse

Con

tent

The

inte

rpla

y of

di

ffere

nt

ener

gy sy

stem

s on

diff

eren

t sp

orts

.

Secti

on 2

(can

be

seve

ral

para

grap

hs)

30


31


32


33


34


35


36


37

Glossary of Terms – Energy Systems.

Match the word to the correct definition.

Chemical energy Anaerobic Glycolysis Adenosine phosphateCreatine Phosphate Resynthesis Glycolysis AnaerobicGlycogen Lactic Acid Pyruvic Acid Aerobic Metabolism

________________________ Refers to the breakdown of fuel in the presence of oxygen to produce energy.

________________________ Refers to the process of restoring ATP to its former state.

________________________ Is the energy stored in bonds between atoms.

________________________ Is the storage form of glucose and is used for fuel when blood glucose levels decline.

________________________ Is a by-product of the incomplete breakdown of carbohydrate in the absence of oxygen.

________________________ Is a process where glucose is broken down in the absence of oxygen to produce energy.

________________________ Is an energy-rich compound that serves as an alternative energy source for muscular contraction.

________________________ Is the process of using glycogen or glucose as fuel.

________________________ Is a product formed from the breakdown of glucose.

________________________ Means that the reaction occurs in the absence of oxygen.

___________________________ Is a high energy compound that stores and transfers energy to body cells allowing them to perform their specialised functions e.g. muscle contraction.


38


39

Types of training and training methods.

Key Messages The main types of training are aerobic, anaerobic, flexibility and strength training.

Aerobic training includes continuous activities, such as running, swimming, as well as Fartlek, circuit training and long-interval training. These methods are designed to improve the efficiency of the cardiorespiratory system to deliver oxygen to working muscles.

Anaerobic training involves high-intensity, short-duration exercise (such as interval training). This method is characterised by repeated bursts over short distances at high intensity and are designed to improve the two anaerobic energy pathways.

Flexibility training encompasses four methods, static, ballistic, dynamic, and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF). The appropriate method to use depends on the specific nature of the sport or activity involved.

Strength training utilises weight and hydraulic machines or other devices, such as elastic bands or free weights, to provide resistance against which a muscle can contract. It is designed to improve the amount of force that can be exerted by the muscle during a contraction. The most commonly used method is isotonic strength training whereby the muscle length changes as weights are lifted and lowered.

Introduction:

For athletes to be prepared to perform they need to train. However, the training needs to be specific to the demands of the activity. Weight-lifters, for instance, have different training requirements from golfers; soccer players from tennis players; sprinters from endurance runners; and dancers from gymnasts.

Coaches and athletes need to understand that there are various types of training that are specifically designed to develop aerobic and anaerobic capacity, strength and flexibility, and that each is closely linked to the energy systems and principles of training. The four types of training are:

- aerobic training- anaerobic training- flexibility training- strength training.

Activity: view YouTube clip on Types of Training and training methods: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iLDtTgtJCS4


– Aerobic Training

Aerobic training uses the aerobic system as the main source of energy supply. Aerobic training should follow the FITT principle:

F – at least 3 times/weekI – 65 – 80% MHRT – at least 20 minsT- see below

It includes a number of training types (methods) including: continuous training Fartlek training aerobic interval training circuit training.

Continuous training The most common form of aerobic training. Requires the heart rate is elevated and maintained by using jogging, power walking, cycling, swimming,

aerobic floor classes, or any other form of exercise that elevates the heart rate. It should be performed continuously for a minimum of 20 minutes. Continuous training is generally of a long duration and moderate intensity: 70–85 per cent of maximum

heart rate for 30 minutes to 2 hours. The training effect might not necessarily replicate the performance requirements. In other words, it might

not be specific enough for the requirements of some sports or positions, or it might be too difficult to train at the same level as the competition requires i.e replicating marathon competition conditions at training.

Consequently, other forms of aerobic endurance training have been developed i.e. Fartlek, aerobic interval and circuit training.

Continuous training requires sustained effort.

40


41

Aerobic interval training

Interval training involves the breakdown of the training period into intervals of intense exercise or work, followed by intervals of rest or relief. In this way athletes can cover more distance at a high intensity than they could if they worked continuously. Because interval training is intense, it is a great method for improving aerobic fitness.

Explain what the following statement means - ‘athletes can cover more distance at a high intensity during interval training than they could if they worked continuously’. Use a sport as an example to help you with your response.

Two basic rationales underpin interval training. These are that such training:

• is better for adapting the nervous system to the movement patterns experienced in competition and it

• allows the athlete to exercise for a longer period of time at high intensity, thereby aiding adaptations in the aerobic metabolic systems in the muscle.

The major variables that are manipulated in interval training are time (duration), intensity, the number of repetitions and the work to rest ratio.

What sets apart aerobic interval training from anaerobic interval training, is that the rest period is shorter between the work bouts in aerobic training. The short rest period does not allow enough time for full recovery and thus maintains stress on the aerobic system.

Aerobic interval training involves moderate-duration and high-intensity ‘pace or tempo’ training: 85–90 per cent of maximum heart rate, very near to lactate threshold for 30–60 minutes in bouts of 4–10 minutes. Swimmers use this type of training regularly when they complete a series of sets while training; for example, completing five sets of 400 m every 7–8 minutes. Runners might run 1200 m then walk for half a lap then repeat the process four to five times. See diagram below.


42

Fartlek Training

is the Swedish name for Speed Play. Speed Play is a combination of continuous training and interval training in that it involves continuous effort with periods of high intensity, followed by a recovery period.

Generally the bursts of speed are usually of 5–10 seconds duration, and are repeated every 2–3 minutes.

Speed Play is usually performed over undulating terrain (such as up and down hills) and is less formalised than interval training.

The degree of aerobic versus anaerobic work is dependent on the athletes, and how they feel during the workout.

The predominant improvement is seen in aerobic capacity. Speed Play can be easily adjusted to meet the needs of most athletes, and the needs of both interval

and continuous systems. Fartlek training is good for most athletes, but is particularly beneficial for games players who are

frequently asked to sprint, stop, jog, change direction and accelerate as part of the activity.

An example of a Speed Play training session.


43

Circuit training

is an arrangement of exercises that requires the athlete to spend some time completing each exercise before moving on with limited (or no) rest between exercises.

each exercise is called a station. improves mobility and, at the same time, builds strength and stamina i.e. aerobic and anaerobic fitness. circuits can be developed to improve general fitness or can be highly specialised to meet the specific

needs of certain athletes.

One way of classifying and organising circuits is through different dosages. A dosage is how long a person spends at each station. Options include:

time dose circuits, e.g. 30 seconds at each station fixed dose circuits, e.g. 20 reps at each station partner dose circuits, e.g. participants work in pairs at each station.

In order to design a circuit for aerobic effects, research recommends the following guidelines: use lighter weights—less than 40 per cent of the one-rep maximum (1RM). extend the work period to 30–60 seconds. select exercises that use large muscle groups but do not put 2 stations side by side that work the same

muscle group. intersperse aerobic activities (run, step-ups, bike, skip) with resistance stations that uses free/fixed

weights, elastic resistance exercises or the use of hydraulic machines if available.

The training goal may also be to improve technique and develop muscular endurance. In this case, a 45-second work/15-second recovery, or a 30-second work/30-second recovery cycle may be incorporated.

Some advantages of incorporating circuits into your training are that: you can cater for large numbers of participants workload is quantifiable (in terms of weight lifted or repetitions performed) competition is indirect—each person can work to their own capacity less fit participants feel less conspicuous you can provide a high volume of training in a short amount of time.

Fitness centres often use circuits through providing machines that offer resistance to a variety of major muscle groups. The resistance can be varied. Exercises using these machines can be interspersed with some of the other exercises like sit-ups, star jumps, step-ups, chin ups. Individual resistance circuits at gymnasiums are usually performed to music, and a buzzer signifies when it is time to move on to the next station.


44

A typical conditioning circuit.

Activity: Choose a sport and in small groups, design a circuit training course that develops aerobic endurance, strength and skills. Use the proforma below.


45


46

Anaerobic training

Anaerobic training involves activities requiring the use of the two anaerobic energy pathways i.e. ATP/PC & Lactic acid systems, as the major supply of energy. This means that the activities undertaken need to have a very high intensity, with most activities being undertaken with a heart rate in excess of 85 per cent of its maximum level.

An effective of training for anaerobic fitness is through the use of short intervals – anaerobic interval training.

Anaerobic intervals: generally range between 10 seconds and 2 minutes, with a work to rest ratio of 1:3, meaning for

every 10 seconds you work you rest for 30 seconds. the rest component of interval training, also known as the relief interval, may mean just that (sitting

and stretching following the activity) or it may involve some gentle work (such as walking or slow jogging). These ratios can be seen in Table 5.6.

The intervals are performed in sets of repetitions that are designed to overload the anaerobic energy systems.

Maximal effort repetitions (those lasting for 10 seconds or less) are designed to improve the ATP-PC stores within the muscles.

Slightly longer efforts (those lasting up to 2 minutes) use the lactic acid energy system and aims to improve the body’s tolerance to lactic acid within the blood stream. There is not enough time for all the lactic acid to be removed from the body between repetitions and sets. Therefore, the body will be working with higher levels of lactate in the blood, which will lead to improved tolerance over time.

Anaerobic interval training is used by many team sports to develop speed and this type of training is evident several weeks leading into the season. While the focus on aerobic training is during the pre-season preparation.


47

Activity: Using table 5.6., outline an anaerobic training program for a sprinter and another for an 800m runner.


48

Flexibility

Definition: is the ability of joints to bend, stretch and twist through a range of motion without injury.

Each joint has a specific range of motion. This range varies from person to person—with elite performers displaying better flexibility than those who are inactive.

Flexibility is important in:

• preventing injuries and muscle soreness• improving the body’s mechanical efficiency• increasing the ability of muscles to stretch• improving coordination among muscle groups• improving the relaxation of muscles• reducing the tightening of muscles after performance• counteracting the restricting effects of muscle growth resulting from resistance training .

The four types of stretching (methods) that are used in a flexibility program are:

1. Static Silent2. Ballistic But Acronym3. Dynamic Deadly4. PNF – Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation Pollution

Although stretching is vital to increase flexibility, it must be done carefully so as not to activate the ‘stretch reflex’, which is an involuntary muscle contraction that prevents fibre damage if muscles are lengthened beyond their normal range. To avoid muscle strains and tears, muscles must be stretched slowly, and stretches must be held in a pain-free position after a suitable general warm-up.

1. Static Stretching: involves holding, without bouncing, a stretched position at the end of a movement for a short period of time (15 – 20 secs). At this point there should be a feeling that the muscle is being stretched, but there is no pain or discomfort. Static stretching enhances joint mobility, improves performance and reduces the likelihood of injury.

2. Dynamic or Active or Range of Movement (ROM) Stretching: uses movement speed together with momentum to imitate movements specific to performance.

- It aims to gradually warm up muscle groups that cross over joints through gentle repetition of the types of movements that will be experienced in the performance, with a gradual increase in the range of movement.

- An example of dynamic stretching is arm circling used to warm up the shoulder for cricket bowling or for swimming; or swinging a golf club just before making a shot.

- It is not as safe as static stretching or PNF stretching due to tension that is exerted by specific movements on muscles across the joint. However, many prefer to use it just prior to a game because its movements simulate those required in the game.

Alternate toe touchingArm swinging


49

3. Ballistic Stretching :- involves a bouncing action at the end of the range of movement. Due to the force of the stretch, the

stretch reflex comes into play and places great pressure on the muscle fibres, increasing the risk of injury.

- can be useful for elite athletes or in performances where ballistic and explosive actions are required. In these cases it should form part of the third stage of warm-up after a general warm-up, a static stretch period and an active stretch period.

- E.g. touching toes to stretch the hamstrings by using bouncing movements. On each movement, the athlete attempts to touch the toes/ground using gravity and bodyweight to assist in the stretch.

4. PNF (Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation) Stretching: - involves lengthening a muscle against a resistance usually provided by another person. It is a static

stretch followed by an isometric contraction held for 6 secs (where a muscle develops force or tension without changing length), then another static stretch. This action is repeated 3 – 4 cycles.

- Research has shown that PNF Stretching can significantly improve flexibility of an individual when compared to other stretching techniques. This has emerged from the field of rehabilitation. It is based on two guiding principles:• A muscle can relax better after it has undergone a maximum isometric contraction as its resistance to stretching is reduced.• A muscle becomes stronger if its antagonist is isometrically contracted immediately beforehand.

When using PNF Stretching: allow the stretching to fully relax the muscle immediately after the isometric contraction warm-up before the PNF is attempted gradually increase the effort when completing the isometric contraction.

Types of Stretching Advantages Disadvantages

Static

Less likely to activate stretch reflex

Lowest risk of injury Most effective for permanent

muscle lengthening

Doesn’t increase temperatures or blood flow in muscle tissue

Doesn’t increase flexibility through a full range of movement

Takes time

Dynamic – suited for dancing, swimming, aerobics

Increases temp of muscle which helps produce stronger and faster muscle contractions

Increases blood flow to muscle, which brings more oxygen and gets rid of lactic acid to help muscles work longer.

Stretches the major muscles that cross over a joint

Stretches the full range of movement.

Produces smaller overall increase in muscle length

Ballistic Mimics fast and powerful

movements used in sports. Increases muscle temp and

blood flow

Increased risk of injury during stretches i.e. micro and macro tears in muscles and can cause rupture of muscle tendons

Extensive use decreases flexibility due to constant injuries and the activation of the stretch reflex.

Results are short lived.

PNF

Encourages muscle inhibition that allows muscle relaxation needed for safe stretching.

Develops a range of motion Assists in rehabilitation

Requires the help of a partner who understands the correct procedure

Requires additional apparatus e.g. elasto band.


50


51

Activity: Indicate the method of stretching for each diagram below:

e.g. PNF


52

Strength Training

Definition: is the ability of muscles to exert force.

The greatest force that muscles can exert in a single maximal effort is said to be the performer’s absolute strength. There is a close relationship between strength and sports performance.

To develop strength, resistance must be applied to muscles as they contract. Often strength training is called resistance training. This resistance can take the form of:

the person’s own body weight• barbells or dumb-bells• weight machine systems• hydraulic resistance machines• elastic bands• water (such as swimming or aquarobics)• pulleys or levers.

Different sporting activities involve different forms of resistance and require different types of resistance training. A swimmer encounters resistance in the water while swimming, but this type of strength training is vastly different from the training undertaken by a shot putter who needs to lift very heavy weights in a fast, explosive manner.

Terminology for Strength Training

the number of times an exercise is repeated without rest.

the number of groups of repetitions of a particularexercise.

the amount of weight used as a load.

the maximum number of repetitions that can be completed with a given resistance before fatigue becomes apparent; for example, ‘6 RM’ is performed when only six repetitions can be completed, and not seven.

the time necessary for the muscle to recover after periods of overload.

the ability for a muscle to repeatedly contract against a given resistance and reduce fatigue.

the ability for the muscle to exert force over a distance in a short time.

a partner who helps with an athlete’s exercises.

occur when tension is developed in the muscle while the muscle is lengthening.

occur when tension is developed within the muscle as the muscle shortens during contraction.

occur when tension is developed within the muscle but there is no change in muscle length during the contraction.


53

Word Bank

Rest Repetition Maximum (RM) Sets Resistance Spotter

Repetitions Endurance Power Eccentric Contractions

Concentric Contractions Isometric Contractions

Why do improvements occur after strength training?

Strength improves because; there is an increase in the size of muscle fibres (hypertrophy). This allows for a greater force to be produced

during a maximal contraction. Also, connective tissues (such as tendons and ligaments) are strengthened, which makes the athlete more able to resist injury.

it maximises the number of muscle fibres working to produce a movement and to coordinate the timing of their contraction. This allows the muscle to produce greater force. Therefore, strength can be enhanced through adaptations within the muscle and within the nervous system.

Resistance training can be used in numerous ways to obtain gains in the following:• strength —the ability to exert force• power —the ability to exert force in a short period of time• endurance —the ability of the muscle to repeatedly contract against a resistance• muscular bulk—an increase in muscle tissue leading to an increase in muscle size• aerobic conditioning—the capacity of the heart and lungs to pump blood to working muscles.

Table 5.7 highlights how resistance training can be used to develop different forms of strength.


54

There are a number of principles that you need to be aware of when considering the type of strength and method you use in its development.

• Target specific muscle groups. Only those muscles that encounter the resistance will benefit from the work.

• Progressive overload. The load (resistance) needs to be progressively increased as adaptations take place.

• Volume. Lifting more by increasing the number of days on which you train or the amount per session is of benefit to a point. Care needs to be taken to avoid injury and overtraining, and to allow periods of time for muscles to rest.

• Variety. Using different methods (free weights/machine weights), changing muscle groups, introducing new exercises and utilising a circuit format adds interest and enhances motivation.

• Rest. Allow rest between sets. The amount varies according to your program aims, such as power or endurance.

• Repetition speed. To increase power, perform repetitions quickly. Focusing on strength or bulk necessitates slower speeds.

• Repetition numbers. Generally, absolute strength is developed by low repetitions (3–8), anaerobic strength endurance by medium range repetitions (10–20) and aerobic strength endurance by high range repetitions (20–40 or more).

• Recovery. Train every second day to allow muscles to recover. If training each day, target different muscle groups to those of the previous day.

Muscles will contract in different ways depending on the type of training and the method used. A muscle will either shorten or lengthen when undergoing a resistance program. Types of muscular actions are:

• Isometric: A force is applied but there is little or no change in length of the muscle and its fibres. The strength is specific to certain angles. Therefore, coaches need to select angles that are specific to the sport for which the person is training. Sports that require the same position to be held for some time (such as downhill skiing, judo and gymnastics) will particularly benefit from isometric training.

Pushing or pulling at the weights bar will cause an isometric contraction.


55

• Isotonic: Muscle fibres shorten or lengthen depending on the exercise and whether it is the agonist or antagonist muscle in the exercise. For example, in biceps curl, the biceps shortens in a concentric contraction while the triceps lengthens in an eccentric contraction. The weight is a constant load; that is, the weight does not change as it is moved through a range of motion. But the tension developed within the muscle changes as it moves through the range of motion. Although isotonic training is effective, it cannot create the same tension within a muscle through its entire range of motion. This makes it only partially effective.

• Isokinetic: The use of machines to ensure the weight is applied through the full range of motion. Because maximal tension is developed throughout the entire range of motion, a muscle contracted isokinetically is comprehensively fatigued. For this reason, it is the most effective form of training for the development of muscular strength. The machines used are elaborate in their design to ensure exercise is done correctly and are very expensive.

Eccentric – with gravityConcentric – against gravity


56


57

Activity: Assess the relevance of the types of training and training methods for a variety of sports by completing the following table. Indicate by ticking the appropriate boxes and then proceed to answer the questions.

Sport: Basketball Type of training

Method of training Aerobic Continuous Fartlek Aerobic Interval Circuit Anaerobic Anaerobic Interval Flexibility Static Dynamic Ballistic PNF Strength Free weights Fixed weights Elastic Hydraulic Justify your choices:

How would this training affect performance?

Sport: Triathlon Type of training




58

Activity: Assess the relevance of the types of training and training methods for a variety of sports by completing the following table. Indicate by ticking the appropriate boxes.

Sport: Type of training



Sport: Type of training




Assess the relevance of types of training and training methods for a variety of sports by asking such questions such as: (RHS syllabus)

– What type of training is best suited for different sports?– Which training method(s) would be most appropriate? Why?– How would this training method affect performance?

Write a response to the above statement. You can use the information from the tables on pages 58 & 59 to help formulate your response. Use the space below to draft your answer. Hand in your final product to your teacher on

separate paper. You may wish to use ALARM to draft your response.

59


60


61

Principles of training

Key Messages Progressive overload implies that the load needs to be slowly increased as we become

accustomed to the existing level of resistance to bring about further improvements. Specificity focuses on the replication between what is done in training to what is required in the

performance or game. Reversibility implies that fitness, strength and flexibility improvements will be lost as training

ceases. The principle of variety suggests that the training program needs to include a range of activities

to ensure that motivation remains high. A threshold is a starting point for a new state or experience and in regards to exercise often

relates to intensity of performance. The lowest level of intensity that will produce a training effect is the aerobic threshold. The highest level is the anaerobic threshold. The zone between the thresholds is the training zone, the area where we need to be working to improve aerobic performance.

Warm up and cool down are essential to any training program, and particularly for the prevention of injury.


Introduction

A major objective of training is to improve performance. The body has the ability to respond to physiological and environmental stressors and to adapt to them. This adaptation occurs over time and with practice and often leads to improved performance. However, the quality of training is very much dependent on our understanding of its anticipated benefits. Effective training requires the implementation of a number of important principles. If these ‘principles of training’ are ignored or disregarded, then the rewards i.e imporved performance, will not match the effort.

The principles of training are: Progressive overload - Reversibility

Specificity - Specificity

Reversibility - Variety

Variety OR - Progressive overload

Training thresholds - Training Thresholds

Warm-up and cool-down - Warm-up and

- Cool downN.B. Terminology to be familiar with:

Maximal Effort: refers to exercise at the highest intensity possible, which can only be maintained for a short period of time (such as sprinting).

Sub-maximal effort refers to exercise at a rate less than maximal intensity, which can be maintained for a longer period of time e.g. 20 minutes(such as jogging, lap swimming, road cycling).

Rest: is a state where no extra demands are placed on the body. Energy requirements are for the maintenance of normal bodily functions, such as breathing, heartbeat and digestion. This minimal level of energy is known as our basal metabolic rate.

It is often impossible to make an all-out effort for an extended period of time. Therefore, it is useful to use tests of sub-maximal intensity in order to predict maximal intensity.

Reversibility

Unfortunately most of the benefits gained from participating in a training program are quickly lost once training has stopped. This is known as the principle of reversibility. The old saying, ‘ use it or lose it’, is relevant to this principle.

What situations may cause reversibility?

Reversibility is evident in aerobic and anaerobic fitness, power, strength, muscular endurance and flexibility. After only one to two weeks of stopping or reducing training, significant physiological reductions can occur. Developing a maintenance program that is designed to maintain (but not improve) training levels can halt (or reduce) the degree of fitness lost. Many athletes engage in such a program during the off -season to maintain their fitness until the next season begins.

62


63

Specificity


64

Homework activity: Refer to your Homework booklet and complete Sample exam question2 on page 4.


65

VarietyTo become proficient at most sports, athletes need to train for many hours every week and over a number of years. This training can often become repetitious and boring, especially if the training is for endurance-type events or for activities involving few technical skills; for example, swimming, running or cross-country skiing. Astute coaches and athletes will vary training sessions to minimise the boredom. Unlike overload, variety of training is not absolutely necessary to improve performance. Variety does make training more interesting and fun, however, while achieving training goals.

Training programs should take into account the individual athlete’s current fitness level, injuries, interests, needs and skill level. Different training methods will be appropriate for different circumstances; for example, for an athlete recovering from an injury or for a young performer.

Some examples of variety in training include:• warm-ups using similar sports; for example, netball at touch football training• group or paired training sessions to provide a change in routine.

The key is to achieve the original training goals while maintaining interest.

Question: Suggest some activities that could offer a swim squad apart from lap swimming, which would still be of benefit to the athletes.


66

Progressive overload

Some examples of application of overload are listed below.

• Aerobic training — application of the overload principle is reflected in the heart’s ability to pump more blood to the working muscles (increased cardiac output) and the ability of the working muscles to take up more of the oxygen as it is delivered to the cells (increasedoxygen uptake).


67

• Strength training — application of the overload principle results in an increase in the cross-sectional area of a muscle, commonly called muscle hypertrophy. This is usually directly related to anincrease in strength.

If there is no overload, the rate of improvement decreases and performance plateaus.

It should be noted that not all adaptations take place at the same rate. This is illustrated in figure 5.30. In endurance programs, the load (height of the step) needs to be small and the adaptations (length ofthe step) take place slowly (figure 5.30a). In other words, gains are made over a longer period of time. Fastest gains are made in flexibility programs where progressive increases in loads produce small adaptations (figure 5.30b). The loads need to be less for peak strengthdevelopment, but the adaptations are more significant (figure 5.30c).

Figure 5.30: An appropriate training load must be applied for

adaptations to be maximised.


68


69

Training Thresholds

Training thresholds offer an explanation for the complex physiological changes that occur in the body in producing or maximising the training effect. When we train, we expect an improvement in our physical condition. However, for improvement to occur, no matter how small, we must work at a level of intensity that causes our bodies to respond in a particular way. These changes are called adaptations or fitness gains. The magnitude of improvement is approximately proportional to the threshold level at which we work.

Training thresholds are usually explained in terms of the maximum heart rate in relation to the volume of oxygen uptake (VO2). During exercise, the following three factors become important in relation to training thresholds:

• heart rate—the rate at which the heart beats is usually measured in beats per minute (bpm)• ventilation—the amount of air breathed in one minute• blood lactate—the by-product of the lactic acid system.

All these increase in proportion to the intensity of exercise.

The lowest level at which we can work and still make some fitness gains is called the training threshold or aerobic threshold. An untrained athlete’s aerobic threshold will be around 70% maximum heart rate (MHR) or 50 – 60% maximum oxygen uptake (maxVO2). A trained athlete’s aerobic threshold will be 80% MHR or 60 – 85% maxVO2.

It is important to mention here, that even at rest there is a small amount of lactic acid being produced through normal cellular processes and therefore, the aerobic threshold can be defined as the training rate at which the baseline lactic acid level starts to rise. At this level of exercise, the person can conduct a conversation comfortably. This sudden rise in lactic acid represents an increasing reliance on the anaerobic energy system,

Thresholds generally refer to a specific point that, when passed, take the person to a new level.


70

The uppermost level an athlete can exercise without feeling the detrimental effects of lactic acid is known as the anaerobic threshold or the lactic inflection point (LIP) , a point at which further effort will result in lactic acid accumulation and fatigue and therefore, a deterioration of performance.

The point at which lactate begins to accumulate can be referred to as the lactate threshold (LT) or onset of blood lactate concentration (OBLA). It is important for athletes and coaches to know their LT or OBLA. This information can help to place athletes in specific endurance events. It is a better indicator of aerobic endurance performance than is max VO2, and it can determine training intensities for optimal improvements in aerobic endurance. The major limitations of using LT to improve performance are:

• It is difficult to measure.• It requires blood tests and takes a long time.• There is no real proven benefit in training at this level.• Athletes differ in their rates of reaching LT.

In relation to training thresholds, it is important for an athlete to train in the aerobic training zone, (i.e. between the aerobic and anaerobic thresholds). The implication of training thresholds for;

aerobic training is that the efficiency of the cardiorespiratory system is improved if the athlete works closer to the anaerobic threshold than the aerobic threshold. Working at this level increases the capacity and functioning of the cardiovascular system and the athlete’s ability to tolerate inevitable rises in performance crippling lactic acid.

strength training — bigger gains in strength are made as resistance is progressively increased. If training for absolute strength, the threshold is represented by a high resistance or load ensuring that only a few repetitions can be completed. If training for strength endurance, the threshold is represented in terms of quantity, with a high number of repetitions being required to effectively challenge the threshold.


71

Inquiry:

Examine figure 5.32. on page 51.

How have lactate levels and heart rate changed in response to moving from resting state to the anaerobic threshold?

Why would continuous training above the anaerobic threshold be detrimental to aerobic endurance?


72

Warm-up & cool down

The warm up involves warming the body up to prepare it for upcoming activity. Warm up helps to raise body temperature, increase blood flow to the working muscles and reduce the likelihood of soft tissue injury. It also helps mentally prepare the athlete for the training session.

A warm up should include 3 stages:

General warm up - gentle use of large muscle groups. A general indication that the body is adequately warm is the appearance of a slight sweat on the forehead.

Stretching - major muscle groups to be used. Each stretch should be held (without bouncing) for a period of 10–30 seconds. This is followed by a similar routine in which the specific muscles that will be used are also stretched, and then also held (without bouncing) for a period of 10–30 seconds. Some dynamic stretching has also been shown to be useful in preparing muscles for training or performance.

Specific warm up - practising performance-like activities which will raise heart rate and warm up muscles, ligaments and tendons that will be used in the performance. It should also include skills that will be used. This will help activate motor neurons required for the performance.

Cool DownAt the conclusion of training a cool down is done to allow the body time to return blood to the heart, rather than let the blood pool in muscles and hinder the recovery. This involves a gradual reduction intensity of exercise and specific stretching exercise.


73

Activity: watch YouTube clip: Training Strategies – Principles of Traininghttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xyw-Llv4mxQ

Homework:


74

Applying the Principles of Training – Analyse how the principles of training can be applied to both aerobic and resistance (strength) training. (RHS of syllabus)

The basic principles of training can be applied, in varying degrees, to all types of training, including aerobic, anaerobic, strength or flexibility. However, the syllabus indicates that the principles of training are to be applied to only aerobic and resistance, (strength), training.

Using the table below, propose ways in which the principles of training can be applied to aerobic and strength training. Some parts of the table have already been completed. Suggest related sports that rely heavily on aerobic training as well as strength training.

Activity: Complete the table below to explore the application of the principles of training to aerobic and strength training by using the website: HSC online: http://hsc.csu.edu.au/pdhpe/core2/focus2/focus1/4007/2-1-3/fac2_1_3.htm

TRAINING PRINCIPLES AEROBIC TRAINING STRENGTH TRAINING

Progressive overload

Specificity

Reversibility


75

TRAINING PRINCIPLES AEROBIC TRAINING STRENGTH TRAINING

Variety

Training thresholds

Warm up and cool down


76

Decreases boredom and encourages participation at training through incorporating variety in warm-up activities, skill practices, fitness activities, training environment etc.


77

Physiological adaptations in response to training.

Key Messages

All training is undertaken with the goal of causing the body to adapt. These adaptations assist in improving an athlete's performance.

Long-term aerobic training causes adaptations to heart function. Heart rate decreases, and stroke volume and cardiac output are increased.

Aerobic training increases the body's ability to deliver and use greater amounts of oxygen and therefore contributes significantly to improved aerobic efficiency.

Aerobic training improves haemoglobin levels as the volume of blood in the body increases. Muscle hypertrophy is a positive response to training, with fast-twitch fibres being slightly more

responsive than slow-twitch fibres.

IntroductionWhen people undertake any type of training their main aim is to change some aspect of their body so that their performance improves. Whether they are undertaking strength training, aerobic training or anaerobic training or attempting to increase their flexibility, the process of training leads to changes in the body. These changes can influence future performances.

Many of the changes occur to the cardiorespiratory system and lead to an improved ability to deliver oxygen to working muscles, more efficient energy production and a greater ability to remove waste products. Other changes relate to the size and recruitment of the muscle fibres that produce the movements required when performing physical activity.

Physiological adaptations are those adaptations that are experienced by the body following specific types of training and these adaptations can lead to improved performance.

Physiological adaptations that are responses to training are to the following:

- Resting heart rate- Stroke volume and cardiac output- Oxygen up0take and lung capacity - acronym: can you think of one?- Haemoglobin level- Muscle hypertrophy- Effect on fast / slow twitch fibres.

Acronym:

Activity: watch you tube clip: Physiological Adaptations to Training http://youtube.com/watch?v=jjxxNhuR1Ac


78

- Resting heart rate

Definition:Is the number of beats of the heart needed to deliver sufficient oxygen to the body cells per minute at rest and the amount of oxygen required is determined by the basal metabolic rate of the individual.

When an athlete undertakes an aerobic training program, the heart will undergo significant changes as a result and will lead to a decrease of the number of beats that it needs to deliver the same amount of oxygen to cells. Therefore, an aerobic training program will make the heart adapt to these changes, making it more efficient in oxygen delivery resulting in a decrease in resting heart rate. These adaptations will also allow a lower heart rate when participating in sub- maximal work.

For example, a sedentary person with a resting heart rate of 72 bpm can expect it to reduce by about one bpm each week for the first few months of training. After 10 weeks of endurance training, the resting heart rate of the same subject should decrease from 72 to about 60 bpm. Highly conditioned endurance athletes have resting heart rates below 40 bpm and some are less than 30 bpm.

Figure 5.34 illustrates the benefits of a training program on heart rate. The most appreciable difference is evident in the recovery period. Figure 5.35 illustrates the difference between trained and untrained individuals at rest and during maximal exercise.

From Figure 5.35 it can be seen that there is not a great difference in maximum heart rate between the untrained and trained athlete.

But what does it say about when maximum heart rate is reached for the untrained athlete in relation to when the trained athlete reaches max HR?

Who can participate at maximal effort for a longer period of time? Untrained or trained athlete?


79

Stroke Volume & Cardiac Output

Definition of Stroke Volume (SV):

Definition of Cardiac Output (Q):

Equation for Cardiac Output:

Stroke volume is determined by a number of factors associated with the heart. These include the:

• size of the ventricles• thickness of the ventricle walls• flow of blood through the veins back to the heart• volume of blood in the body.

Aerobic training has a positive effect on stroke volume, therefore increasing the individual’s potential to improve aerobically. Training causes the following:

The heart and ventricles to increase in physical size The ventricular walls become thicker and stronger

That is, if stroke volume was 72 millimetres per beat prior to undertaking an aerobic training program this could be increased to 90 millimetres following a program. This increased stroke volume leads to higher cardiac output, more blood going to working muscles and improved performance in endurance events.

Stroke volume increases at rest as well as when the athletes undertakes sub-maximal exercise but because resting heart rate and heart rate at sub-maximal exercise also decreases, there is no change in cardiac output.At maximum levels the increased stroke volume will lead to a large increase in cardiac output. It is this ability to deliver more blood to working muscles that improves performance for an individual following training.

These two factors allow more blood to enter the heart as it is now bigger and the stronger walls allow much more of the blood to be ejected each time a beat occurs.

+An increase in blood volume, lower blood pressure and an improved ability to move blood through the veins back to the heart

=A rise of 25 per cent in stroke volume that can be achieved through aerobic training.


80

- Cardiac Output

Cardiac output reflects the ability of the heart to deliver oxygen-rich blood to working muscles. This oxygen enables the aerobic energy system to produce ATP and therefore to maintain movement.

During rest and sub-maximal work, undertaking an aerobic training program does not change cardiac output results. This is because the energy demands are unchanged and the same amount of blood (oxygen) is required.

The biggest change occurs during maximal exercise. As the maximum heart rate will be the same for a trained or untrained individual (that is, 220 – age), the greater stroke volume will lead to an increase in the cardiac output. It follows that the trained athlete achieves a considerably higher CO not from heart rate, but as a direct result of a huge increase in stroke volume.

Table 5.8 shows us how a trained individual is able to deliver more blood to the working muscles: 19 litres per minute after training compared with 16.5 litres per minute before. This change is what has improved the individual’s potential following a training program.

Figure 5.37: Changes in cardiacoutput with endurance training(Source: E Fox, RW Bowers andM Foss, ibid., p. 250.)


81

- Oxygen Uptake & Lung Capacity

Definition of Oxygen uptake:

Definition of Lung capacity:

The ability of the body to move oxygen into the blood stream and remove carbon dioxide from it is not only determined by the heart and its functioning. The size of the lungs and the ability of the blood to absorb and carry the oxygen to the working muscles are also important aspects of performance.

Oxygen uptake The most significant improvements in response to aerobic training are in oxygen uptake (VO2). The body

consumes only small amounts of oxygen at rest but increases as exercise increases to meet the demands of the working muscles.

Maximal oxygen uptake, or VO2 max, is regarded as the best indicator of cardiorespiratory endurance because it indicates the maximal amount of oxygen that muscles can absorb and use at that level of work.

VO2max can be measured by using tests such as bicycle ergometry in the lab, or the multistage fitness test, or the 12 minute run or the Queens College step test.

An aerobic training program leading to a high VO2 max indicates a superior oxygen delivery system and contributes to outstanding endurance performance. Most tests that measure VO2 max are able to take account of individual differences e.g. gender, age. Generally men and younger people have a higher VO2 max than females and older people respectively.


82

As discussed earlier, VO2 max does not change at rest or during sub-maximal exercise. During maximal efforts, the difference in oxygen uptake can be shown.

Before training an individual may have a max VO2 of 2.5 litres per minute. After training this figure may rise to 3.2 litres per minute.

Once again, the rise in the ability to deliver oxygen to the working muscles causes the improvement in performance after training.

An untrained athlete involved in an 12 week aerobic training program, will show greater improvements in VO2 max than a trained athlete undertaking a similar aerobic training program.

Oxygen uptake improves following a training program for the following reasons:- increase in stroke volume and cardiac output- increase in lung capacity- higher haemoglobin levels- increase in mitochondria size & numbers – these use O2 to supply energy to working muscles.

The Queens College Step Test is a sub-maximal test for VO2 max, whereas, the treadmill test is a maximal test for VO2 max. Which test would provide more accurate readings for VO2 max? Give your reasons.


83

– Lung Capacity

The basic principle that needs to be understood is that the greater the volume of air that can be inhaled and exhaled during exercise the greater the amount of oxygen that can be absorbed into the blood stream. More oxygen leads to improved performance during aerobic work.

Four adaptations associated with lung capacity as a result of aerobic training are:maximal breathing rates can increase from 40 to 50 breaths per second as fitness develops due to the

muscles around the lungs becoming larger and stronger allowing the lungs to work faster. the size of the lungs increases slightly, which allows for a greater volume of oxygen to be inhaled and

carbon dioxide to be exhaled per breath. As the muscles are stronger a greater amount of the air inside the lungs can be exhaled each breath, leading to a greater turnover of the air as well.

the total amount of air breathed during exercise can increase as a result of training. The increase in lung size and the ability to breathe faster and more fully, allows pulmonary ventilation (the total volume of air moving through the lungs) to increase by up to 15 litres per minute.

the number of capillaries in the lungs will increase with training, allowing more oxygen to be absorbed with each breath taken in. In fact, with training, the volume of blood held within the capillaries of the lungs can rise by up to 80 per cent.

– Haemoglobin LevelHaemoglobin is a protein found within red blood cells. It absorbs oxygen quickly from the lungs and transports it to the working muscles via the blood. It is also

responsible for removing of CO2 from the working muscles, but this function is not as important as the delivering of O2.

When training takes place, cells within the body become short of oxygen. One of the ways the body adapts to this is to produce more red blood cells and haemoglobin. This allows the needs of these cells to be more easily met. While it is not a large increase, it will improve the ability of the individual to absorb and deliver oxygen to working muscles and this will improve performance in aerobic events.

Many athletes try to boost their haemoglobin level through altitude training. The greater the distance from sea level the lower the amount of oxygen in the air. As a result, the cells in the body receive less oxygen. This causes the body to produce more haemoglobin so that the body can absorb any oxygen breathed. The same effect has been achieved by some athletes who spend time in tents that limit the supply of oxygen and produce the same effect as climbing in altitude.

– Muscle hypertrophy Muscle hypertrophy refers to the increase in the diameter of a muscle; that is, ‘bulking up’. This occurs as a result of strength or resistance training and, unlike the adaptations discussed above, not as

a result of aerobic training.

Muscles fibres enlarge after training due to a number of reasons. These include:o the production of more myofibrils (the contractile part of the muscle). o The fibres also enlarge due to the increased stores of glycogen and the energy supplying

compounds of ATP and phosphocreatine (PC). Muscle hypertrophy will occur if an athlete lifts medium to heavy weights during training, such as training

for strength, power or a lean body mass. The heavier weights being lifted will cause the muscles to undergo a significant amount of stress. This

enlarges them so that the next time they work they are better prepared for the task; that is, they have adapted.


84

As with other adaptations that occur as a result of training hypertrophy takes time to develop, an reversibility (muscular atrophy) will occur when training ceases.

Muscular endurance training (lifting light weights a large number of times) will assist in reducing the level of fat around the muscle and this will lead to muscular definition but not muscular hypertrophy.

After undertaking a resistance training program, muscles are capable of contracting with a greater force as more myofibrils are contributing to the contraction. This will improve performance in strength-related and power-related sports, such as throwing and sprinting.

- Effect on fast / slow twitch fibres

There are two types of muscle fibre:

• slow-twitch muscle fibres (ST) or red fibres or type I fibres contract slowly and for long periods of time. They are recruited for endurance-type activity such as marathons.

• fast-twitch muscle fibres (FT) or white fibres or type II fibres reach peak tension quickly and are recruited for power and explosive movements such as throwing and lifting.

The amount of each type of fibre in a muscle will depend on the normal function and use of the muscle. A long-distance runner may have up to 75 per cent of muscles as slow-twitch muscle fibre, while sprinters

may have up to 80 per cent fast-twitch muscle fibre. Undertaking training that is specific to the requirements of your sport will assist in the development and

adaptation of each of the muscle fibre types. The development of slow-twitch muscle fibres is enhanced through participation in endurance-type

activities, such as running, swimming and cycling. These activities encourage the creation of capillaries inside the muscle cells. This allows a greater transfer of oxygen into these muscles when they are working. This type of activity can also result in some fast-twitch muscle fibres being transformed into fibres that utilise oxygen to provide energy. The development of these muscle cells leads to improvements in aerobic endurance and higher levels of performance in events such as triathlon and road cycling.

Sports such as weightlifting and other power events, including jumping and sprinting, require the development of fast-twitch muscle fibres. These fibres can be trained by undertaking the same type of training that creates muscular power; that is, lifting medium to heavy weights quickly.


85

For example, 100-metre sprinters will train the fast-twitch muscle fibres in their legs by undertaking power squats in which they jump off the ground at the conclusion.

This type of training will not only increase the capacity of the fast-twitch cells already present in the muscle but will cause some of the red muscle fibres to transform into white fast-twitch fibre.

By increasing the volume of this type of muscle fibre, future contractions can be made more quickly and anaerobic sources of energy will be utilised for longer.

Complete the table below indicating a summary of the physiological adaptations in response to training.

Adaptation Consequence

Heart rate (HR) Decreased resting and sub maximal HR Heart works less—is more efficient

Stroke volume Increased at rest, and in sub maximal and maximal exercise

Cardiac output More blood and oxygen delivered to the muscles

Oxygen uptake Increased capillaries, myoglobin and mitochondria

Increased enzyme activity

More oxygen delivered Muscles can extract more oxygen from

the blood which is then available for ATP production

Lung capacity Increased oxygen transport and removal of carbon dioxide

Haemoglobin Increased

Muscle hypertrophy Increased strength and power

Muscle fibres Increased power output before fatigue more ATP available at start of exercise Greater strength and power


86

Inquiry Athlete case studies:

Read the case studies on Lance Armstrong and Cadel Evans. Identify the physiological reasons why these athletes have achieved performances far better than their competitors. Present the information in a table or diagram.


87


88


89

- Examine the relationship between the principles of training, physiological adaptations and improved performance (RHS of syllabus).

The principles of training are crucial to improving performance, whether the event predominantly relies on aerobic, anaerobic, strength or flexibility training or a combination of these types of training. By applying the principles of training to the training program of the athlete, this will ensure that the athlete will:

- reduce the risk of experiencing reversibility - ensure that the activities will be specific to the athletes energy requirements, muscles used and to the

movements used in the performance- be exposed to a variety of activities, equipment and environments to encourage motivation and decrease

boredom of the athlete- be progressively overloaded to further stress the athlete’s body, encouraging physiological adaptations to

result- train at the threshold specific to the needs of the athlete- be involved in a warm-up and cool down regime that will assist the body in preparing for training as well as,

for recovery at the end of training.

By administering the principles of training to the type of training the athlete is working towards, this will create the opportunity for the athlete to partake in a training program that will eventually lead to the athlete developing physiological adaptations to such factors as resting HR, stroke volume & cardiac output, VO2max & lung capacity, haemoglobin levels, muscle hypertrophy and to fast / slow twitch muscle fibres.

Activity: Use the following list of questions to examine the relationship between principles of training, physiological adaptations and improved performance.

1. What type of performance is best improved by aerobic training?

2. What type of performance is best improved by anaerobic training?

3. What principles are most important in causing a training effect in predominately aerobic performances? Justify your answer.

4. What principles are most important in causing a training effect in predominately anaerobic performances? Justify your answer.


90

5. Use sporting examples to analyse the importance of:

(a) overload in developing muscle hypertrophy

(b) training thresholds in improving stroke volume and cardiac output

(c) specificity in improving oxygen uptake

(d) reversibility on resting heart rate

(e) variety on haemoglobin levels]

(f) warm-up and cool-down on lung capacity.


91


92


93

hayleydean1.files.wordpress.com€¦ · Web viewCardiac output reflects the ability of the heart...

Documents

Transcript of hayleydean1.files.wordpress.com€¦ · Web viewCardiac output reflects the ability of the heart...