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Water Resources in Jordan:

A Primer

August, 2010

Water Resources Management Division Department of Environment and Conservation Government of Newfoundland and Labrador

Water Resources in Jordan: A Primer

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Table of Contents TABLE OF CONTENTS.............................................................................................................................. I

WATER RESOURCES IN JORDAN......................................................................................................... 1

GEOGRAPHY AND ECO-REGIONS OF JORDAN............................................................................... 2

LAND USE IN JORDAN................................................................................................................................. 3

THE WATER CYCLE AND BUDGET OF JORDAN ............................................................................. 4

PRECIPITATION ........................................................................................................................................... 4 EVAPORATION ............................................................................................................................................ 4 CLIMATE CHANGE...................................................................................................................................... 4 SURFACE WATER ....................................................................................................................................... 5

Jordan River ......................................................................................................................................... 5 Upper Jordan River .......................................................................................................................................... 6 Lake Tiberais .................................................................................................................................................... 6 Lower Jordan River .......................................................................................................................................... 7

Yarmouk River ...................................................................................................................................... 9 Zarka River ......................................................................................................................................... 10 Dead Sea ............................................................................................................................................. 11 Wadis .................................................................................................................................................. 13 Arzaq Wetland..................................................................................................................................... 16 Dams and Reservoirs .......................................................................................................................... 16 Water Harvesting................................................................................................................................ 18

GROUNDWATER........................................................................................................................................ 18 Fossil Aquifers .................................................................................................................................... 20

CANALS AND PIPELINES ........................................................................................................................... 20 King Abdullah Canal (KAC) ............................................................................................................... 20 Wadi Ma’in Conveyance Project ........................................................................................................ 21 Disi Water Conveyance Project .......................................................................................................... 22 Red Sea-Dead Sea Conveyance Project.............................................................................................. 22 Unaccounted for Water....................................................................................................................... 23

WASTEWATER .......................................................................................................................................... 24 DESALINATED WATER.............................................................................................................................. 26 PEACE WATER.......................................................................................................................................... 26

WATER USE IN JORDAN ....................................................................................................................... 26

DOMESTIC WATER USE ............................................................................................................................ 27 INDUSTRIAL WATER USE.......................................................................................................................... 27

Mining................................................................................................................................................. 28 Energy................................................................................................................................................. 28

AGRICULTURAL WATER USE.................................................................................................................... 28 WATER DEMAND SUPPLY ANALYSIS........................................................................................................ 29

PLAYERS IN THE JORDANIAN WATER SECTOR .......................................................................... 31

MINISTRY OF WATER AND IRRIGATION .................................................................................................... 31 Water Authority of Jordan .................................................................................................................. 31 Jordan Valley Authority ...................................................................................................................... 31

OTHER GOVERNMENT MINISTRIES ........................................................................................................... 32 THE GENERAL CORPORATION FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION (GCEP) ............................................ 32 ROYAL SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY (RSS) .......................................................................................................... 33 ROYAL SOCIETY FOR THE CONSERVATION OF NATURE............................................................................ 33 INTERNATIONAL AID AGENCIES ............................................................................................................... 33

WATER MONITORING NETWORKS IN JORDAN ........................................................................... 34


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WATER QUALITY GUIDELINES ................................................................................................................. 36 WATER DATA TOOLS ............................................................................................................................... 37

WATER RESOURCES IN THE MIDDLE EAST REGION................................................................. 37

WATER USE IN THE REGION ..................................................................................................................... 38 MIDDLE EAST PEACE PROCESS ................................................................................................................ 39

Jordan and Israel................................................................................................................................ 39 Jordan and Syria................................................................................................................................. 40

WATER ISSUES IN JORDAN ................................................................................................................. 40

STRENGTHS OF JORDANIAN WATER SECTOR............................................................................................ 41

REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................... 42


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Water Resources in Jordan The Kingdom of Jordan covers an area of 89,322 km2 in the Middle East. The population of Jordan was 6.2 million in 2008 and is expected to reach 8 million by 2024 with a current population growth rate of 2.3%. Approximately 70% of Jordan’s population lives in urban areas. Jordan is one of the most water stressed countries in the world, a situation that is only likely to worsen over time, and which is further exacerbated by the fact that water stress is coupled with both financial stress and lack of energy resources in Jordan. Water is the single most critical natural resource in Jordan. Industrial and agricultural growth, productivity, public health, the environment, a democratic and pluralistic society– virtually all aspects of sustainable economic, social, and political development depend on availability of an adequate water supply in the country. In Jordan the lack of water is a problem, and portends a national catastrophe within the decade. Total water supply in 2010 was estimated at 1059 MCM, which includes the over-pumping of aquifers as indicated in Table 1. Even with over-pumping, in most Jordanian cities, residents receive water only sporadically, and domestic water consumption is very low (less than 100 litres/capita/day). Water scarcity is exacerbated by rapid population increase, inefficient water management and use, lack of adequate wastewater treatment capacity, and inappropriate pricing policies. Large-scale desalination is not yet economically feasible. Long-term solutions are likely to involve a combination of new supplies, demand management and reduced population growth. Over the short-term, the most feasible options for reducing the gap between water demand and supply are improved management of existing water resources, and improved quality of treated wastewater for reuse. Table 1: Projected Water Supply by Source, MCM Year Surface

Water Peace Water

Wehdah Dam

Treated WW

Sea Desal

Total Sustain

Ground water

Disi Desal ndwt

Not Sustain

Total Supply

2010 239 47 133 153 19 591 377 66 25 468 1059 2015 232 56 116 181 22 607 344 66 45 454 1061 2020 234 50 119 207 28 637 300 98 59 457 1094

A map of water resources in Jordan including watershed boundaries, basin safe yields, rivers, wadis, and locations of dams, springs and wastewater treatment plants can be found in Figure 1.


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Figure 1: Map of Water Resources in Jordan

Geography and Eco-regions of Jordan Geographically, Jordan has three distinct zones:

Jordan Rift Valley: a north-south strip lying primarily below sea level and containing the Jordan River Valley and the Dead Sea, extending to the Gulf of Aqaba.

Highlands or Jordanian Plateau: a north-south strip containing the southward extension of the Anti-Lebanon mountain range, traversed by the Yarmouk River and several other wadis. Also contains most of Jordan’s cities.


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Badia: a semi-desert steppe forming the rest of the territory of Jordan to the east, north and south.

Jordan has seven distinct eco-regions within its territory including:

1. Desert Ecosystem: Covers approximately 75% of Jordan’s area. 2. Scarp and Highlands Ecosystem: The mountainous strip that adjoins the Jordan

Valley to the east and contains the largest remaining area of natural forest area comprised of mixed evergreen and oak forest.

3. Subtropical Ecosystem: The western most strip of the country stretching through the Jordan Valley.

4. Dead Sea Basin Ecosystem: Located within the Jordan Rift Valley, situated on the shores of the Dead Sea and the oases in its vicinity.

5. Jordan River Basin Ecosystem: Located in the northern part of the Jordan Valley consisting of the Jordan River and its tributaries.

6. Gulf of Aqaba Ecosystem: Located in the marine environment surrounding the Gulf of Aqaba.

7. Freshwater Ecosystem: The Arzaq Oasis located 75 km northeast of Amman.

Figure 2: Pine forests in Northern Jordan Outside of Jerash

Land Use in Jordan The Department of Statistics classifies land use in Jordan as follow:

Grazing areas- 93.3% Urban areas- 1.89 % Forests and reforestation areas- 1.5 % Surface water- 0.62% Agricultural land- 2.69%


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The Water Cycle and Budget of Jordan The climate of Jordan is semi-arid to arid. Jordan’s water balance consists of precipitation, water lost to evaporation, surface runoff, infiltration to groundwater aquifers and soil water. Jordan typically experiences and 11-year hydrologic cycle characterized by a 3-year norm above average and 4 years below it.

Precipitation The rainy season in Jordan extends from October to April with the peak usually during December, January and February. Precipitation in Jordan is mainly in the form of rainfall, with snowfall occurring once or twice a year over the Highlands in the north-west. The long-term average annual precipitation is 100 mm/yr or 8,500 MCM. Only Highland areas, comprising only 4% of the country's total area, receive more than 300 mm/year of rain. Precipitation rates decrease drastically to the east and to the west of the Highlands. 81% of the total land area receives less than 100 mm/year in precipitation. The dry climate, atmospheric dust and low intensity of precipitation affects the quality of precipitation reflected by it’s higher than average salt content.

Evaporation The high temperatures and low humidity in Jordan result in an extremely high evaporation rate. The long-term average evaporation rate is 80.2% of precipitation over the entire area of Jordan. Potential evaporation ranges from 1600 mm/y in the northern Highlands to more than 4000 mm/y in the southern and eastern desert.

Climate Change Like much of the rest of the world, Jordan has experienced marked changes in climate and the hydrological cycle outside of normal expected climatic variation in recent years. Observed effects include:

Decreased precipitation Increased temperature Change in timing of precipitation– rainy season starts later, but typically ends at

the same time Decreased baseflow in surface water systems Deteriorating water quality

Jordan has recently experienced severe drought in both 1999 and again in 2009. Jordan is attempting to adapt to climate change on a number of different fronts and sectors. Agricultural, energy, and resource policy has all been focused to try and decrease Jordan’s vulnerability to climate change effects. Actions taken include:


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Planting trees to offset carbon emissions and improve the health of watersheds Switching from oil to natural gas Increased use of renewables including solar energy generation Changes in agricultural practice– type of crops, timing of planting, drip irrigation Move to more efficient and productive water use in all sectors– agricultural,

municipal, industrial Use of reclaimed water and brackish water Recharge of groundwater aquifers Use of desalination

Surface Water Renewable freshwater resources in Jordan originate in precipitation over its territories and flows of international watercourses to which Jordan is a riparian, including the Jordan and Yarmouk River. Jordan has 7 surface drainage areas with contributing land area from both within and outside of the country as indicated in Table 2. Table 2: Surface Water Basins in Jordan Basins Total Flow

(MCM/yr) Used Portion (%)

1. Dead Sea Basin - - a. Yarmouk Basin 245 145 b. Jordan River and Side Wadis Basin 199.3 35 c. Zarqa River Basin 100 100 d. Dead Sea Side Wadis Basin 44.6 17 e. Mujib Basin 105.9 0 f. Wadi Hasa Basin 41.1 30 g. Wadi Arabia North Basin 46 12 2. Azraq Basin 40.9 0 3. Hammad Basin 24.3 0 4. Sirhan Basin 17.5 0 5. Jafr Basin 12.5 0 6 Southern Desert Basin 1 0 7. Wadi Araba Basin 7.8 0 Surface water resources in Jordan vary considerably from year to year. The long-term average surface water flow is estimated at 706.91 MCM/year, comprising of 451.4 MCM/year base flow, and 255.5 MCM/year flood flow. Of these only an estimated 473 MCM/year is usable or can be economically developed.

Jordan River The surface catchment area of the Jordan River is 18,194 km2, of which 2,833 km2 lie upstream of the Lake Tiberias outlet. Upstream of Lake Tiberias, the river is known as the Upper Jordan River; downstream of Lake Tiberias it becomes the Lower Jordan


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River, terminating at the Dead Sea. The Jordan River is 215 km long and flows at elevations below sea level for much of its distance

Upper Jordan River

The headwaters of the Jordan River originate from three main spring fed rivers: Hasbani (average annual flow of 138 MCM) in Lebanon; Dan (average annual flow of 245 MCM) in Israel; and Banias (average annual flow of 121 MCM) in the Golan. The three streams converge six kilometres inside Israel to form the Upper Jordan River, which then flows into Lake Tiberias. The salinity levels in the three tributaries are low at about 20 ppm. In 1964, Syria attempted construction of the Headwater Diversion Plan that would have blocked flow of water into Lake Tiberias. This project and Israel’s attempt to block it contributed to the outbreak of the 1967 Six-Day War during which Israel captured the Golan Heights, headwater area of the Jordan River.

Lake Tiberais

Lake Tiberias is known under many different names including the Sea of Galilee, Lake Kinneret and Lake Gennesaret. It is the largest freshwater lake in Israel with a total area of 166 km2 and a maximum depth of 43 m. The lake is partly fed by underground springs in addition to inflow from the Upper Jordan River. Israel has been using all the water of the Upper Jordan since 1962 when it started controlling releases from Lake Tiberias into the Lower Jordan River. Except during floods, when the lake is full, the release has been zero. Some saline springs surrounding Lake Tiberias are channelled downstream of Lake Tiberias into the Jordan River. In 1964, Israel completed the National Water Carrier to transport water from the lake to the population centres of Israel. Lake Tiberias is the source of much of Israel’s drinking water. Water is also used for irrigation purposes in the Negev. Under the terms of the 1994 Isreal-Jordan Peace Treaty, Israel is to supply Jordan with 50 MCM of water annually from Lake Tiberias. In the face of increasing water demand and dry winters in both 1999 and 2009, water levels in Lake Tiberias have fallen dangerously low at times. The lake is at risk of becoming irreversibly salinized by the salt water springs under the lake. The salinity of water in Lake Tiberias ranges from 240 ppm in the upper end of the lake (marginal for irrigation water), to 350 ppm (too high for sensitive citrus fruits) where it discharges back into the Jordan River.


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Figure 3: Water Levels in Lake Tiberias

Lower Jordan River Flowing out of Lake Tiberias, the Lower Jordan River is joined by its major tributaries: the Yarmouk River originating in Syria; the Zarqa River originating in Jordan. Both rivers join the Jordan from the eastern side. The Yarmouk forms Jordan's northern border with Syria; the Zarqa originates solely within Jordan. The lower Jordan River, downstream of Lake Tiberias, flows through the Jordan rift valley before emptying into the Dead Sea. Because of Israel’s redirection of the upper course, the river now receives water mostly from the Yarmouk River, a tributary originating in Syria, and from a few lateral wadis that incise the two mountain ranges that run parallel to the valley on each side. Most of the population and cities, together with the bulk of Jordan’s rain-fed agriculture and increasing groundwater based irrigation, are concentrated in these highlands. In the east bank of the valley some 23,000 hectares of irrigated land have been developed as a result of diversion of the Yarmouk and side wadis. The Jordan River has experienced substantial reductions in river flows over the years from over abstraction. The discharge of the Yarmouk River in the Jordan River prior to


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the use of water by the different riparian users, was around 400 MCM/year. Recently, this amount has gradually declined to very small discharges. The Lower Jordan River basin has undergone a drastic squeeze, with 83% of its flow consumed before it reaches the Dead Sea because of diversions in Israel and Syria, 45,000 hectares of irrigated land, mushrooming cities swollen by waves of refugees from Palestine and Iraq, immigrants from the Gulf countries, and the new Wehdah Dam reservoir on the Yarmouk River. The lower Jordan river becomes progressively more saline as it flows south, reaching up to twenty-five percent salinity (250,000 ppm) where it flows in the Dead Sea. The rehabilitation of the Jordan waters below Lake Tiberias was an important feature of the Water Annex of the Jordan-Israel Peace Treaty. The discharge into the Jordan River is now comprised of irrigation return flow, saline spring discharges diverted by Israel, and a small amount of runoff. The water is so poor in quality that it is usable only after desalination or under strict restrictions. No water treatment is presently provided. However, the 1994 Peace Treaty stipulates that within three years both sides should refrain from discharging into the river any water that is not suitable for unrestricted irrigation (this clause has not been abided by). There have been two separate incidents of Israel causing severe pollution events on the Jordan River system for which it had to compensate Jordan with equivalent freshwater. In 1998, Israel pumped water from Lake Tiberias that was polluted with sewage to Jordan. Again in 2009, Israel polluted the Yarmouk River with waste oil and sewage. This polluted water eventually made its way into the Jordan River and Dead Sea.


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Figure 4: Jordan River at the Baptism Site

Yarmouk River The northern portion of the Yarmouk River is the boundary between Jordan and Syria, and the southern portion is the boundary between Jordan and Israel. The total catchment area of the river measures 6,780 km2, 1,160 km2 lie in Jordan upstream of the Adasiya Dam (used to divert water from the Yarmouk to the King Abdullah Canal), and the rest within Syria and in the Jordan River area downstream of Adasiya. The area is mostly agrarian, with some small industries located in the main towns. During floods, small amounts of wastewater runoff reach the river. The average annual rainfall over the catchment area is 372 mm/year. Precipitation is sometimes in the form of snow. During the last five decades there was an average decrease of 30% in precipitation. The long-term average total flow of the river is 355 MCM/yr comprising of 246 MCM base flow and 109 MCM flood flow.

In 1980 Syria unilaterally started a programme of dam building along the Yarmouk. Syria extracts 160-170 MCM/year from the Yarmouk River and nothing from the Upper Jordan River. Jordan historically extracted 100-110 MCM/year from the Yarmouk River by diverting the water into the King Abdullah Canal. The October 1994 Peace Agreement with Israel, indicates that Jordan will: divert 105 MCM/year from the


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Yarmouk River; store 20 MCM/year in Lake Tiberias during the winter season; receive 50 MCM/year of water supply from Israel; and get 10 MCM/year from desalinated springs, while Israel will get 25 MCM/yr from the Yarmouk.

The water of the Yarmouk River is of good quality with total dissolved solids within the range of 400-800 ppm.

Figure 5: Yarmouk River

Zarka River The catchment area of the Zarka river measures 4,025 km2 and receives an average annual precipitation of 237 mm/year. After the Yarmouk River, this river provides the second largest surface water supply for Jordan. The Zarka has an average natural flow amounting to 92 MCM/year. The river consists of two main branches; Wadi Dhuliel, the eastern part; and Seil-Zarka, the western part. Both meet at Sukhna to form the Zarqa River. The eastern branch drains only flood flows, while the western branch drains both flood and base flows. The catchment area for the Zarqa River is the most densely populated area in Jordan, it comprises around 65% of the country’s population, and 80% of its industries. Some agricultural activities take place in the catchment as well. The natural state of the river has been altered by different factors, most notable of which is the drying up of most of its freshwater base flow as a result of overpumping from the aquifer that feeds its springs. The river is augmented by sewerage effluent from the As-Samra wastewater treatment plant, which treats 75% of all of Jordan’s wastewater, and other smaller treatment plants such as Ba'qa and Jerash. Most industries in the catchment discharge their effluents into the surface water system after they treat it. However, there have been numerous reports that industries are not abiding by the discharge specifications, and the effluent discharged is not treated to the required standard. The river is controlled by the King Talal Reservoir.


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Because large quantities of sewerage and industrial effluent enter the Zarqa River, water quality becomes a concern. The ratio of treated wastewater to fresh water in King Talal Reservoir ranges from 45-50% wastewater in the winter to 55-60% in the summer. Zarka River water is used principally for irrigation and stock watering. The government of Jordan has a demonstrated policy for investing and upgrading wastewater treatment plants to improve water quality, especially in the Zarqa River basin.

Figure 6: Zarka River

Dead Sea The Dead Sea is technically an internal lake, fed by the Jordan River and its tributaries and by direct inflow of the runoff of side wadies, the most important of these on the Jordanian side being the Wadi Mujib and Wadi Hasa. The shore of the Dead Sea forms the lowest dry contour on earth. The Dead Sea is one of the world’s saltiest water bodies with 33.7% salinity, 8.6 times more salty than the ocean. The salinity means no aquatic life and hence, its name. All the water development projects in Israel, Syria and Jordan have significantly reduced the discharge of the Jordan River into the Dead Sea. The surface level of the Dead Sea has been dropping because of the cumulative effects of diminished inflows and intensified evaporation. Prior to industrialization surface inflows averaged 1670


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MCM/yr, 69% of which came from the Jordan River. Now average surface inflow has decreased to 407 MCM/yr, 58% of which comes from the Jordan River. The result has been a drop in the Dead Sea level from 392 m below sea level in 1920 to 416 m in 2003. The surface area of the Dead Sea has also shrunk from 1050 km2 in 1920 to 634 km2 in 2005 with corresponding changes in coastline. The Dead Sea is currently experiencing a drop rate of 1 m per year. The rapid shrinking of the Dead Sea will have a major effect on the characteristics of the Sea and the surrounding region. The Dead Sea level drop has been followed by a groundwater level drop, causing brines that used to occupy underground layers near the shoreline to be flushed out by freshwater. This is believed to be the cause of the recent appearance of large sinkholes along the shore — incoming freshwater dissolves salt layers, rapidly creating subsurface cavities that subsequently collapse to form these sinkholes.

Figure 7: Dead Sea The Dead Sea is a major tourism area for Jordan, including several large scale resorts. In the south, the Dead Sea area is used for drying beds by the Arab Potash Company and the Dead Sea Works Inc. to produce potash (K2CO3), a major export earner for both countries. The companies have essential diked the entire southern end of the Dead Sea to form extensive evaporation pans.


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Figure 8: Dead Sea drying Beds and Arab Potash Company

Figure 9: Changes in Dead Sea

Wadis A wadi is an Arabic term for a dry riverbed that contains water only during times of heavy rain. Such intermittent or ephemeral streams in Jordan are spread over three main areas:

1. Wadis in the Jordan River Area a. Wadi El-Arab catchment area borders the Yarmouk catchment and

measures around 246 km2. The average amount of precipitation ranges from 500 mm (Irbid highlands) to 350 mm (Jordan Valley). Average discharge is 6 MCM/year. Catchment area is agrarian, but as Irbid city is expanding westward this might change. A dam was constructed in 1987.


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b. Wadi Ziqlab catchment area measures 100 km2 and extends from the Jordan Valley eastwards into the highlands. Wadi dischages 8 MCM/year, 7 MCM is base flow. As catchment area is agrarian with natural forests and very little population, the water is of high quality and can be used for different purposes. A dam was constructed in 1966.

c. Wadi Shueib catchment area is approximately 93 km2. Precipitation sometimes falls in the form of snow. The average discharges is 10 MCM/year, 8 MCM is the base flow. The effluent from the Salt wastewater treatment plant is discharged into the Wadi. A dam was constructed 1968.

d. Wadi Kafrain catchment area is approximately 159 km2. Precipitation ranges from 550 to 150 mm/year. Average discharge is 15 MCM/year. Different towns and villages discharge their wastes along the wadi thus affecting the water quality. A dam was constructed in 1968.

e. There are a number of other small wadis that discharge into the Jordan Valley. These include: Yabis, Kufranja, Jurum, Rajib, and Hisban. Precipitation on these areas ranges from 150 to 550 mm/year. The base flow of these wadis is relatively small and is used for irrigation along the courses of the wadis and at the Jordan River foothills. Flood flows reach the lower stem of the Jordan River.

2. Dead Sea Wadis

a. Wadi Mujib & Wadi Hidan (Wala) catchment area is approximately 6,727 km2, it is sparsely inhabited, with moderate agricultural activity and almost no industry. Precipitation ranges from 350 to 100 mm/year. Wadi Hidan joins Wadi Mujib near the Dead Sea, they discharge 65 MCM/year into the Dead Sea; half is base flow.

b. Wadi El-Kerak catchment area measures 19 km2. Precipitation ranges from 350-90 mm/year. The catchment area is a moderately inhabited agrarian area. The effluent of Karak’s wastewater treatment plant is discharged into the wadi. The lower reaches of the wadi are rich in springs and water seepage’s from the sandstone aquifers. The wadi discharges 7 MCM/year to the Dead Sea, 6 MCM is base flow. The water is used for irrigation.

c. Wadi Zarka Ma'in catchment area is 269 km2. Precipitation ranges from 350 mm/year to 100. The wadi discharges 20 MCM/year into the Dead Sea, 17 MCM is base flow. Base flow is principally thermal springs in the area of the Hammamat Ma'in Spa. The water is brackish (EC 2780 μS/cm), but can be used for salt-tolerant crops.

d. Wadi Hasa catchment area is approximately 2,603 km2, it is sparsely populated with no industries and very low agricultural activities. Precipitation ranges from 300 to 90 mm/year. The average discharge of the wadi is 3 MCM/year most of which is seepage and springs. Some of these springs are mineralized thermal springs. A small spa has been constructed at Wadi Afra (tributary).


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e. There are numerous other thermal springs in the Dead Sea area discharging an average annual flow of 30 MCM. Water from these springs can be used in irrigating semi-salt-tolerant crops.

Figure 10: Wadi Mujib

3. Wadi Araba Catchments a. Northern Wadi Araba catchment area is approximately 2,953 km2.

Precipitation ranges from 300 to 100 mm/year. Different wadis drain into the northern Wadi Araba, the main ones are Fifa, Khuneizerh, Fidan, and Bweirdh. The average annual discharge is about 11 MCM most of it base flow. Domestic wastewater of Tafila discharges into Wadi Fifa.

b. Southern Wadi Araba catchment area measures 3,742 km2. Precipitation levels range from 150 to 50 mm/year, hence, the area is barren with very low population density. The Wadi discharges about 10 MCM/year into the Red Sea. The Aqaba wastewater treatment plant discharges to the aquifer underlying the catchment.

c. Azraq Basin catchment area measures 13,173 km2 and extends in the north beyond the borders of Jordan. The average precipitation is 90 mm/year. Before the development of the water resources of the basin for use in the capital, the total discharge was 22 MCM/year. The catchment is sparsely populated with some industries. The surface water quality is excellent, but as soon as it mixes with the water in the Oasis it becomes saline.

d. There are several other minor catchments such as: Wadi Yutum in the southwest (discharges 1.5 MCM/year); Jafr Basin in the south (discharges


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15 MCM/year); and Hammad Basin spanning Jordan, Syria, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia (discharges 5 MCM/year).

Arzaq Wetland The spring fed Arzaq Wetland was the largest in the Middle East, originally spread over a 12,710 km2 area. It used to attract up to half a million birds at any one time. Since groundwater pumping began in the 1980s, the water table has fallen approximately 10 m and the oasis completely dried up in 1992. Amman extracts 25 MCM/yr for drinking water in addition to 25 MCM/yr abstracted for irrigation purposes and 8 MCM/yr for other uses. The total abstraction from the Arzaq Wetland is almost double the recharge rate of 34 MCM/yr. It is estimated that 500 illegal deep wells still operate in the area. Over-pumping has resulted in the drying out of the springs feeding the wetland, drying out of vast surface areas of the wetlands, and increased salinity of the groundwater, making the now brackish water unpalatable for wildlife and useless for drinking water or irrigation. Today, 10% of the oasis has been rejuvenated through the efforts of the Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature, through the halting of pumping from the wetlands to urban centres. This reduction in pumping from the Arzaq is expected to increase as more water becomes available from other sources for Amman. The Arzaq wetland is protected under the international Ramsar Convention for the protection of internationally important wetlands especially for waterfowl habitat.

Figure 11: Arzaq Wetland

Dams and Reservoirs There are several strategically important dams located in Jordan including:

1. King Talal Dam is an earth filled dam that was commissioned in 1977 with a total capacity of 56 MCM, that was raised to 89MCM in 1988. Currently, due to the accumulation of sediments, the capacity is at 75 MCM. The reservoir stores flood runoff from a 3700 km2 catchment area, diversions from Qa’khanna Basin and return flow from municipal and industrial water supplied to Amman and Zarqa.


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The municipal and industrial effluent is around 50% of the inflow. The water is released from the dam by the JVA as needed to irrigate the middle and southern parts of the Jordan Valley. The dam includes a two unit-power house with a rated capacity of 6 MW.

2. Wadi Arab Dam is an earth filled dam that was constructed in 1986 with a total capacity of 20 MCM. Water is of good quality and is used for irrigation in the Jordan Valley, and for domestic purposes after filtration and chlorination. Effluent from the wastewater treatment plant for Irbid bypasses the dam, but floodwaters wash out of the plant into the dam from time to time. In the last eight to ten years, natural springs discharging in to the Wadi have dried up as a result of a 20 meter drop in the groundwater table due to pumping of groundwater for use by Irbid. Currently, base flow of the Wadi is Zero, and the Dam is filled in winter with KAC water.

3. Ziqlab Dam is a rockfill gravity dam that was constructed in 1966, with a total capacity of 4.3 MCM. The water collected in the dam is of high quality and can be used for domestic and agricultural purposes.

4. Shueib Dam is an earth filled dam that was constructed in 1968, with a capacity of 2.3 MCM. In addition to base and flood flows, the dam receives irrigation return flows and effluent from the Salt wastewater treatment plant. The dam is used to recharge the groundwater.

5. Kafrain Dam is an earth filled dam that was constructed in 1968, with a capacity of 4.8 MCM, that was raised in 1996 to 8.5 MCM. The dam stores water from: Wadi Kafrein, ground water wells upstream of the dam and water diverted from Wadi Hisban. Water is used for irrigation and recharge of aquifer.

6. Karameh Dam is an earth filled dam that was completed in 1998 on Wadi Mallahah west of the town of Karameh, with a storage capacity of 55 MCM. The dam stores: excess water from the King Abdullah Canal and floods from side wadis and Zarqa River downstream of the King Talal Reservoir. Water in the dam is saline and is used to irrigate saline tolerant crops in the Middle and southern Jordan Valley areas.

7. There are 13 Highland and Desert Dams that have been constructed in the highlands and desert with a total gross capacity of 30.15 MCM. Stored water is used for livestock, irrigation and ground water recharge.

8. Tannur Dam is a roller compacted concrete dam with a storage capacity of 17 MCM that controls the floods of Wadi Hisa. The dam came into operation in 2001.

9. Wala Dam is a roller compacted concrete dam with a storage capacity of 17 MCM. The water stored is used to recharge the groundwater by artificial filtration through eight wells. The dam came into operation in 2001.

10. Mujib Dam is a roller compacted concrete dam located 100 km south of Amman with a storage capacity of 32 MCM. The dam is designed to store rainwater for domestic, industrial and agricultural purposes. The dam came into operation in 2004.

11. Al Wehdeh Dam is proposed to be built on the Yarmouk River on the Jordanian-Syrian border. The proposed dam will store up to 105 MCM of water (depending


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on water flow released from Syria), which will be used for manufacturing and agricultural production in the Jordan Valley.

12. Other proposed dams include: Fidan, Ibn Hammad, Karak, Middiean Existing dams provide an annual supply of 225 MCM of water.

Figure 12: Wadi Mujib Dam, King Talal Dam

Water Harvesting There is a long history in the region of collecting and storing rainwater in constructed cisterns and ponds. Such water harvesting collection systems are growing in number across Jordan in both rural and urban landscapes. Such systems are generally initiated at a grass roots level through different community organizations including farm families, cooperatives, farmer groups or individual households. This small-scale, decentralized approach spreads the low-scale technology benefits of rainwater harvesting into some of the more isolated corners of Jordan.

Groundwater Groundwater resources amounted to 54% of the water resources of Jordan in 2005. Twelve groundwater basins have been identified in Jordan as indicated in Table 3, these include two fossil aquifers: Al-Disi and Al-Jafar. Four of the groundwater basins receive recharge from Syria, and two share fossil aquifers with Saudi Arabia. The annual safe yield of the renewable groundwater supply is estimated to be 275 MCM. Groundwater extractions have exceeded 400 MCM each year since the mid 1990s. Table 3: Groundwater Basins in Jordan Ground Water Basins Safe Yield

MCM/ year Total

Extraction MCM/1998

Balance MCM/ year

% of Safe Yield

Yarmouk Basin 40 55 -15 137%

Side Wadis Basin (North Jordan Valley Basin)

15 12 3 80%

Jordan Valley Basin 21 38 -17 181%

Amman-Zarqa Basin 87 138 -51 159%

Dead Sea Basin 57 85 -28 149%

Northern Wadi Araba Basin 4 4 0 100%


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Southern Wadi Araba Basin 6 5 1 83%

Al Jafer Basin (Renewable) (Non-Renewable)

9 Fossil

23 -

-14 -

256% -

Azraq Basin 24 56 -32 233%

Al Sarhan Basin 5 1.5 3.5 30%

Al Hammad Basin 8 1.3 6.7 16%

Disi Fossil 65 - -

Shallow groundwater aquifers are the most easily accessible and vary in depth from approximately 5-150 m. Such aquifers are under increasing pressure in Jordan with the result of reduced baseflow to surface water streams, falling water tables, and increased salinity. Non-renewable, deep aquifers are those at depths greater than 150 m, such as the Disi aquifer, which is anywhere from 400-500 m in depth. In 1998, over-draft was about 157 MCM in six basins. As of 2005, 10 groundwater basins were in deficit conditions. Consequently, the water level in these basins is declining, there is reduced surface water flow, and some aquifers are showing deterioration of their water quality due to increased salinity. Recharge reflects the estimated safe yield for each basin. So far, the studies that have been conducted conclude that the safe yield for Jordan’s renewable groundwater resources is 275 MCM/year. The water table is dropping throughout Jordan. The average maximum decline in groundwater levels ranges from 2.5 m in the southern part of the Side Wadis Basin to more than 100 m in the Jafr Basin. In a recent study of 104 springs in the Shoubak area, 22 have gone dry and 47 show diminished flows since large-scale agricultural irrigation began in the 1980s. Salinity has increased more than 7-fold between 1970 and 1998 at one observation will in the Amman-Zarqa basin. In the Hamad and Jafr Basins, the average increase in concentrations of TDS was around 400 mg/L. Groundwater quality may vary within an aquifer. In general, Jordan possesses significant groundwater resources with good quality. However, this quality is threatened by over-abstraction of the resource, pollution from human settlements with its related activities and irrigation runoffs. In 2005, there were 2779 licensed, operational groundwater wells and more than 1000 unlicensed, illegal wells. In an attempt to regulate groundwater abstraction, the government in 1994 enforced the regulation requiring all licensed well to have meters. Presently, over 90% of licensed wells are metered. In recent years, several other measures have been implemented to protect aquifers from degradation and over-abstraction including delineation of groundwater protection zones, preparation of groundwater vulnerability maps, groundwater use tariffs, and groundwater monitoring by the MWI.


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Fossil Aquifers There are two fossil aquifers in Jordan:

1. Disi aquifer in the south of Jordan is the main non-renewable groundwater resource in Jordan. The Disi is shared between Jordan and Saudi Arabia. On the Jordanian side, Disi supplies Aqaba with 14 MCM/year for municipal and industrial uses and 51 MCM/year for irrigation purposes. Recent estimates indicate that an annual abstraction of 125 MCM can be supported over a 50-year period. In Saudi Arabia, annual abstractions are estimated to exceed 700 MCM/year.

2. Jafer basin is the other non-renewable groundwater resource in Jordan. This aquifer can supply Jordan with 18 MCM/year, over the next 40 years.

Figure 13: Disi Aquifer Area and Agricultural Production

Canals and Pipelines Canals and pipelines are used to convey water from a source located in one area to users that can be hundreds of kilometres away.

King Abdullah Canal (KAC) A 1953-55 Master Plan for the Yarmouk and Jordan River Valleys recommended the development of an intensive irrigation project covering 460,000 dunums on both banks of the Jordan River Valley. In 1957, the first stage of the construction of the Canal was initiated with the construction of the first 69 km segment. At the time the Canal was called the East Ghor Canal. In 1973, construction started on the second stage, an 18 km


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extension. The third stage was the construction of 14.5 km extension for the canal; this was completed in 1988. KAC is a concrete lined, trapezoidal, gravity-fed waterway canal with a design capacity that ranges from 20 m3/s at the intake to 2.3 m3/s at the downstream end near the Dead Sea. The water quality in the canal north of the Deir Alla intake is a blend of good quality water from the Yarmouk River, the Tiberias North Conveyor (peace water), Mukheibeh wells, Wadi Al-Arab dam and other side wadi supplies. This water is pumped for municipal uses in Amman via the Deir Alla-Amman Conveyance Project. South of Deir Allah, KAC receives King Talal Reservoir water that consists of flood water from the Zarqa River mixed with poor quality treated wastewater from Amman. The construction of the canal prompted the development of the Jordan Valley from subsistence-level farming by a few nomads to a vibrant agricultural centre, which drew people into the Valley thus increasing its inhabitants.

Figure 14: King Abdullah Canal

Wadi Ma’in Conveyance Project The Wadi Ma’in, Zara and Mujib Water Treatment and Conveyance Project entailed the construction of a water treatment plant near the Dead Sea to treat saline water from three nearby wadis. Treated water is then to be transferred to Dead Sea resort areas and Amman along a 41 km water conveyance system. The system supplies 47 MCM/year and was completed in 2007.


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Disi Water Conveyance Project The Disi aquifer is an extensive fossil-water aquifer shared by Jordan and Saudi Arabia. Water extraction from the Disi aquifer of 125 MCM per year has been teamed technically and environmentally reasonable. Currently, Jordan is pumping 77 MCM from the Disi aquifer. It is estimated that Saudi Arabia is pumping 600-700 MCM annually. Saudi Arabia and Jordan can be considered in a groundwater conflict and pumping race with each other over the Disi aquifer. Jordan has accused Saudi Arabia of over-exploitation of the aquifer in 1992 and 1999, with no official reply from Saudi Arabia. The majority of the water pumped by both sides from the Desi is for agricultural use. Saudi Arabia is using Disi water to grow wheat in the desert, in a case where the value of the water is several times more valuable than the value of the wheat produced. The Disi Water Conveyance Project entails constructing a 325-kilometre pipeline that will convey approximately 100 MCM of water from the Disi aquifer in the south of Jordan to Amman. This pumping capacity is expected to be sustainable for 50-150 years. Water demand has been outstripping supply in the Greater Amman Area since 1988, especially during summer months. The Disi project will also relieve upland aquifers that currently supply water to Amman from over abstraction. Construction on the project was initiated in 2009.

Figure 15: Disi Water Conveyance Pipeline Under Construction

Red Sea-Dead Sea Conveyance Project The import of water to the Dead Sea from the Red Sea was negotiated in bilateral peace talks between Jordan and Israel, and a separate article was included in the peace treaty on this matter. A feasibility study is currently underway for the construction of a canal or pipeline linking the Red Sea at Aqaba with the Dead Sea. The purpose of the canal or pipeline is to generate electricity and desalinate approximately 850 MCM per year of water of which 650 MCM per year would be allocated to Jordan. Capital costs are estimated to be $3-5 billion. The project would also restore the volume of the Dead Sea to historical average levels. It now appears that Jordan is intending to go ahead with this project independently, without involvement from Israel. Egypt has expressed some concerns over the project with respect to lowering water levels in the Gulf of Aqaba and other environmental concerns.


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The details of the Red Sea-Dead Sea Conveyance Project have yet to be finalized, and there are many questions left to be resolved from a political, engineering, and environmental effects stand point. Some key engineering aspects of the project to be decided on are the portion of the conveyance system that is to be canal versus pipeline, and how to discharge water into the Dead Sea– either through a wadi or from diffuser pipes from the bottom of the sea bed to promote mixing. Expected environmental effects include:

Stratification of water into high and low density layers Friction between the two different density layers causing heat– estimated up to 66

ºC Eventual diffusion and mixing of high concentrations of salt over time Transfer of aquatic organisms from the Red Sea to the Dead Sea, but eventual die

off once the salt concentration in the Dead Sea equalizes Lowering of water levels in the Gulf of Aqaba Discharge of desalination waste streams into the Dead Sea affecting mixing of

high and low density layers

Figure 16: Disi Aquifer and Proposed Red-Dead Conveyance Project

Unaccounted for Water Unaccounted for water comprises of administrative and physical network losses and averages 30-50% of total water supplied throughout Jordan and 42% in Amman. There are significant water saving to be had in the rehabilitation of municipal water networks in order to reduce unaccounted for water from leaks and illegal connections. Savings from


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network rehabilitation are extremely cost effective in Jordan when compared to the cost of developing new water supplies. Unaccounted for water from water distribution network leakage helps contribute to groundwater recharge.

Wastewater In a water stressed country such as Jordan, wastewater is an important component of the Kingdom’s water resources. Fully treated wastewater is suitable for unrestricted use in agriculture and to recharge aquifers for later use. About 122 MCM/year of wastewater is treated and discharged into various water courses or used directly for irrigation, mostly in the Jordan Valley. Currently, around 70% of the urban population is provided with sewerage collection. Approximately just over half of all households in Jordan have their wastewater treated. The reuse of treated municipal wastewater compensates the Jordan Valley with about 65% of the water that was originally pumped to Amman. There are nineteen wastewater treatment plants in Jordan serving around 26 cities as indicated in Table 4; many of these plants are overloaded. Moreover, industrial wastewater in Jordan is discharged into public sewers, used for gardening or dumped by vacuum trucks. Regulations concerning discharge of industrial effluent into public sewers are insufficient and need revision. As the volume of water used by Jordan’s municipal and industrial sectors’ increase, the volume of wastewater also grows. By the year 2024, the population is projected to be about 8 million. 65% will be provided with sewerage services generating around 245 MCM/year of wastewater, of which 175 MCM will be available to replace fresh water used for irrigation. The salinity of the wastewater effluent in Jordan is higher than normal as the average domestic consumption is low, and the treatment technology is primarily stabilization ponds which loses a portion of wastewater to evaporation. This saline effluent impacts cropping patterns in the areas using the effluent. Also, it requires special irrigation techniques for many agricultural products. Table 4: Wastewater Treatment Plants in Jordan

Treatment Plant Type* Design Capacity (m3/day)

Average Inflow 1999

(m3/day)

Effluent Disposal

As-Samra WSP+AS 68,000 166,844 local irrigation, KTD

Aqaba WSP 9,000 8,774 local Irrigation, Palm forest

Ramtha WSP 1,900 2,174 local irrigation

Mafraq WSP 1,800 1,933 local irrigation

Madaba WSP 2,000 3,609 local irrigation

Ma’an WSP 1,600 1,738 local irrigation

Irbid (Central) TF+AS 11,000 4,612 Jordan Valley for irrigation


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Irbid (Wadi Al-Arab) EA 21,000 5,993 Jordan Valley for irrigation

Baq’a TF 15,000 10,284 KTD

Abu Nuseir AS+RBC 4,000 1,411 Wadi Berein

Jeresh EA+MP 3,500 1,6036 KTD Salt EA+MP 7,700 3,166 Wadi Shueib

Karak TF 800 1,146 Wadi Al Karak

Tafilah TF 1,600 815 Ghor Fifa

Kufranjah TF 1,800 1,734 Wadi Kufranjah

Fuheis AS 2,400 1,019 Wadi Shueib

Wadi Sir WSP+EA 4,000 914 local irrigation

Wadi Hasan/Nueimeh OD 1,600 - JUST for Irrigation

Wadi Mousa EA 3400 - Local Irrigation

*WSP- Wastewater stabilization pond AS- Activated sludge OD- Oxidation ditch RBC- Rotating biological contactors EA- Extended aeration TF- Trickling filters MP- Maturation ponds In Jordan, reclaimed water volumes are predicted to increase more than four times by 2010 if demands are to be met.

Figure 17: Samra Wastewater Treatment Plant


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Desalinated Water As of 2007, Jordan produced 11 MCM/yr of desalinated water mostly sourced from brackish groundwater. Increased large-scale desalination will require sea-water as a source, making new supplies of water via desalination very costly. Disposal of brine resulting from the desalination process is also an emerging issue.

Peace Water The peace deal between Israel and Jordan stipulates that Israel can extract 12 MCM of water from the Yarmouk River in summer, and Jordan uses the rest. In winter, Israel takes 33 MCM from the river, of which 20 MCM are stored for Jordan in Lake Tiberias for the Kingdom's use in summer. This water is pumped from Lake Tiberias to the King Abdullah Canal. Under the terms of the 1994 peace treaty with Israel, up to 50 MCM of fresh water will also be made available each year from Israel in addition to what is currently received under the treaty. In 1997, the two countries agreed that the 50 MCM should be obtained through the desalination of brackish water flowing into the Jordan River from the Israeli side. At the same time, they agreed that until a desalination plant is set up, Israel will supply the Kingdom with 25 mcm a year from Lake Tiberias. The use of this so called “peace treaty water” will allow Jordan to replace significant amounts of current supplies of groundwater with surface water as a source for municipal and industrial users. In 1999, during the worst drought in the region in 50 years, Israel claimed it could not meet its water commitments to Jordan under the peace deal.

Water Use in Jordan Water use in Jordan is divided between three main users: domestic, industrial and agricultural. Other users can include livestock and tourism. In the allocation of new water resources, the Government of Jordan gives municipal and industry demand priority over agriculture. No attention is paid to environmental water for natural ecosystem use. Water use by sector is highlighted in Table 5 and Table 6. The contribution to GDP and employment of industrial water use in Jordan is much greater than that of agricultural water use. Agriculture requires 240 MCM to contribute 1% to GCP and employs just 148 workers per MCM used. Industry requires 2.5 MCM to contribute to 1% GDP and contributes 3777 jobs per MCM used. Table 5: Ground and Surface Water Use in Jordan in 2005

Uses (MCM) Consumption in 2005 Percentage (%) Municipal 291 31

Agriculture 603 64

Industrial 38 4

Livestock 8 1


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Total 940 -

Table 6: Projected Water Demand in Jordan (MCM) 2010 2015 2020 Municipal 405 444 493

Industrial 77 100 120

Agricultural 1072 1040 983

Tourism 10 16 20

Total 1564 1600 1616

Jordan is one of the most water scarce countries in the world with only 160 m3 of available water per person per year, as of 2005.

Domestic Water Use In 2005, the water consumption of the domestic sector was approximately 291 MCM, around 31% of total water used in the country. 79% of the water used for domestic purposes is groundwater since, with the exception of the Yarmouk River water pumped to Amman, all drinking water in Jordan is groundwater (including springs). Demand in most urban areas cannot be met during more than half the year. Consequently, water supplies are provided on an intermittent basis 8 months a year. When distribution systems in the country frequently run dry there is an issue with vacuum pressure sucking sewage and other contaminants in the soil around pipes into the distribution network. This shortage in water supplies is aggregated by the rapid increase in population, the inefficiency of the water distribution system, and inadequate infrastructure. All this contributes to the poor perception of drinking water quality in Jordan. The average daily supply for domestic use is 126 L/capita/day, of this 55% is unaccounted for water. Hence, the per capita consumption is between 60 and 90 L/day. Reducing unaccounted for water is one of the best means to augment municipal water supplies and improve the financial viability of water supply services.

Industrial Water Use Industrial water use consumed 38 MCM in 2005, a mere 4% of the water supply. Most of this demand is in the southern three governorates. More than half the industrial use of water is for the potash and phosphate industry, with much of the remainder for electrical power plants. As Jordan pursues rapid economic growth, tremendous growth is anticipated in the industrial sector especially with the accession to the World Trade Organization, the Free Trade Agreement with the US and the Qualified Industrial Zones (QIZ). Currently, there are 10 QIZ, not all operational. Accordingly, it is foreseen that demand for water by the industrial sector will steadily increase over the coming years.


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Mining Mining and mineral resource extraction makes up a significant proportion of the Jordanian economy. Phosphate mining in Jordan has been underway since ancient times, and is mainly concentrated in the south of the country. Significant amounts of water are used to wash the phosphate produced which is then discharged to wadis. During precipitation events, the first flush of runoff in areas affected by phosphate mining typically get a strong pulse of phosphate and acid mine drainage from the tailings. Mineral production from the Dead Sea includes potash for agriculture and industry, industrial salt, bromine and NPK fertilizers. Mining for uranium is currently underway in the middle of the country. There is also potential for shale oil extraction in the middle of the Kingdom in the Wadi Mujib area. Shale oil extraction techniques are typically highly water intensive.

Energy Jordan is a country not only under water stress, but also energy stress. It is one of the few countries in the middle east without any easily extractable oil resources. There are 2 major hydropower generating stations in Jordan. The electrical generating plant in Aqaba, which produces about 40% of Jordan's energy, obtains water from the Aqaba municipal supply, i.e. from Disi well fields. The other major power plant is the Hussein plant in the Zarqa Basin, which generates about one third of Jordan's electricity. The water in its wells requires reverse osmosis and ion exchange to produce water of adequate quality for use in cooling. Hydropower generation from the Red-Dead Conveyance Project is also a key component of this planned mega-project. With the advent of uranium mining in Jordan, a possible nuclear power station in Aqaba has also been hypothesized. Power from this station could be used for desalination of Red Sea water.

Agricultural Water Use Agricultural water use consumed about 603 MCM in 2005 or 64% of all water used. There are 52,700 irrigated hectares in the highlands and the desert area, and 31,600 irrigated hectares in the Jordan Valley and Southern Ghors. These account for about 53% of groundwater use in Jordan. Agricultural products from Jordan includes: wheat, barley, citrus– oranges and limes, tomatoes, melons, olives, bananas, sugar, figs, cucumber, strawberries, dates, carrots, potato; sheep, goats, and poultry. There are several large-scale industrial poultry operations located in central Jordan.


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Privately managed farms in the highlands are mostly irrigated from private groundwater wells, while the irrigated area in the desert is irrigated by fossil groundwater from the Dissi aquifer. Currently, surface water and groundwater each provide 40% of irrigation needs with the remaining 20% sourced from treated wastewater. The publicly managed irrigation system in the Jordan Valley uses mostly surface and recycled wastewater whereby irrigation water is supplied to farmers by KAC. Furthermore there are around 195 privately managed agricultural wells in the Jordan Valley and Southern Ghors. In 1997-1999, the average annual abstraction from the Jordan Valley and Southern Ghors wells, including Jordan Valley Authority wells, was approximately 25 MCM. Water availability in Jordan is becoming scarcer, and competition between the three sectors: municipal, industrial, and agricultural, is intensifying. Reducing the existing irrigated area to save water is politically difficult, with painful social consequences. However, reducing the irrigated area is not the only option for saving water as improving on-farm water management and adopting modern technologies can save water. These two factors can reduce the amount of water used by agriculture, releasing much needed water to the municipal and industrial sector, without reducing agricultural output. Use of irrigated water has evolved in Jordan since the 1960s from open canals and furrow and basin irrigation methods, to the use of pressure pipe systems for conveyance and drip and micro-sprinkler irrigation. Currently, Jordan has a structural food deficit and cannot produce the food it needs to satisfy domestic demand. To help counter this, Jordan has altered its trade and development policies to promote the import of water intensive products, generally agricultural crops, and the export of crops of high water productivity, that is, high income per unit of water consumed in production.

Water Demand Supply Analysis According to the Jordanian Water Strategy (2009), available water resources in 2007 were 867 MCM. With the addition of the Disi water conveyance by 2013, the Red-Dead conveyance by 2022, and full utilization of treated wastewater effluent by 2022, available water resources in Jordan should be at 1632 MCM by 2022.


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Figure 18: Available Water Resources in Jordan in 2007 and 2022 Water demand in Jordan is comprised of irrigation, municipal, industrial and touristic demand. The deficit between supply and demand in 2007 was 638 MCM. By 2022, the projected water deficit between supply from demand is estimated at 503 MCM without the Red-Dead conveyance and 3 MCM with the Red-Dead conveyance.


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Some hydrologists have identified 1000 cubic meters per person per year as a minimum water requirement for an efficient moderately industrialized nation. Jordan is already at less than a quarter of this amount. While there is potential for the available water supply in Jordan to increase with mega-engineering projects such as the Desi conveyance and Red-Dead conveyance, the per capita amount of water will continue to decline due to the rapid increase in population. Table 7: Per Capita Water Availability in Jordan Year Population Available Water

(m3/capita) 1990 3,696,000 260 2025 8,000,000 80

Players in the Jordanian Water Sector Water stressed countries such as Jordan cannot afford to make mistakes in water planning and management. Water officials must be alert to different ways and means to exercise prudent management, minimize adverse impacts and maximize gains. In 2002, the government of Jordan adopted the Water Sector Action Plan which sets out specific policies relating to the sector, and which is still being used as the template for water management to date.

Ministry of Water and Irrigation In 1988, the Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI) was created bringing The Water Authority of Jordan (WAJ) and the Jordan Valley Authority (JVA) under one umbrella. MWI, WAJ and JVA each has an independent Secretary General who reports directly to the Minister of Water and Irrigation. The Ministry does not have authorizing Parliamentary legislation, but operates under a set of bylaws approved by the executive branch. The Minister is the ultimate authority on water resources use conflict in the country.

Water Authority of Jordan

The WAJ was created in 1984 as an independent body under the Prime Minister. In 1988, it was brought under the newly created MWI. WAJ is responsible for municipal and industrial water supplies and wastewater. It plans water and wastewater projects, implements and operates all water supply and wastewater facilities in Jordan, explores existing water resources, and maintains and operates water and wastewater networks throughout the Kingdom.

Jordan Valley Authority The JVA was created in 1977. At the time JVA was charged with the social and economic development in the Jordan Rift Valley from the Yarmouk River in the north to


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Aqaba in the south. The eastern boundary of JVA’s area of responsibility is located between the 300m and 500m contour lines above sea level. In 2001, JVA’s law was amended and under the new law JVA maintained the responsibility for the management of water and land resources in the valley as well as the responsibility for the tourist development of the Jordan Rift Valley.

Other Government Ministries Regulatory functions for water resources in Jordan are scattered across several ministries and offices in addition to the MWI including:

The Ministry of Health (MOH) monitors the suitability of the drinking water that is supplied by WAJ. MOH also monitors public and private wastewater facilities to assure its compliance with the prevailing standards and regulations. Public Law No. 21 of 1971 and its articles provide the ministry with a wide range of powers to enforce the laws and regulations entrusted to it. Other regulations are issued in coordination between the MOH and the MWI to regulate the use of treated wastewater flows for irrigation.

Agriculture Law No. 20 of 1973 authorizes the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) to exploit surface water resources through construction and operation of small dams and other facilities for production of stock feed crops. It also empowers the Ministry to drill wells and equip them for provision of livestock water. Land use and planning for agricultural, grazing lands, and forests are under the jurisdiction of the MOA. Ultimately, MOA policies have a profound effect on the water resources of the country since they affect water policies as well as the planning and management of water resources.

Ministry of Environment was established in 2003 with the mandate of environmental protection in the country, setting environmental policy, coordinating national efforts to preserve the environment, protect water resources, and prohibit activities that cause pollution or degradation of water resources.

Ministry of Industry Ministry of Tourism Ministry of Municipal Affairs

The General Corporation for Environmental Protection (GCEP) The Corporation was established 1995 in response to the Jordan Environment Law No. 12, in a governmental attempt to unify and coordinate responsibilities and efforts being undertaken in the field of the environment. Accordingly, GCEP is the responsible body in Jordan that oversees the government’s environmental policies. Before the establishment of the GCEP, those responsibilities were the mandate of the Department of Environment at the Ministry of Municipal, Rural and Environmental Affairs.


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Royal Scientific Society (RSS) Established in 1989, it comprises of three divisions: Water Quality, Air Quality, and Studies and Design. The Water Quality division is responsible for conducting studies and research on a contract basis to public and private entities. Correspondingly, it monitors groundwater and surface water resources for GCEP, WAJ and JVA and evaluates the performance of wastewater treatment plants. As the studies are conducted on behalf of another party, the results of the studies are the property of the contracting agency and RSS cannot publish or disseminate the information without prior approval. The RSS have their own laboratories to monitor water quality.

Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature A non-governmental organization established in 1965. The RSCN plays a role in trying to conserve habitat for aquatic life in addition to their other mandated work in nature conservation, research and environmental education.

International Aid Agencies International aid agencies active in Jordan include:

USAID German Government French Development Agency World Bank European Union- European Investment Bank Japanese International Cooperation Agency UNDP Mediterranean Environmental Technical Assistance Program CIDA Islamic Development Bank Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development Saudi Fund for Development Abu Dhabi Fund Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development Governments of Italy, Norway, South Korea, Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, China

Government The focus of most donor agency aid is on larger infrastructure projects such as building desalination plants, building water conveyance pipelines, rehabilitation of wastewater treatment plants, water loss reduction initiatives, capacity building of Jordanian nationals involved in the water sector, and improving water efficiency in agriculture.


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Water Monitoring Networks in Jordan The water quantity gauging network in Jordan grew rather haphazardly out of different donor agency projects beginning in 1952 with flow measurements on the Yarmouk River. As of 2002, the MWI were responsible for:

220 rainfall stations 44 gauging stations along with discharge measurements of around 500 springs 34 evaporation stations 117 water level-monitoring wells

In parallel with these efforts, water quality monitoring is also performed, taking into account different basins, sources, and water uses in the monitoring network. There are at least 9 monitoring stations along the Jordan River and 10 along the King Abdullah Canal. A network of observation wells has also been installed in each of the groundwater basins for the purpose of monitoring groundwater quality. The status of these monitoring stations, however, is not known In addition to regular monitoring stations, the MWI and Royal Scientific Society (RSS) have also installed telemetry monitoring stations as part of two pilot projects. 5 monitoring water quality monitoring stations were installed with Norwegian aid and belong to the MWI; however, these stations are now out of service. The RSS runs a network of 13 water quality only telemetry monitoring stations on strategic surface water bodies in the north of Jordan. These stations were installed in 2002 with Japanese aid. These stations are not in situ, however, they do monitor pH, conductivity, total phosphorous, total nitrogen and COD, but not dissolved oxygen. A map of the RSS real time water quality monitoring network can be found in Figure 19. With the exception of the above telemetry stations, all water data is collected and transferred manually from stations distributed all over Jordan on a daily, monthly, quarterly, seasonal or yearly basis. Some data is recorded automatically and some manually in the field. All data is sent to the data section of the MWI, and entered into the Water Information System. Verification procedures on collected data input into the system is limited. The MWI publishes several reports annually, including Jordan’s Water Strategy in 2009. The Water Strategy document is updated every few years and provides an assessment of the state of water resources, attempts to balance demands with supply and options to achieve this. Reports and data produced by the Ministry can be made available to the public upon request. There is limited information also available on the Ministry web site. The MWI undertakes ambient water quality analysis in its own laboratories under the direction of the WAJ. The WAJ is the main institution responsible for monitoring various water-related standards and is implementing several diversified water quality monitoring programs on surface water, groundwater and treated wastewater.


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Drinking water quality is tested in the laboratories of the Ministry of Health and by some municipalities in Jordan with their own laboratory facilities. The Ministry of Environment, through subcontract with the Royal Scientific Society, monitors the quality of drinking water, bottled water, domestic and industrial wastewater, surface water and groundwater. The Jordan University Water Research Center performs quality analysis of water resources independently as part of its educational and research programs. Water use is highly monitored by the Jordan Valley Authority in the Jordan Valley through use of a SCADA system. As well, under the law all licensed groundwater wells are supposed to be equipped with a water meters.


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Figure 19: Telemetry Water Quality Monitoring Stations

Water Quality Guidelines National standards and specifications have been set for water use for different purposes in the country including:

Drinking water quality (JS 286:2001)– sets the quality requirements for water used for drinking water


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Industrial wastewater (JS 202:2004)– sets quality requirements for the disposal of industrial effluents into wadis, rivers or the sea, for groundwater recharge or use in irrigation

Reclaimed domestic wastewater (JS 893:2002)– sets maximum allowable limits for quality of reclaimed water that is discharged to water bodies or used in irrigation

Each of the standards also specifies the mechanisms for monitoring and evaluation.

Water Data Tools In the early 1990s, Jordan developed the Water Data Bank– an interactive water resources data bank capable of performing automated quires by users, and producing reporting tools such as annual and monthly automated publications. Fine-tuning, upgrading and updating of this system have been ongoing resulting in the current Water Information System, managed by the MWI. Other water tools that have been developed for water planning and management include fairly extensive use of GIS, SCADA and a Laboratory Information Management System. In general, water officials in Jordan have been reluctant to release information about water resources to the public, such information being deemed sensitive or even classified. This attitude has gradually been changing, especially in light of the peace deal with Israel and improving relations with Syria with the implementation of the Wehdeh Dam. Another factor affecting release of water data in Jordan is the quality of the data. Certain data are purely absent and nonexistent. Although there is no official policy to withhold water data, in practice there has been limited official publication and dissemination of information.

Water Resources in the Middle East Region The Kingdom of Jordan shares boarders with: Israel, Syria, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and the West Bank. These are some of the most water stressed countries in the world. With ever increasing demand for water and limited supply, management of water resources in the region is critical for peace and stability. Supplies of renewable water in the region are fully used or already overexploited, and demand will only continue to rise. Accordingly, the water situation in the region is precarious. About 43% of the renewable supplies are provided from surface water, which largely originates in areas outside the core party territories, and which are vulnerable to abstraction by upstream riparian users. Claims on rivers and aquifers crossing national borders have already caused conflicts within the region. The limits on economically exploitable renewable water in the region have almost been reached. Therefore, water conservation and reallocation between sub-sectors and sub-regions will become increasingly important as the only feasible alternative to non-conventional sources.


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Deteriorating water quality in the region is becoming a serious issue, and existing economically exploitable resources might become unsuitable in the future due to increasing pollution. If current trends continue, groundwater in some areas may not be adequate for human use any more.

Water Use in the Region About 975 MCM/year of surface water resources are developed and used in the region originating from the four main water units:

1. Upper Jordan River 2. Lake Tiberias 3. Yarmouk River 4. Lower Jordan River.

Additional surface water resources that can be developed are approximately 225 MCM/year, thus resulting in a total renewable surface water resources of about 1,200 MCM/year. About 1,600 MCM/year of groundwater resources (renewable and non-renewable aquifers) are currently used in the region. The largest share of about 1,234 MCM/year are used in Israel and the Palestinian Territories. 465 MCM/year are used in Jordan. Most of the groundwater resources in the region are fully exploited and some aquifers are overexploited, particularly in Jordan and the Gaza Strip. Total exploitable groundwater resources, which includes the development of non-renewable water resources and the use of brackish water, is estimated at about 1,787 MCM/year. The safe yield of all renewable water resources (surface and groundwater) in the region has been estimated at 2,800 MCM/year. Treated wastewater is becoming increasingly important in the region. Currently, treated wastewater accounts for about 8% of total supplies, the largest share being mobilized in Israel. At present, 3,134 MCM of water are used in the region, exceeding the regional renewable water resources of about 2,800 MCM. Irrigation water use accounts for 66%, domestic water use for 27%, and industrial water use for 5%. Conveyance losses are reported to account for 2%. On a region wide basis, current gross per capita domestic water use is estimated at 72 m3/year, with significant differences among the core parties. By 2010, 4,382 MCM of water will be required, and an estimated additional 564 MCM of water have to be mobilized between 2000 and 2010.


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Middle East Peace Process The 1967 war with Israel has left a lasting legacy on water management in the Middle East including a militarized river boarder, a tragedy of the commons type race to utilize shared water resource before a neighbour does, environmental degradation, and distrust amongst riparian users of shared resources as just some of the consequences. Continued turbulence in the region involving Palestine and Iraq has also played a significant role. In 1991 Israel and Jordan joined Egypt, Syria, Lebanon and a Palestinian delegation at a conference in Madrid that launched the Middle East Peace Process. In 1993, Jordan endorsed the peace accord between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). Later, Jordan signed an agenda with Israel for future negotiations in Washington.

The government of Jordan has maintained a policy of responding to transboundary water issues in a pacifist fashion, avoiding clashes with neighbours over water sharing.

Jordan and Israel Up until 1994, conflict between Jordan and Israel over transboundary waters was managed through the Armistice Agreement of 1949 under the auspices of the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization, a mechanism that yielded positive results most of the time. In 1994, Jordan and Israel signed the Jordanian-Israeli Peace Treaty on the border between Aqaba and Eilat. This treaty formally ends the state of war between Israel and Jordan which existed since 1948. Likewise, the treaty binds each country:

to recognize the sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of the other;

to respect one another’s right “to live in peace within secure and recognized boundaries”;

to develop “good neighbourly relations of cooperation”.

In relation to water, the treaty addresses:

developing water resources;

preventing contamination or pollution of water resources;

jointly monitoring water quality along the boundary;

providing water of equivalent quality when exchanged between two countries;

prohibiting the discharge of municipal or industrial wastewater into the Yarmouk or Jordan Rivers before treatment to standards allowing unrestricted agricultural use.

A Joint Water Committee was established under the Treaty between Jordan and Israel for mutual cooperation and consideration of problems in implementation. No major


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problems have been reported in the work of the Committee, and water flow has been maintained across the boarder since 1995. At times, the countries will share transboundary water quality data, but prefer to rely on information from their own laboratories. Problems did emerge in 1999, when the treaty’s limitations were revealed by events concerning water shortages in the Jordan basin. A reduced supply of water to Israel due to drought meant that, in turn, Israel which is responsible for providing water to Jordan, decreased its water provisions to the country, provoking a diplomatic disagreement between the two and bringing the water component of the treaty back into question.

Jordan and Syria Bilateral agreements between Jordan and Syria over the Yarmouk were signed in 1953 and 1987. As an upstream riparian, however, Syria has been steadily increasing its withdrawals, reducing the supply of water to Jordan. Jordan has attempted to resolve transboundary water issues with Syria, particularly over use of the Yarmouk River, through diplomatic means to little or no avail. Pollution of the Yarmouk River inside Syria is also a concern. Groundwater abstraction in Syria in the Yarmouk Basin from the aquifer that feeds the lower springs has also drastically reduced the base flow of the Yarmouk River at Jordan’s expense. Groundwater was overlooked in both the 1953 and 1987 agreements with Syria.

Water Issues in Jordan Identified water resources issues that need to be addressed in Jordan include:

Jordan’s surface water and groundwater resources are almost fully developed and allocated to supply various users.

Water is provided at almost no cost to agriculture and at very low cost to urban

consumers.

Point (wastewater treatment plants, cesspools, industrial wastewater discharge, landfill leachate, urban storm water discharge) and non-point (irrigation water runoff, stormwater runoff) sources pollution are contributing to water quality degradation.

Increasing soil salinity is making land less productive in some areas.

Aquifer water quality is deteriorating in places like Dhuleil and Hallabat due to

decreased recharge rates (due to urban expansion) and over abstraction.

Groundwater is being depleted at an alarming rate in Jordan.


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Low water efficiency in agriculture and other uses including high percentages of

unaccounted for water from irrigation and municipal systems.

Climate change.

Use of information technology for improved data and information management systems to increase efficiency of employees and improve decision making.

Lack of sufficient wastewater treatment has lead to water pollution.

QA/QC of collected water resources data, both historical data and newly collected

data.

No written procedures for data collection, verification and documentation.

Funding for water resources monitoring, infrastructure, etc.

Lack of government policy on water data dissemination.

Lack of telemetry systems for real time water data collection and transmission, especially from remote locations.

Lack of national capacity and human resources for running and managing water

information management systems, including real time and telemetry systems.

Gaps in the water data monitoring networks.

Competition between water users, in particular, municipal and agriculture users.

Strengths of Jordanian Water Sector Identified strengths of the Jordanian water sector include:

Jordan has developed a clear vision for water resources management at national and provincial levels.

Jordan has national water policies, plans and strategies in place that incorporate

many elements of IWRM.

In principle the government of Jordan is in support of data and information sharing.

Jordan has ratified the UN Convention on the Non-navigational Uses of

International Watercourses.


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Jordan runs public awareness campaigns on conserving water.

References Haddadin, M.J., 2006, Water Resources in Jordan: Evolving Policies for Development, the Environment , and Conflict Resolution, RFF Press, USA. Jordan Times, March 19, 2009, Israel compensating Kingdom for polluted water, http://www.jordanembassyus.org/new/newsarchive/2009/03192009001.htm Royal Commission for Water, February 2009, Water for Life: Jordan’s Water Strategy 2008-2022, Ministry of Water and Irrigation. Tutundjian, Setta, 2001, Water Resources in Jordan UNWWAP, 2006, Water- A Shared Responsibility: The United Nations World Water Development Report 2, UNESCO, New York. UNWWAP, 2009, Water in a Changing World: The United Nations World Water Development Report 3, UNESCO, New York. USAID, 2007, Responding to the Water Crisis in Jordan, USAID, Jordan. Wikipedia, August 30, 2010, Water Politics in the Jordan River Basin, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_politics_in_the_Jordan_River_basin Wikipedia, August 30, 2010, Dead Sea, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Sea Wikipedia, August 30, 2010, Sea of Galilee, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_of_Galilee

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